51
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Abstract
Plants do not possess brains or neurons. However, they present astonishingly complex behaviors such as information acquisition, memory, learning, decision making, etc., which helps these sessile organisms deal with their ever-changing environments. As a consequence, they have been proposed to be cognitive and intelligent, an idea which is becoming increasingly accepted. However, how plant cognition could operate without a nervous central system remains poorly understood and new insights on this topic are urgently needed. According to the Extended Cognition hypothesis, cognition may also occur beyond the limits of the body, encompassing objects from the environment. This was shown possible in humans and spiders, who actively manipulate their external environment to extend their cognitive capacity. Here, we propose that extended cognition may also be found in plants and could partly explain the complexity of plant behavior. We suggest that plants can extend their cognitive abilities to the environment they manipulate through the root influence zone and the mycorrhizal fungi that associate with them. The possibility of a cognitive process involving organisms from different kingdoms is exciting and worthwhile exploring as it may provide key insights into the origin and evolution of cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Geremia Parise
- Laboratory of Plant Cognition and Electrophysiology (LACEV), Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
- CONTACT André Geremia Parise Laboratory of Plant Cognition and Electrophysiology (LACEV), Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - Monica Gagliano
- Biological Intelligence (BI) Laboratory, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Sydney Environment Institute (SEI), The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Gustavo Maia Souza
- Laboratory of Plant Cognition and Electrophysiology (LACEV), Department of Botany, Institute of Biology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
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52
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Taiz L, Alkon D, Draguhn A, Murphy A, Blatt M, Hawes C, Thiel G, Robinson DG. Plants Neither Possess nor Require Consciousness. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 24:677-687. [PMID: 31279732 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2019.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In claiming that plants have consciousness, 'plant neurobiologists' have consistently glossed over the remarkable degree of structural and functional complexity that the brain had to evolve for consciousness to emerge. Here, we outline a new hypothesis proposed by Feinberg and Mallat for the evolution of consciousness in animals. Based on a survey of the brain anatomy, functional complexity, and behaviors of a broad spectrum of animals, criteria were established for the emergence of consciousness. The only animals that satisfied these criteria were the vertebrates (including fish), arthropods (e.g., insects, crabs), and cephalopods (e.g., octopuses, squids). In light of Feinberg and Mallat's analysis, we consider the likelihood that plants, with their relative organizational simplicity and lack of neurons and brains, have consciousness to be effectively nil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lincoln Taiz
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Daniel Alkon
- Neurotrope, Inc., 1185 Avenue of the Americas, 3rd Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
| | - Andreas Draguhn
- Institut für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, Medizinische Fakultät Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Angus Murphy
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, 2104 Plant Sciences Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Michael Blatt
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biophysics, Bower Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Chris Hawes
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Gerhard Thiel
- Department of Biology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstraße 3, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - David G Robinson
- Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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53
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Smith‐Ferguson J, Beekman M. Can't see the colony for the bees: behavioural perspectives of biological individuality. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:1935-1946. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jules Smith‐Ferguson
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Sydney Sydney New South Wales 2006 Australia
| | - Madeleine Beekman
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Sydney Sydney New South Wales 2006 Australia
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54
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Abstract
A substrate does not have to be solid to compute. It is possible to make a computer purely from a liquid. I demonstrate this using a variety of experimental prototypes where a liquid carries signals, actuates mechanical computing devices and hosts chemical reactions. We show hydraulic mathematical machines that compute functions based on mass transfer analogies. I discuss several prototypes of computing devices that employ fluid flows and jets. They are fluid mappers, where the fluid flow explores a geometrically constrained space to find an optimal way around, e.g. the shortest path in a maze, and fluid logic devices where fluid jet streams interact at the junctions of inlets and results of the computation are represented by fluid jets at selected outlets. Fluid mappers and fluidic logic devices compute continuously valued functions albeit discretized. There is also an opportunity to do discrete operation directly by representing information by droplets and liquid marbles (droplets coated by hydrophobic powder). There, computation is implemented at the sites, in time and space, where droplets collide one with another. The liquid computers mentioned above use liquid as signal carrier or actuator: the exact nature of the liquid is not that important. What is inside the liquid becomes crucial when reaction-diffusion liquid-phase computing devices come into play: there, the liquid hosts families of chemical species that interact with each other in a massive-parallel fashion. I shall illustrate a range of computational tasks, including computational geometry, implementable by excitation wave fronts in nonlinear active chemical medium. The overview will enable scientists and engineers to understand how vast is the variety of liquid computers and will inspire them to design their own experimental laboratory prototypes. This article is part of the theme issue 'Liquid brains, solid brains: How distributed cognitive architectures process information'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Adamatzky
- Unconventional Computing Lab, Department of Computer Science and Creative Technologies, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
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55
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Mittelbach M, Kolbaia S, Weigend M, Henning T. Flowers anticipate revisits of pollinators by learning from previously experienced visitation intervals. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2019; 14:1595320. [PMID: 30912478 PMCID: PMC6546139 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2019.1595320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Plants - and their pollinating counterparts - display complex and sophisticated mechanisms to achieve successful pollination. It probably was only a matter of time for proof of plant intelligence in the context of floral ecology to surface, i.e. the memorization of previous events and a corresponding adjustment of flower behavior. In a recent study we presented a large experimental dataset on the evolution of stamen movement patterns observed in Loasaceae and the apparent role of plant behavior in the diversification of this plant group. The findings at species level suggest that individual plants may be able to adjust the timing of their pollen presentation to the actual pollination scenario they experience. Here we provide first evidence for a pre-emptive stamen presentation in Nasa poissoniana (Loasaceae), based on previously experienced pollinator visitation intervals. Using the unique ability of fast and precise stamen movements in response to a previous stimulus of the nectar scales, the plants should be able to reduce pollen loss and increase outbreeding success via optimizing the timing of male function. We discuss this behavior and its implications in the light of the recent literature and propose questions for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Mittelbach
- Ökologie der Pflanzen, Institut für Biologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, Berlin 14195, Germany
| | - Sandro Kolbaia
- Nees Institut für Biodiversität der Pflanzen, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 170, Bonn 53115, Germany
| | - Maximilian Weigend
- Nees Institut für Biodiversität der Pflanzen, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 170, Bonn 53115, Germany
| | - Tilo Henning
- Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 6-8, Berlin 14195, Germany
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56
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Debono MW, Souza GM. Plants as electromic plastic interfaces: A mesological approach. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 146:123-133. [PMID: 30826433 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2019.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In this manuscript, we propose that plants are eco-plastic and electromic interfaces that can drive emergent intelligent behaviours from synchronized electrical networks. Behind the semantic and anthropocentric problems related by many authors to the extensive use of the terms cognition, intelligence or even 'consciousness' for plants, we suggest a more pragmatic perspective, considering the vegetal world to be a complex biosystemic entity that is able to co-build the world or a form of the world or of significant reality via a set of reciprocal, emerging and confluent interactions. Speaking of adaptive sensory modalities involving perceptual binding or a global state of receptivity nonlinearly leading to cognitive functions, learning capabilities and intelligent behaviours of plants seem to be the more realistic and operational model to describe how plants perceive and treat environmental data. In this study, we strongly suggest that the electrome, which mainly involves constant spontaneous emission of low voltage potentials, is an early marker and a unifying factor of whole plant reactivity in a constantly changing environment and is therefore the key to understanding the cognitive nature of plants. This dynamic coupling enables plants to be knowledge-accumulating systems that are used by evolution to progress and survive, while mesological plasticity is a unique means for plants to interact as subjects with their milieu (umwelt) or natural habitat and to co-signify a possible world.
