Methylglyoxal in Metabolic Disorders: Facts, Myths, and Promises

Mitochondria, Metabolism, and Redox Mechanisms in Psychiatric Disorders

Significance: Our current knowledge of the pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms causing psychiatric disorders is modest, but genetic susceptibility and environmental factors are central to the etiology of these conditions. Autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder show genetic gene risk overlap and share symptoms and metabolic comorbidities. The identification of such common features may provide insights into the development of these disorders. Recent Advances: Multiple pieces of evidence suggest that brain energy metabolism, mitochondrial functions and redox balance are impaired to various degrees in psychiatric disorders. Since mitochondrial metabolism and redox signaling can integrate genetic and environmental environmental factors affecting the brain, it is possible that they are implicated in the etiology and progression of psychiatric disorders. Critical Issue: Evidence for direct links between cellular mitochondrial dysfunction and disease features are missing. Future Directions: A better understanding of the mitochondrial biology and its intracellular connections to the nuclear genome, the endoplasmic reticulum and signaling pathways, as well as its role in intercellular communication in the organism, is still needed. This review focuses on the findings that implicate mitochondrial dysfunction, the resultant metabolic changes and oxidative stress as important etiological factors in the context of psychiatric disorders. We also propose a model where specific pathophysiologies of psychiatric disorders depend on circuit-specific impairments of mitochondrial dysfunction and redox signaling at specific developmental stages.

Dicarbonyl Stress at the Crossroads of Healthy and Unhealthy Aging

Dicarbonyl stress occurs when dicarbonyl metabolites (i.e., methylglyoxal, glyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone) accumulate as a consequence of their increased production and/or decreased detoxification. This toxic condition has been associated with metabolic and age-related diseases, both of which are characterized by a pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant state. Methylglyoxal (MGO) is the most reactive dicarbonyl and the one with the highest endogenous flux. It is the precursor of the major quantitative advanced glycated products (AGEs) in physiological systems, arginine-derived hydroimidazolones, which accumulate in aging and dysfunctional tissues. The aging process is characterized by a decline in the functional properties of cells, tissues and whole organs, starting from the perturbation of crucial cellular processes, including mitochondrial function, proteostasis and stress-scavenging systems. Increasing studies are corroborating the causal relationship between MGO-derived AGEs and age-related tissue dysfunction, unveiling a previously underestimated role of dicarbonyl stress in determining healthy or unhealthy aging. This review summarizes the latest evidence supporting a causal role of dicarbonyl stress in age-related diseases, including diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and neurodegeneration.

Dietary Glycotoxins Impair Hepatic Lipidemic Profile in Diet-Induced Obese Rats Causing Hepatic Oxidative Stress and Insulin Resistance

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is caused by excessive liver lipid accumulation, but insulin resistance is specifically associated with impaired lipid saturation, oxidation, and storage (esterification), besides increased de novo lipogenesis. We hypothesized that dietary glycotoxins could impair hepatic lipid metabolism in obesity contributing to lipotoxicity-driven insulin resistance and thus to the onset of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). In diet-induced obese rats with methylglyoxal-induced glycation, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and gas chromatography were used to assess liver composition in fatty acyl chains and phospholipids. High-fat diet-induced obesity increased liver lipid fraction and suppressed de novo lipogenesis but did not change fatty acid esterification and saturation or insulin sensitivity. Despite a similar increase in total lipid fraction when supplementing the high-fat diet with dietary glycotoxins, impairment in the suppression of de novo lipogenesis and decreased fatty acid unsaturation and esterification were observed. Moreover, glycotoxins also decreased polyunsaturated cardiolipins and caused oxidative stress, portal inflammation, and insulin resistance in high-fat diet-induced obese rats. Dietary glycated products do not change total lipid levels in the liver of obese rats but dramatically modify the lipidemic profile, leading to oxidative stress, hepatic lipotoxicity, and insulin resistance in obesity and thus contribute to the onset of NASH.

Glycated Insulin Exacerbates the Cytotoxicity of Human Islet Amyloid Polypeptides: a Vicious Cycle in Type 2 Diabetes

The aggregation of human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) is one of the triggering factors of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). hIAPP is cosynthesized, costored, and cosecreted with insulin in pancreatic β-cells, and insulin inhibits hIAPP aggregation. In T2DM patients, long-term hyperglycemia causes glycation of near 10% of total insulin. The glycation not only modifies insulin but also cross-links insulin into oligomers. However, the effect of glycated human insulin on hIAPP aggregation is unknown. In this study, four physiologically relevant monosaccharides, methylglyoxal, glucose, fructose, and ribose were used to glycate human insulin and two C-terminus truncated insulin analogues. Glycated insulin monomers or low molecular weight oligomers such as dimers significantly exacerbated the cytotoxicity of hIAPP. Notably, glycation-induced cross-linking of insulin inhibited the aggregation, membrane disruption, and cytotoxicity of hIAPP, which was corroborated by a control study using EGS-induced cross-linking of insulin or lysozyme. Removal of B29^Lys on the C terminus of the insulin B chain not only abolished glycation-induced cross-linking but also attenuated the aggravation effect of glycated insulin on hIAPP cytotoxicity. Taken together, this study reveals a vicious cycle in T2DM, that hyperglycemia-driven insulin glycation exacerbates the cytotoxicity of hIAPP, which accelerates β-cells death and further deteriorates T2DM.

Serum levels of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) and the decoy soluble receptor for AGEs (sRAGE) can identify non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in age-, sex- and BMI-matched normo-glycemic adults

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a serious health problem affecting ~25% of the global population. While NAFLD pathogenesis is still unclear, multiple NAFLD parameters, including reduced insulin sensitivity, impaired glucose metabolism and increased oxidative stress are hypothesised to foster the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). Given the link of AGEs with end organ damage, there is scope to examine the role of the AGE/RAGE axis activation in liver injury and NAFLD.

METHODS

Age, sex and body mass index matched normo-glycemic NAFLD adults (n = 58) and healthy controls (n = 58) were enrolled in the study. AGEs were analysed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (CML, CEL), fluorescence (pentosidine, AGE fluorescence), colorimetry (fructosamine) and ELISA (sRAGE). Their association with liver function, inflammation, fibrosis and stage of NAFLD was examined.

RESULTS

Early and advanced glycation end-products, except N^ε-carboxymethyl-L-lysine (CML), were 10-30% higher, sRAGE levels 1.7-fold lower, and glycation/sRAGE ratios 4-fold higher in the NAFLD cases compared to controls. While AGEs presented weak to moderate correlations with indices of liver function and damage (AST/ALT, HOMA-IR, TNF-α and TGF-β1), including sRAGE to characterize the AGEs/sRAGE axis strengthened the associations observed. High glycation/sRAGE ratios were associated with 1.3 to 14-fold likelihood of lower AST/ALT ratios. The sum of AGEs/sRAGE ratios accurately distinguished between healthy controls and NAFLD patients (area under the curve of 0.85). Elevated AGEs/sRAGE (>7.8 mmol/pmol) was associated with a 12-fold likelihood of the presence of NAFLD.

CONCLUSION

These findings strengthen the involvement of AGEs-RAGE axis in liver injury and the pathogenesis of NAFLD.

Hispidulin alleviates high-glucose-induced podocyte injury by regulating protective autophagy

OBJECTIVES

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the most common complications in patients with diabetes, and the discovery of novel targeted therapeutic approaches for DN treatment still faces severe challenges. In the current study, we aimed to discover a novel natural product for potential DN treatment and determine its molecular mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methylthiazoltetrazolium (MTT) assay was employed to evaluate cell viability. Transmission electron microscopy, GFP-LC3 fluorescence fusion plasmid, and Annexin V/PI apoptosis assay were carried out to determine cellular autophagy and apoptosis. Moreover, quantitative proteomics and bioinformatics analysis, Western blotting, and RNA interference were performed to investigate potential molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

Hispidulin displayed protective capacity on the high-glucose-induced podocyte injury models by activating autophagy and inhibiting apoptosis. The mechanism for hispidulin-induced autophagy was associated to Pim1 inhibition and the regulation of Pim1-p21-mTOR signaling axis. Moreover, quantitative proteomics and bioinformatics analysis revealed that the hispidulin-regulated Pim1 inhibition was associated to RAB18, NRas, PARK7, and FIS1.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that hispidulin induces autophagy and inhibits apoptosis induced by high glucose in murine podocytes. This study will illuminate future developments in DN-targeted therapy.

Eucommia ulmoides Ameliorates Glucotoxicity by Suppressing Advanced Glycation End-Products in Diabetic Mice Kidney

Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (EU), also known as Du-Zhong, is a medicinal herb commonly used in Asia to treat hypertension and diabetes. Despite evidence of the protective effects of EU against diabetes, its precise effects and mechanisms of action against advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are unclear. In this study, we evaluated the effects of EU on AGEs-induced renal disease and explored the possible underlying mechanisms using streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. STZ-induced diabetic mice received EU extract (200 mg/kg) orally for 6 weeks. EU treatment did not change blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels in diabetic mice. However, the EU-treated group showed a significant increase in the protein expression and activity of glyoxalase 1 (Glo1), which detoxifies the AGE precursor, methylglyoxal (MGO). EU significantly upregulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression but downregulated that of receptor for AGE (RAGE). Furthermore, histological and immunohistochemical analyses of kidney tissue showed that EU reduced periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-positive staining, AGEs, and MGO accumulation in diabetic mice. Based on these findings, we concluded that EU ameliorated the renal damage in diabetic mice by inhibiting AGEs formation and RAGE expression and reducing oxidative stress, through the Glo1 and Nrf2 pathways.