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Segundo-Ortin M, Calvo P. Are plants cognitive? A reply to Adams. STUDIES IN HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 2019; 73:64-71. [PMID: 30914125 DOI: 10.1016/j.shpsa.2018.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
According to F. Adams [this journal, vol. 68, 2018] cognition cannot be realized in plants or bacteria. In his view, plants and bacteria respond to the here-and-now in a hardwired, inflexible manner, and are therefore incapable of cognitive activity. This article takes issue with the pursuit of plant cognition from the perspective of an empirically informed philosophy of plant neurobiology. As we argue, empirical evidence shows, contra Adams, that plant behavior is in many ways analogous to animal behavior. This renders plants suitable to be described as cognitive agents in a non-metaphorical way. Sections two to four review the arguments offered by Adams in light of scientific evidence on plant adaptive behavior, decision-making, anticipation, as well as learning and memory. Section five introduces the 'phyto-nervous' system of plants. To conclude, section six resituates the quest for plant cognition into a broader approach in cognitive science, as represented by enactive and ecological schools of thought. Overall, we aim to motivate the idea that plants may be considered genuine cognitive agents. Our hope is to help propel public awareness and discussion of plant intelligence once appropriately stripped of anthropocentric preconceptions of the sort that Adams' position appears to exemplify.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paco Calvo
- Minimal Intelligence Lab (MINT Lab), Universidad de Murcia, Spain.
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58
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Michmizos D, Hilioti Z. A roadmap towards a functional paradigm for learning & memory in plants. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 232:209-215. [PMID: 30537608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In plants, the acquisition, processing and storage of empirical information can result in the modification of their behavior according to the nature of the stimulus, and yet this area of research remained relatively understudied until recently. As the body of evidence supporting the inclusion of plants among the higher organisms demonstrating the adaptations to accomplish these tasks keeps increasing, the resistance by traditional botanists and agricultural scientists, who were at first cautious in allowing the application of animal models onto plant physiology and development, subsides. However, the debate retains much of its heat, a good part of it originating from the controversial use of nervous system terms to describe plant processes. By focusing on the latest findings on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the well established processes of Learning and Memory, recognizing what has been accomplished and what remains to be explored, and without seeking to bootstrap neuronal characteristics where none are to be found, a roadmap guiding towards a comprehensive paradigm for Learning and Memory in plants begins to emerge. Meanwhile the applications of the new field of Plant Gnosophysiology look as promising as ever.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Michmizos
- Dept. of Agriculture, Crop Production & Rural Environment, University of Thessaly, Fytokos st, Volos, Magnesia, 384 46, Greece.
| | - Zoe Hilioti
- Institute of Applied Biosciences, Center for Research & Technology (CERTH), Thessaloniki, Greece
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59
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Latzel V, Münzbergová Z. Anticipatory Behavior of the Clonal Plant Fragaria vesca. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1847. [PMID: 30619415 PMCID: PMC6297673 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Active foraging for patchy resources is a crucial feature of many clonal plant species. It has been recently shown that plants' foraging for resources can be facilitated by anticipatory behavior via association of resource position with other environmental cues. We therefore tested whether clones of Fragaria vesca are able to associate and memorize positions of soil nutrients with particular light intensity, which will consequently enable them anticipating nutrients in new environment. We trained clones of F. vesca for nutrients to occur either in shade or in light. Consequently, we tested their growth response to differing light intensity in the absence of soil nutrients. We also manipulated epigenetic status of a subset of the clones to test the role of DNA methylation in the anticipatory behavior. Clones of F. vesca were able to associate presence of nutrients with particular light intensity, which enabled them to anticipate nutrient positions in the new environment based on its light intensity. Clones that had been trained for nutrients to occur in shade increased placement of ramets to shade whereas clones trained for nutrients to occur in light increased biomass of ramets in light. Our study clearly shows that the clonal plant F. vesca is able to relate two environmental factors, light and soil nutrients, and use this connection in anticipatory behavior. We conclude that anticipatory behavior can substantially improve the ability of clonal plants to utilize scarce and unevenly distributed resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vít Latzel
- Department of Population Ecology, Institute of Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Průhonice, Czechia
| | - Zuzana Münzbergová
- Department of Population Ecology, Institute of Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, Průhonice, Czechia
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
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60
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Abstract
Despite considerable research on the responses of plants to stimuli and a recent surge of interest in "plant intelligence," few studies have been conducted on classical or respondent conditioning in plants. Studies of respondent conditioning in plants were reviewed, the majority of which used the sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) as the subjects with seismonastic responses (leaflet-folding and leaf-drooping) as the unconditioned responses, and all of which used group designs. The reported results are mixed, with no replications of positive results. Issues have been noted with the methodology of these studies, including the lack of within-subject demonstrations, choice of putative conditioned stimuli, and potential unplanned interactions between subjects across experimental groups. Recommendations are made for addressing these issues in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry E. Adelman
- The Arc of Indian River County, 1375 16th Avenue, Vero Beach, FL 32960 USA
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61
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Biological evolution as defense of 'self'. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 142:54-74. [PMID: 30336184 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although the origin of self-referential consciousness is unknown, it can be argued that the instantiation of self-reference was the commencement of the living state as phenomenal experientiality. As self-referential cognition is demonstrated by all living organisms, life can be equated with the sustenance of cellular homeostasis in the continuous defense of 'self'. It is proposed that the epicenter of 'self' is perpetually embodied within the basic cellular form in which it was instantiated. Cognition-Based Evolution argues that all of biological and evolutionary development represents the perpetual autopoietic defense of self-referential basal cellular states of homeostatic preference. The means by which these states are attained and maintained is through self-referential measurement of information and its communication. The multicellular forms, either as biofilms or holobionts, represent the cellular attempt to achieve maximum states of informational distinction and energy efficiency through individual and collective means. In this frame, consciousness, self-consciousness and intelligence can be identified as forms of collective cellular phenotype directed towards the defense of fundamental cellular self-reference.
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62
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Abstract
Multiple sciences have converged, in the past two decades, on a hitherto mostly unremarked question: what is observation? Here, I examine this evolution, focusing on three sciences: physics, especially quantum information theory, developmental biology, especially its molecular and “evo-devo” branches, and cognitive science, especially perceptual psychology and robotics. I trace the history of this question to the late 19th century, and through the conceptual revolutions of the 20th century. I show how the increasing interdisciplinary focus on the process of extracting information from an environment provides an opportunity for conceptual unification, and sketch an outline of what such a unification might look like.
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63
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Le Gac AL, Lafon-Placette C, Chauveau D, Segura V, Delaunay A, Fichot R, Marron N, Le Jan I, Berthelot A, Bodineau G, Bastien JC, Brignolas F, Maury S. Winter-dormant shoot apical meristem in poplar trees shows environmental epigenetic memory. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2018; 69:4821-4837. [PMID: 30107545 PMCID: PMC6137975 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ery271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Trees have a long lifespan and must continually adapt to environmental pressures, notably in the context of climate change. Epigenetic mechanisms are doubtless involved in phenotypic plasticity and in stress memory; however, little evidence of the role of epigenetic processes is available for trees growing in fields. Here, we analyzed the possible involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in the winter-dormant shoot apical meristem of Populus × euramericana clones in memory of the growing conditions faced during the vegetative period. We aimed to estimate the range of genetic and environmentally induced variations in global DNA methylation and to evaluate their correlation with changes in biomass production, identify differentially methylated regions (DMRs), and characterize common DMRs between experiments. We showed that the variations in global DNA methylation between conditions were genotype dependent and correlated with biomass production capacity. Microarray chip analysis allowed detection of DMRs 6 months after the stressful summer period. The 161 DMRs identified as common to three independent experiments most notably targeted abiotic stress and developmental response genes. Results are consistent with a winter-dormant shoot apical meristem epigenetic memory of stressful environmental conditions that occurred during the preceding summer period. This memory may facilitate tree acclimation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Régis Fichot
- LBLGC, INRA, Université d’Orléans, Orléans, France
| | - Nicolas Marron
- Silva, INRA Grand Est, Nancy, AgroParisTech, Université de Lorraine, UMR, Nancy, France
| | | | - Alain Berthelot
- FCBA Délégation Territoriale Nord-Est, Charrey-Sur-Saône, France
| | | | | | | | - Stéphane Maury
- LBLGC, INRA, Université d’Orléans, Orléans, France
- Correspondence:
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64
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Bao T, Roy G, Cahill JF. Photosynthetic opportunity cost and energetic cost of a rapid leaf closure behavior in Mimosa pudica. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2018; 105:1491-1498. [PMID: 30199086 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY The rapid leaf movement of Mimosa pudica is expected to be costly because of energetic trade-offs with other processes such as growth and reproduction. Here, we assess the photosynthetic opportunity cost and energetic cost of the unique leaf closing behavior of M. pudica. METHODS In the greenhouse, we employed novel touch-stimulation machines to expose plants to one of three treatments: (1) untouched control plants; (2) plants touch-stimulated to close their leaves during the day to incur energetic costs associated with leaf movement and reduced photosynthesis; (3) plants touched at night to assess the effects of touch alone. M. pudica is nyctinastic and closes its leaves at night; thus, touching at night does not impart additional costs. We directly assessed costs by comparing physical traits. Leaf re-opening response was measured to assess the potential for plant behavioral plasticity to impact photosynthetic opportunity costs. KEY RESULTS The cost of rapid leaf closure behavior was expressed as a 47% reduction in reproductive biomass accounting for the effect of touch. Touch itself changed physical traits such as biomass, with touched plants being generally bigger. Plants touched at night re-opened their leaflets 26% quicker than plants touched during the day. CONCLUSIONS We reason that the reproductive allocation costs incurred by M. pudica can be attributed to a combination of photosynthetic opportunity cost and the energetic cost associated with increased stimulation of leaf movement and that behavioral plasticity has the potential to alter photosynthetic opportunity costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tan Bao
- Department of Biological Sciences, CW-405 Biological Sciences Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Gwendolyn Roy
- Department of Biological Sciences, CW-405 Biological Sciences Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - James F Cahill
- Department of Biological Sciences, CW-405 Biological Sciences Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2E9, Canada
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65
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Abstract
Trained immunity was originally proposed as a program of innate immunity memory by innate immunity cells of hematopoietic origin such as the monocytes/macrophages and the NK cells. Here I discuss some old and new data justifying this program and some specific, still unanswered, questions it raises regarding the model fungus Candida albicans and the chronic, inflammatory vulvovaginal disease it causes. Building upon this well-established program, the recent reports that epithelial cells of mammals can also acquire memory from previous stimulations, and the apparent intrinsic ability of many living cells from bacteria to mammals to learn from experience, I suggest an expansion of the concept of trained immunity to include all cells of different lineages with the potential of memorizing previous microbial encounters. This expansion would better fit the complexity of innate immunity and the role it plays in infectious and inflammatory diseases.