Cytochrome c peroxidase regulates intracellular reactive oxygen species and methylglyoxal via enzyme activities of erythroascorbate peroxidase and glutathione-related enzymes in Candida albicans

D-erythroascorbate peroxidase (EAPX1) deficiency causes glutathione deprivation, leading to the accumulation of methylglyoxal and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and especially, induction of cytochrome c peroxidase (Ccp1) in Candida albicans. Nevertheless, reciprocal effects between changes in Ccp1 activity and the antioxidative D-erythroascorbic acid- and glutathione-dependent redox status, which reflects methylglyoxal biosynthesis altering pathophysiology are unclear in eukaryotes. To elucidate the effect of CCP1 expression on EAPX1 and glutathione reductase (Glr1) activity-mediated D-erythroascorbic acid biosynthesis and redox homeostasis, the CCP1 gene was disrupted and overexpressed. First, we demonstrated both glutathione-independent and-dependent metabolite contents and their corresponding gene transcripts and enzyme activities (i.e., Ccp1, catalase-peroxidase [KatG], superoxide dismutase [Sod], Eapx1, and Glr1) in CCP1 mutants. Second, methylglyoxal-oxidizing alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh1) and methylglyoxal-reducing oxidoreductase activity on glycolytic methylglyoxal and pyruvate production and NAD(P)H content were determined in these mutants. Contrary to our expectation, CCP1 disruption (42.19±3.22nmolO₂h^-1mgwetcell^-1) failed to affect cell respiration compared to the wild-type strain (41.62±7.11nmolO₂h^-1mgwetcell^-1) under cyanide treatment, and in contrast to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) treatment (21.74±1.03nmol O₂h^-1mgwetcell^-1). Additionally, Ccp1 predominantly detoxified H₂O₂ rather than negligible scavenging activities towards methylglyoxal and other oxidants. CCP1 deficiency stimulated Sod and Adh1 activity but downregulated Glr1, Eapx1, catalase, and peroxidase activity while enhancing KatG, EAPX1, and GLR1 transcription by decreasing glutathione and D-erythroascorbic acid and increasing pyruvate. Noticeably, the ROS-accumulating CCP1-deficient mutant maintained steady-state levels of methylglyoxal, which was revealed to be regulated by methylglyoxal-oxidizing and -reducing activity with drastic changes in NAD(P)H. We confirmed and clarified our results by showing that CCP1/EAPX1 double disruptants underwent severe growth defects due to the D-erythroascorbic acid and glutathione depletion because of pyruvate overaccumulation. These observations were made in both budding and hyphal-growing CCP1 mutants. The revealed metabolic network involving Ccp1 and other redox regulators affected ROS and methylglyoxal through D-erythroascorbic acid and glutathione-dependent metabolites, thereby influencing dimorphism. This is the first report of the Ccp1-mediated D-erythroascorbic acid and glutathione biosynthesis accompanying methylglyoxal scavengers for full fungal virulence.

Additive Capacity of [6]-Shogaol and Epicatechin To Trap Methylglyoxal

Methylglyoxal (MGO), a reactive dicarbonyl species, is thought to contribute to the development of long-term pathological diabetes as a direct toxin or as an active precursor of advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Trapping MGO by dietary phenols to inhibit the MGO induced AGE formation is an approach for alleviating diabetic complications. The present study investigated whether dietary compounds with different structures and active sites have the additive capacity to trap MGO. Ginger phenolic constituent [6]-shogaol and tea flavonoid (-)-epicatechin were selected and tested under simulated physiological conditions, showing that they additively trapped about 41% MGO at a concentration of 10 μM within 24 h. Furthermore, whether [6]-shogaol and epicatechin can retain their MGO trapping efficacy in vivo or a biotransformation limits their MGO trapping capacity remain virtually unknown. An acute mouse study was carried out by giving a single dose of [6]-shogaol, epicatechin, and the combination of both ([6]-shogaol + epicatechin) through oral gavage. A mono-MGO adduct of [6]-shogaol was identified from [6]-shogaol and [6]-shogaol + epicatechin treated mice, and mono- and di-MGO adducts of epicatechin and its metabolite, 3'-O-methyl epicatichin, were detected in urine samples collected from epicatechin and [6]-shogaol + epicatechin treated mice. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the additive MGO trapping efficacy of [6]-shogaol and epicatechin and that [6]-shogaol and epicatechin retained their MGO trapping capacity in mice.

Methylglyoxal and Small Heat Shock Proteins

Methylglyoxal is a highly reactive dicarbonyl compound formed during glucose metabolism and able to modify phospholipids, nucleic acids, and proteins belonging to the so-called dicarbonyl proteome. Small heat shock proteins participating in protection of the cell against different unfavorable conditions can be modified by methylglyoxal. The probability of methylglyoxal modification is increased in the case of distortion of glucose metabolism (diabetes), in the case of utilization of glycolysis as the main source of energy (malignancy), and/or at low rate of modified protein turnover. We have analyzed data on modification of small heat shock protein HspB1 in different tumors and under distortion of carbohydrate metabolism. Data on the effect of methylglyoxal modification on stability, chaperone-like activity, and antiapoptotic activity of HspB1 were analyzed. We discuss data on methylglyoxal modifications of lens α-crystallins. The mutual dependence and mutual effects of methylglyoxal modification and other posttranslational modifications of lens crystallins are analyzed. We conclude that although there is no doubt that the small heat shock proteins undergo methylglyoxal modification, the physiological significance of this process remains enigmatic, and new experimental approaches should be developed for understanding how this type of modification affects functioning of small heat shock proteins in the cell.