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66
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Do traditional scientometric indicators predict social media activity on scientific knowledge? An analysis of the ecological literature. Scientometrics 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11192-018-2678-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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67
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Towards Systemic View for Plant Learning: Ecophysiological Perspective. MEMORY AND LEARNING IN PLANTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-75596-0_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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68
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Biegler R. Insufficient evidence for habituation in Mimosa pudica. Response to Gagliano et al. (2014). Oecologia 2017; 186:33-35. [PMID: 29214474 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-017-4012-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Gagliano et al. (Oecologia 175(1):63-72, 2014) reported that Mimosa pudica habituates to repeated stimulation, as shown by a reduction in response, dishabituation, and stimulus specificity. I argue that Gagliano et al.'s data show an absence of dishabituation, that their experimental design needs an additional condition to test whether there is stimulus specificity, and that most of their data can be explained by motor fatigue. Some data are not easily explained by fatigue, and I suggest a further analysis that may clarify the issue. The status of habituation in Mimosa remains uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Biegler
- Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
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69
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Plants learn and remember: lets get used to it. Oecologia 2017; 186:29-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-017-4029-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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70
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Anggerainy SW, Wanda D, Hayati H. Combining Natural Ingredients and Beliefs: The Dayak Tribe’s Experience Caring for Sick Children with Traditional Medicine. Compr Child Adolesc Nurs 2017; 40:29-36. [DOI: 10.1080/24694193.2017.1386968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Dessie Wanda
- Faculty of Nursing, Universitas Indonesia, Jalan Bahder Djohan Campus, Depok, Indonesia
| | - Happy Hayati
- Faculty of Nursing, Universitas Indonesia, Jalan Bahder Djohan Campus, Depok, Indonesia
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71
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Calvo P, Sahi VP, Trewavas A. Are plants sentient? PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2017; 40:2858-2869. [PMID: 28875517 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 08/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Feelings in humans are mental states representing groups of physiological functions that usually have defined behavioural purposes. Feelings, being evolutionarily ancient, are thought to be coordinated in the brain stem of animals. One function of the brain is to prioritise between competing mental states and, thus, groups of physiological functions and in turn behaviour. Plants use groups of coordinated physiological activities to deal with defined environmental situations but currently have no known mental state to prioritise any order of response. Plants do have a nervous system based on action potentials transmitted along phloem conduits but which in addition, through anastomoses and other cross-links, forms a complex network. The emergent potential for this excitable network to form a mental state is unknown, but it might be used to distinguish between different and even contradictory signals to the individual plant and thus determine a priority of response. This plant nervous system stretches throughout the whole plant providing the potential for assessment in all parts and commensurate with its self-organising, phenotypically plastic behaviour. Plasticity may, in turn, depend heavily on the instructive capabilities of local bioelectric fields enabling both a degree of behavioural independence but influenced by the condition of the whole plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paco Calvo
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
- Minimal Intelligence Lab, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Vaidurya Pratap Sahi
- Molecular Cell Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Anthony Trewavas
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK
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72
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Identification of an insect-produced olfactory cue that primes plant defenses. Nat Commun 2017; 8:337. [PMID: 28835618 PMCID: PMC5569085 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-00335-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It is increasingly clear that plants perceive and respond to olfactory cues. Yet, knowledge about the specificity and sensitivity of such perception remains limited. We previously documented priming of anti-herbivore defenses in tall goldenrod plants (Solidago altissima) by volatile emissions from a specialist herbivore, the goldenrod gall fly (Eurosta solidaginis). Here, we explore the specific chemical cues mediating this interaction. We report that E,S-conophthorin, the most abundant component of the emission of male flies, elicits a priming response equivalent to that observed for the overall blend. Furthermore, while the strength of priming is dose dependent, plants respond even to very low concentrations of E,S-conophthorin relative to typical fly emissions. Evaluation of other blend components yields results consistent with the hypothesis that priming in this interaction is mediated by a single compound. These findings provide insights into the perceptual capabilities underlying plant defense priming in response to olfactory cues. Plants are able to prime anti-herbivore defenses in response to olfactory cues of insect pests. Here, Helms et al. identify the insect pheromone E,S-conophthorin produced by the goldenrod gall fly as the specific chemical component that elicits this priming response in goldenrod plants.
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73
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Reed-Guy S, Gehris C, Shi M, Blumstein DT. Sensitive plant ( Mimosa pudica) hiding time depends on individual and state. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3598. [PMID: 28785516 PMCID: PMC5541926 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The decisions animals make to adjust their antipredator behavior to rapidly changing conditions have been well studied. Inducible defenses in plants are an antipredator behavior that acts on a longer time scale, but sensitive plants, Mimosa pudica, have a much more rapid antipredator response; they temporarily close their leaves when touched. The time they remain closed is defined as hiding time. We studied hiding time in sensitive plants and found that individual plants differed significantly in their hiding times. We then showed that the effect of individual explained substantial variation in hiding time on a short time scale. Finally, on a longer time scale, individuality persisted but the amount of variation attributed to individual decreased. We hypothesized that variation in plant condition might explain this change. We therefore manipulated sunlight availability and quantified hiding time. When deprived of light for 6 h, sensitive plants significantly shortened their hiding times. But when only half a plant was deprived of light, hiding times on the deprived half and light exposed half were not significantly different. This suggests that overall condition best explains variation in sensitive plant antipredator behavior. Just like in animals, sensitive plant antipredator behavior is condition dependent, and, just like in animals, a substantial amount of the remaining variation is explained by individual differences between plants. Thus, models designed to predict plasticity in animal behavior may be successfully applied to understand behavior in other organisms, including plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Reed-Guy
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, United States of America
| | - Connor Gehris
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, United States of America
| | - Meng Shi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, United States of America
| | - Daniel T Blumstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, United States of America
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74
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Abstract
Intelligence is defined for wild plants and its role in fitness identified. Intelligent behaviour exhibited by single cells and systems similarity between the interactome and connectome indicates neural systems are not necessary for intelligent capabilities. Plants sense and respond to many environmental signals that are assessed to competitively optimize acquisition of patchily distributed resources. Situations of choice engender motivational states in goal-directed plant behaviour; consequent intelligent decisions enable efficient gain of energy over expenditure. Comparison of swarm intelligence and plant behaviour indicates the origins of plant intelligence lie in complex communication and is exemplified by cambial control of branch function. Error correction in behaviours indicates both awareness and intention as does the ability to count to five. Volatile organic compounds are used as signals in numerous plant interactions. Being complex in composition and often species and individual specific, they may represent the plant language and account for self and alien recognition between individual plants. Game theory has been used to understand competitive and cooperative interactions between plants and microbes. Some unexpected cooperative behaviour between individuals and potential aliens has emerged. Behaviour profiting from experience, another simple definition of intelligence, requires both learning and memory and is indicated in the priming of herbivory, disease and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Trewavas
- Institute of Plant Molecular Science, University of Edinburgh, Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JH, Scotland
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75
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Abstract
Intelligence is defined for wild plants and its role in fitness identified. Intelligent behaviour exhibited by single cells and systems similarity between the interactome and connectome indicates neural systems are not necessary for intelligent capabilities. Plants sense and respond to many environmental signals that are assessed to competitively optimize acquisition of patchily distributed resources. Situations of choice engender motivational states in goal-directed plant behaviour; consequent intelligent decisions enable efficient gain of energy over expenditure. Comparison of swarm intelligence and plant behaviour indicates the origins of plant intelligence lie in complex communication and is exemplified by cambial control of branch function. Error correction in behaviours indicates both awareness and intention as does the ability to count to five. Volatile organic compounds are used as signals in numerous plant interactions. Being complex in composition and often species and individual specific, they may represent the plant language and account for self and alien recognition between individual plants. Game theory has been used to understand competitive and cooperative interactions between plants and microbes. Some unexpected cooperative behaviour between individuals and potential aliens has emerged. Behaviour profiting from experience, another simple definition of intelligence, requires both learning and memory and is indicated in the priming of herbivory, disease and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Trewavas
- Institute of Plant Molecular Science, University of Edinburgh, Kings Buildings, Edinburgh EH9 3JH, Scotland
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76
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Calvo P, Friston K. Predicting green: really radical (plant) predictive processing. J R Soc Interface 2017; 14:20170096. [PMID: 28637913 PMCID: PMC5493793 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2017.0096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article we account for the way plants respond to salient features of their environment under the free-energy principle for biological systems. Biological self-organization amounts to the minimization of surprise over time. We posit that any self-organizing system must embody a generative model whose predictions ensure that (expected) free energy is minimized through action. Plants respond in a fast, and yet coordinated manner, to environmental contingencies. They pro-actively sample their local environment to elicit information with an adaptive value. Our main thesis is that plant behaviour takes place by way of a process (active inference) that predicts the environmental sources of sensory stimulation. This principle, we argue, endows plants with a form of perception that underwrites purposeful, anticipatory behaviour. The aim of the article is to assess the prospects of a radical predictive processing story that would follow naturally from the free-energy principle for biological systems; an approach that may ultimately bear upon our understanding of life and cognition more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paco Calvo
- EIDYN Research Centre, and Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- MINT Lab, Departamento de Filosofía, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Karl Friston
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology UCL, 12 Queen Square, London, UK
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77
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Gagliano M, Vyazovskiy VV, Borbély AA, Grimonprez M, Depczynski M. Learning by Association in Plants. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38427. [PMID: 27910933 PMCID: PMC5133544 DOI: 10.1038/srep38427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In complex and ever-changing environments, resources such as food are often scarce and unevenly distributed in space and time. Therefore, utilizing external cues to locate and remember high-quality sources allows more efficient foraging, thus increasing chances for survival. Associations between environmental cues and food are readily formed because of the tangible benefits they confer. While examples of the key role they play in shaping foraging behaviours are widespread in the animal world, the possibility that plants are also able to acquire learned associations to guide their foraging behaviour has never been demonstrated. Here we show that this type of learning occurs in the garden pea, Pisum sativum. By using a Y-maze task, we show that the position of a neutral cue, predicting the location of a light source, affected the direction of plant growth. This learned behaviour prevailed over innate phototropism. Notably, learning was successful only when it occurred during the subjective day, suggesting that behavioural performance is regulated by metabolic demands. Our results show that associative learning is an essential component of plant behaviour. We conclude that associative learning represents a universal adaptive mechanism shared by both animals and plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Gagliano
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Vladyslav V. Vyazovskiy
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PT, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander A. Borbély
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
| | - Mavra Grimonprez
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Martial Depczynski
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
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78
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Calvo P, Baluška F, Sims A. "Feature Detection" vs. "Predictive Coding" Models of Plant Behavior. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1505. [PMID: 27757094 PMCID: PMC5047902 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article we consider the possibility that plants exhibit anticipatory behavior, a mark of intelligence. If plants are able to anticipate and respond accordingly to varying states of their surroundings, as opposed to merely responding online to environmental contingencies, then such capacity may be in principle testable, and subject to empirical scrutiny. Our main thesis is that adaptive behavior can only take place by way of a mechanism that predicts the environmental sources of sensory stimulation. We propose to test for anticipation in plants experimentally by contrasting two empirical hypotheses: “feature detection” and “predictive coding.” We spell out what these contrasting hypotheses consist of by way of illustration from the animal literature, and consider how to transfer the rationale involved to the plant literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paco Calvo
- Minimal Intelligence Lab (MINT Lab), Department of Philosophy, University of MurciaMurcia, Spain; School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, UK
| | - František Baluška
- Institute of Cellular and Molecular Botany, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany
| | - Andrew Sims
- Institut Supérieur de Philosophie, Université Catholique de Louvain Louvain, Belgium
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79
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Latzel V, Rendina González AP, Rosenthal J. Epigenetic Memory as a Basis for Intelligent Behavior in Clonal Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:1354. [PMID: 27630664 PMCID: PMC5006084 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Environmentally induced epigenetic change enables plants to remember past environmental interactions. If this memory capability is exploited to prepare plants for future challenges, it can provide a basis for highly sophisticated behavior, considered intelligent by some. Against the backdrop of an overview of plant intelligence, we hypothesize: (1) that the capability of plants to engage in such intelligent behavior increases with the additional level of complexity afforded by clonality, and; (2) that more faithful inheritance of epigenetic information in clonal plants, in conjunction with information exchange and coordination between connected ramets, is likely to enable especially advanced intelligent behavior in this group. We therefore further hypothesize that this behavior provides ecological and evolutionary advantages to clonal plants, possibly explaining, at least in part, their widespread success. Finally, we suggest avenues of inquiry to enable assessing intelligent behavior and the role of epigenetic memory in clonal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vít Latzel
- Institute of Botany of Czech Academy of SciencesPrůhonice, Czech Republic
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80
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Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) underlies memory, perception, decision-making, and behavior in numerous organisms. However, neural networks have no monopoly on the signaling functions that implement these remarkable algorithms. It is often forgotten that neurons optimized cellular signaling modes that existed long before the CNS appeared during evolution, and were used by somatic cellular networks to orchestrate physiology, embryonic development, and behavior. Many of the key dynamics that enable information processing can, in fact, be implemented by different biological hardware. This is widely exploited by organisms throughout the tree of life. Here, we review data on memory, learning, and other aspects of cognition in a range of models, including single celled organisms, plants, and tissues in animal bodies. We discuss current knowledge of the molecular mechanisms at work in these systems, and suggest several hypotheses for future investigation. The study of cognitive processes implemented in aneural contexts is a fascinating, highly interdisciplinary topic that has many implications for evolution, cell biology, regenerative medicine, computer science, and synthetic bioengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- František Baluška
- Department of Plant Cell Biology, IZMB, University of Bonn Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael Levin
- Biology Department, Tufts Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology, Tufts University Medford, MA, USA
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81
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Miller WB. Cognition, Information Fields and Hologenomic Entanglement: Evolution in Light and Shadow. BIOLOGY 2016; 5:biology5020021. [PMID: 27213462 PMCID: PMC4929535 DOI: 10.3390/biology5020021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
As the prime unification of Darwinism and genetics, the Modern Synthesis continues to epitomize mainstay evolutionary theory. Many decades after its formulation, its anchor assumptions remain fixed: conflict between macro organic organisms and selection at that level represent the near totality of any evolutionary narrative. However, intervening research has revealed a less easily appraised cellular and microbial focus for eukaryotic existence. It is now established that all multicellular eukaryotic organisms are holobionts representing complex collaborations between the co-aligned microbiome of each eukaryote and its innate cells into extensive mixed cellular ecologies. Each of these ecological constituents has demonstrated faculties consistent with basal cognition. Consequently, an alternative hologenomic entanglement model is proposed with cognition at its center and conceptualized as Pervasive Information Fields within a quantum framework. Evolutionary development can then be reconsidered as being continuously based upon communication between self-referential constituencies reiterated at every scope and scale. Immunological reactions support and reinforce self-recognition juxtaposed against external environmental stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- William B Miller
- Independent Researcher, 6526 N. 59th St., Paradise Valley, AZ 85253, USA.
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82
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Lev-Yadun S. Plants are not sitting ducks waiting for herbivores to eat them. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2016; 11:e1179419. [PMID: 27136296 PMCID: PMC4973770 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2016.1179419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
There is a common attitude toward plants, accordingly, plants are waiting around to be found and eaten by herbivores. This common approach toward plants is a great underestimation of the huge and variable arsenal of defensive plant strategies. Plants do everything evolution has allowed them to do in order not to be eaten. Therefore, plants are not sitting ducks and many plants outsmart and even exploit many invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores and carnivores for pollination and for seed dispersal, and even carnivores and parasitoids for defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon, Israel
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83
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Trewavas A. Intelligence, Cognition, and Language of Green Plants. Front Psychol 2016; 7:588. [PMID: 27199823 PMCID: PMC4845027 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A summary definition of some 70 descriptions of intelligence provides a definition for all other organisms including plants that stresses fitness. Barbara McClintock, a plant biologist, posed the notion of the ‘thoughtful cell’ in her Nobel prize address. The systems structure necessary for a thoughtful cell is revealed by comparison of the interactome and connectome. The plant root cap, a group of some 200 cells that act holistically in responding to numerous signals, likely possesses a similar systems structure agreeing with Darwin’s description of acting like the brain of a lower organism. Intelligent behavior requires assessment of different choices and taking the beneficial one. Decisions are constantly required to optimize the plant phenotype to a dynamic environment and the cambium is the assessing tissue diverting more or removing resources from different shoot and root branches through manipulation of vascular elements. Environmental awareness likely indicates consciousness. Spontaneity in plant behavior, ability to count to five and error correction indicate intention. Volatile organic compounds are used as signals in plant interactions and being complex in composition may be the equivalent of language accounting for self and alien recognition by individual plants. Game theory describes competitive interactions. Interactive and intelligent outcomes emerge from application of various games between plants themselves and interactions with microbes. Behavior profiting from experience, another simple definition of intelligence, requires both learning and memory and is indicated in the priming of herbivory, disease and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Trewavas
- Institute of Molecular Plant Science, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, UK
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84
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Abramson CI, Chicas-Mosier AM. Learning in Plants: Lessons from Mimosa pudica. Front Psychol 2016; 7:417. [PMID: 27065905 PMCID: PMC4814444 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the early Mimosa pudica literature; much of which is in journals not easily accessible to the reader. In contrast to the contemporary plant learning literature which is conducted primarily by plant biologists, this early literature was conducted by comparative psychologists whose goal was to search for the generality of learning phenomena such as habituation, and classical conditioning using experimental designs based on animal conditioning studies. In addition to reviewing the early literature, we hope to encourage collaborations between plant biologists and comparative psychologists by familiarizing the reader with issues in the study of learning faced by those working with animals. These issues include no consistent definition of learning phenomena and an overreliance on the use of cognition. We suggested that greater collaborative efforts be made between plant biologists and comparative psychologists if the study of plant learning is to be fully intergraded into the mainstream behavior theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles I Abramson
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory of Comparative Psychology and Behavioral Biology, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK, USA; Department of Integrative Biology, Laboratory of Comparative Psychology and Behavioral Biology, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK, USA
| | - Ana M Chicas-Mosier
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory of Comparative Psychology and Behavioral Biology, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK, USA; Department of Integrative Biology, Laboratory of Comparative Psychology and Behavioral Biology, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK, USA
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85
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Abstract
Networks of protoplasmic tubes of organism Physarum polycehpalum are macro-scale structures which optimally span multiple food sources to avoid repellents yet maximize coverage of attractants. When data are presented by configurations of attractants and behaviour of the slime mould is tuned by a range of repellents, the organism preforms computation. It maps given data configuration into a protoplasmic network. To discover physical means of programming the slime mould computers we explore conductivity of the protoplasmic tubes; proposing that the network connectivity of protoplasmic tubes shows pathway-dependent plasticity. To demonstrate this we encourage the slime mould to span a grid of electrodes and apply AC stimuli to the network. Learning and weighted connections within a grid of electrodes is produced using negative and positive voltage stimulation of the network at desired nodes; low frequency (10 Hz) sinusoidal (0.5 V peak-to-peak) voltage increases connectivity between stimulated electrodes while decreasing connectivity elsewhere, high frequency (1000 Hz) sinusoidal (2.5 V peak-to-peak) voltage stimulation decreases network connectivity between stimulated electrodes. We corroborate in a particle model. This phenomenon may be used for computation in the same way that neural networks process information and has the potential to shed light on the dynamics of learning and information processing in non-neural metazoan somatic cell networks.
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86
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The Yin and Yang of Sleep and Attention. Trends Neurosci 2015; 38:776-786. [PMID: 26602764 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2015] [Revised: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Sleep is not a single state, but a complex set of brain processes that supports several physiological needs. Sleep deprivation is known to affect attention in many animals, suggesting that a key function of sleep is to regulate attention. Conversely, tasks that require more attention drive sleep need and sleep intensity. Attention involves the ability to filter incoming stimuli based on their relative salience, and this is likely to require coordinated synaptic activity across the brain. This capacity may have only become possible with the evolution of related neural mechanisms that support two key sleep functions: stimulus suppression and synaptic plasticity. We argue here that sleep and attention may have coevolved as brain states that regulate each other.
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87
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Pezzulo G, Levin M. Re-membering the body: applications of computational neuroscience to the top-down control of regeneration of limbs and other complex organs. Integr Biol (Camb) 2015; 7:1487-517. [PMID: 26571046 DOI: 10.1039/c5ib00221d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A major goal of regenerative medicine and bioengineering is the regeneration of complex organs, such as limbs, and the capability to create artificial constructs (so-called biobots) with defined morphologies and robust self-repair capabilities. Developmental biology presents remarkable examples of systems that self-assemble and regenerate complex structures toward their correct shape despite significant perturbations. A fundamental challenge is to translate progress in molecular genetics into control of large-scale organismal anatomy, and the field is still searching for an appropriate theoretical paradigm for facilitating control of pattern homeostasis. However, computational neuroscience provides many examples in which cell networks - brains - store memories (e.g., of geometric configurations, rules, and patterns) and coordinate their activity towards proximal and distant goals. In this Perspective, we propose that programming large-scale morphogenesis requires exploiting the information processing by which cellular structures work toward specific shapes. In non-neural cells, as in the brain, bioelectric signaling implements information processing, decision-making, and memory in regulating pattern and its remodeling. Thus, approaches used in computational neuroscience to understand goal-seeking neural systems offer a toolbox of techniques to model and control regenerative pattern formation. Here, we review recent data on developmental bioelectricity as a regulator of patterning, and propose that target morphology could be encoded within tissues as a kind of memory, using the same molecular mechanisms and algorithms so successfully exploited by the brain. We highlight the next steps of an unconventional research program, which may allow top-down control of growth and form for numerous applications in regenerative medicine and synthetic bioengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Pezzulo
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
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88
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Dollens D. Autopoiesis + extended cognition + nature = can buildings think? Commun Integr Biol 2015; 8:e994373. [PMID: 26478784 PMCID: PMC4594259 DOI: 10.4161/19420889.2014.994373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
To incorporate metabolic, bioremedial functions into the performance of buildings and to balance generative architecture's dominant focus on computational programming and digital fabrication, this text first discusses hybridizing Maturana and Varela's biological theory of autopoiesis with Andy Clark's hypothesis of extended cognition. Doing so establishes a procedural protocol to research biological domains from which design could source data/insight from biosemiotics, sensory plants, and biocomputation. I trace computation and botanic simulations back to Alan Turing's little-known 1950s Morphogenetic drawings, reaction-diffusion algorithms, and pioneering artificial intelligence (AI) in order to establish bioarchitecture's generative point of origin. I ask provocatively, Can buildings think? as a question echoing Turing's own, "Can machines think?"
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Dollens
- ESARQ School of Architecture; Universitat Internacional de Catalunya ; Barcelona, Spain
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89
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Gagliano M, Grimonprez M. Breaking the Silence—Language and the Making of Meaning in Plants. ECOPSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1089/eco.2015.0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Monica Gagliano
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Mavra Grimonprez
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
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90
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Blackiston DJ, Shomrat T, Levin M. The stability of memories during brain remodeling: A perspective. Commun Integr Biol 2015; 8:e1073424. [PMID: 27066165 PMCID: PMC4802789 DOI: 10.1080/19420889.2015.1073424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most important features of the nervous system is memory: the ability to represent and store experiences, in a manner that alters behavior and cognition at future times when the original stimulus is no longer present. However, the brain is not always an anatomically stable structure: many animal species regenerate all or part of the brain after severe injury, or remodel their CNS toward a new configuration as part of their life cycle. This raises a fascinating question: what are the dynamics of memories during brain regeneration? Can stable memories remain intact when cellular turnover and spatial rearrangement modify the biological hardware within which experiences are stored? What can we learn from model species that exhibit both, regeneration and memory, with respect to robustness and stability requirements for long-term memories encoded in living tissues? In this Perspective, we discuss relevant data in regenerating planaria, metamorphosing insects, and hibernating ground squirrels. While much remains to be done to understand this remarkable process, molecular-level insight will have important implications for cognitive science, regenerative medicine of the brain, and the development of non-traditional computational media in synthetic bioengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas J Blackiston
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of Biology; Tufts University ; Medford, MA USA
| | - Tal Shomrat
- Department of Neurobiology; Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus; Jerusalem, Israel; School of Marine Sciences, Ruppin Academic Center; Michmoret, Israel
| | - Michael Levin
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of Biology; Tufts University ; Medford, MA USA
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91
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Hilker M, Schwachtje J, Baier M, Balazadeh S, Bäurle I, Geiselhardt S, Hincha DK, Kunze R, Mueller-Roeber B, Rillig MC, Rolff J, Romeis T, Schmülling T, Steppuhn A, van Dongen J, Whitcomb SJ, Wurst S, Zuther E, Kopka J. Priming and memory of stress responses in organisms lacking a nervous system. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:1118-1133. [PMID: 26289992 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Revised: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Experience and memory of environmental stimuli that indicate future stress can prepare (prime) organismic stress responses even in species lacking a nervous system. The process through which such organisms prepare their phenotype for an improved response to future stress has been termed 'priming'. However, other terms are also used for this phenomenon, especially when considering priming in different types of organisms and when referring to different stressors. Here we propose a conceptual framework for priming of stress responses in bacteria, fungi and plants which allows comparison of priming with other terms, e.g. adaptation, acclimation, induction, acquired resistance and cross protection. We address spatial and temporal aspects of priming and highlight current knowledge about the mechanisms necessary for information storage which range from epigenetic marks to the accumulation of (dormant) signalling molecules. Furthermore, we outline possible patterns of primed stress responses. Finally, we link the ability of organisms to become primed for stress responses (their 'primability') with evolutionary ecology aspects and discuss which properties of an organism and its environment may favour the evolution of priming of stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Hilker
- Applied Zoology/Animal Ecology, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences (DCPS), Institute of Biology, Freie Universität (FU) Berlin, Haderslebener Straße 9, 12163, Berlin, Germany. .,Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr. 6, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Jens Schwachtje
- Applied Metabolome Analysis, Department of Molecular Physiology, Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Margarete Baier
- Plant Physiology, DCPS, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 12-16, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Salma Balazadeh
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, Haus 20, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Isabel Bäurle
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, Haus 20, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Sven Geiselhardt
- Applied Zoology/Animal Ecology, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences (DCPS), Institute of Biology, Freie Universität (FU) Berlin, Haderslebener Straße 9, 12163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dirk K Hincha
- Central Infrastructure Group Transcript Profiling, Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Reinhard Kunze
- Applied Genetics/Molecular Plant Genetics, DCPS, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 6, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Mueller-Roeber
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, Haus 20, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Matthias C Rillig
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Altensteinstr. 6, 14195, Berlin, Germany.,Plant Ecology, DCPS, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Altensteinstraße 6, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Rolff
- Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tina Romeis
- Plant Biochemistry, DCPS, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 12-16, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Schmülling
- Applied Genetics, DCPS, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 6, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anke Steppuhn
- Molecular Ecology, DCPS, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Haderslebener Straße 9, 12163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joost van Dongen
- Rhizosphere Molecular Ecology, Institute of Biology, RWTH Aachen, Worringerweg 1, 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sarah J Whitcomb
- Applied Metabolome Analysis, Department of Molecular Physiology, Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Susanne Wurst
- Functional Ecology, DCPS, Institute of Biology, FU Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ellen Zuther
- Central Infrastructure Group Transcript Profiling, Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Joachim Kopka
- Applied Metabolome Analysis, Department of Molecular Physiology, Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476, Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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92
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Abstract
Climbing plants require an external support to grow vertically and enhance light acquisition. Vines that find a suitable support have greater performance and fitness than those that remain prostrate. Therefore, the location of a suitable support is a key process in the life history of climbing plants. Numerous studies on climbing plant behaviour have elucidated mechanistic details of support searching and attachment. Far fewer studies have addressed the ecological significance of support-finding behaviour and the factors that affect it. Without this knowledge, little progress can be made in the understanding of the evolution of support-finding behaviour in climbers. Here I review studies addressing ecological causes and consequences of support finding and use by climbing plants. I also propose the use of behavioural ecology theoretical frameworks to study climbing plant behaviour. I show how host tree attributes may determine the probability of successful colonization for the different types of climbers, and examine the evidence of environmental and genetic control of circumnutation behaviour and phenotypic responses to support availability. Cases of oriented vine growth towards supports are highlighted. I discuss functional responses of vines to the interplay between herbivory and support availability under different abiotic environments, illustrating with one study case how results comply with a theoretical framework of behavioural ecology originally conceived for animals. I conclude stressing that climbing plants are suitable study subjects for the application of behavioural-ecological theory. Further research under this framework should aim at characterizing the different stages of the support-finding process in terms of their fit with the different climbing modes and environmental settings. In particular, cost-benefit analysis of climbing plant behaviour should be helpful to infer the selective pressures that have operated to shape current climber ecological communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Gianoli
- Departamento de Biología, Universidad de La Serena, Casilla 554, La Serena, Chile Departamento de Botánica, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C, Concepción, Chile
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93
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Mescher MC, De Moraes CM. Role of plant sensory perception in plant-animal interactions. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:425-33. [PMID: 25371503 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The sedentary lifestyle of plants can give the false impression that they are passive participants in interactions with other organisms and the broader environment. In fact, plants have evolved sophisticated perceptual abilities that allow them to monitor and respond to a wide range of changing biotic and abiotic conditions. In this paper, we discuss recent research exploring the diverse ways in which plant sensory abilities mediate interactions between plants and animals, especially insects. Such interactions include the detection and capture of animal prey by carnivorous plants, active plant responses to pollinator visitation, the perception of various cues associated with the immediate presence and feeding of herbivores, and plant responses to (olfactory) cues indicating the threat of future herbivory. We are only beginning to understand the full range of sensory cues that mediate such interactions and to elucidate the mechanisms by which plants perceive, interpret, and respond to them. Nevertheless, it is clear that plants continually gather information about their environments via a range of sensory modalities and actively respond in ways that profoundly influence their interactions with other organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark C Mescher
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Consuelo M De Moraes
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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94
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Norris V, Ripoll C, Thellier M. The theater management model of plant memory. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2015; 10:e976157. [PMID: 25482789 PMCID: PMC4622483 DOI: 10.4161/15592324.2014.976157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The existence of a memory in plants raises several fundamental questions. What might be the function of a plant memory? How might it work? Which molecular mechanisms might be responsible? Here, we sketch out the landscape of plant memory with particular reference to the concepts of functioning-dependent structures and competitive coherence. We illustrate how these concepts might be relevant with reference to the metaphor of a traveling, avant-garde theater company and we suggest how using a program that simulates competitive coherence might help answer some of the questions about plant memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vic Norris
- Department of Biology; University of Rouen; Aignan, France
| | - Camille Ripoll
- Department of Biology; University of Rouen; Aignan, France
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95
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Gagliano M. In a green frame of mind: perspectives on the behavioural ecology and cognitive nature of plants. AOB PLANTS 2014; 7:plu075. [PMID: 25416727 PMCID: PMC4287690 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plu075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
It is increasingly recognized that plants are highly sensitive organisms that perceive, assess, learn, remember, resolve problems, make decisions and communicate with each other by actively acquiring information from their environment. However, the fact that many of the sophisticated behaviours plants exhibit reveal cognitive competences, which are generally attributed to humans and some non-human animals, has remained unappreciated. Here, I will outline the theoretical barriers that have precluded the opportunity to experimentally test such behavioural/cognitive phenomena in plants. I will then suggest concrete alternative approaches to cognition by highlighting how (i) the environment offers a multitude of opportunities for decision-making and action and makes behaviours possible, rather than causing them; (ii) perception in itself is action in the form of a continuous flow of information; (iii) all living organisms viewed within this context become agents endowed with autonomy rather than objects in a mechanistically conceived world. These viewpoints, combined with recent evidence, may contribute to move the entire field towards an integrated study of cognitive biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Gagliano
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
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96
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Leblanc-Fournier N, Martin L, Lenne C, Decourteix M. To respond or not to respond, the recurring question in plant mechanosensitivity. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:401. [PMID: 25177327 PMCID: PMC4132296 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
In nature, terrestrial plants experience many kinds of external mechanical stimulation and respond by triggering a network of signaling events to acclimate their growth and development. Some environmental cues, especially wind, recur on time scales varying from seconds to days. Plants thus have to adapt their sensitivity to such stimulations to avoid constitutive activation of stress responses. The study of plant mechanosensing has been attracting more interest in the last two decades, but plant responses to repetitive mechanical stimulation have yet to be described in detail. In this mini review, alongside classic experiments we survey recent descriptions of the kinetics of plant responses to recurrent stimulation. The ability of plants to modulate their responses to recurrent stimulation at the molecular, cellular, or organ scale is also relevant to other abiotic stimuli. It is possible that plants reduce their responsiveness to environmental signals as a function of their recurrence, recovering full sensitivity several days later. Finally, putative mechanisms underlying mechanosensing regulation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Leblanc-Fournier
- Clermont Université – Université Blaise Pascal, UMR547 PIAF, Clermont-FerrandFrance
- INRA, UMR547 PIAF, Clermont-FerrandFrance
| | - Ludovic Martin
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement des Plantes, UMR 7265, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique/Aix-Marseille Université, Saint-Paul-lez-DuranceFrance
| | - Catherine Lenne
- Clermont Université – Université Blaise Pascal, UMR547 PIAF, Clermont-FerrandFrance
- INRA, UMR547 PIAF, Clermont-FerrandFrance
| | - Mélanie Decourteix
- Clermont Université – Université Blaise Pascal, UMR547 PIAF, Clermont-FerrandFrance
- INRA, UMR547 PIAF, Clermont-FerrandFrance
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