Influence of ferulic acid consumption in ameliorating the cadmium-induced liver and renal oxidative damage in rats

Role of Autophagy in Cadmium-Induced Hepatotoxicity and Liver Diseases

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic pollutant that is associated with several severe human diseases. Cd can be easily absorbed in significant quantities from air contamination/industrial pollution, cigarette smoke, food, and water and primarily affects the liver, kidney, and lungs. Toxic effects of Cd include hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, pulmonary toxicity, and the development of various human cancers. Cd is also involved in the development and progression of fatty liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma. Cd affects liver function via modulation of cell survival/proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Moreover, Cd dysregulates hepatic autophagy, an endogenous catabolic process that detoxifies damaged cell organelles or dysfunctional cytosolic proteins through vacuole-mediated sequestration and lysosomal degradation. In this article, we review recent developments and findings regarding the role of Cd in the modulation of hepatotoxicity, autophagic function, and liver diseases at the molecular level.

Ferulic acid, a phytochemical with transient anorexigenic effects in birds

Ferulic acid (FA) is a phenolic acid found within the plant cell wall that has physiological benefits as an antioxidant. Although metabolic benefits of FA supplementation are described, lacking are reports of effects on appetite regulation. Thus, our objective was to determine if FA affects food or water intake, using chicks as a model. At 4 days post-hatch, broiler chicks were intraperitoneally injected with 0 (vehicle), 12.5, 25, or 50 mg/kg of FA. Chicks treated with 50 mg/kg of FA consumed 70% less food than controls at 30 min post-injection, and the effect dissipated thereafter. Water intake was not affected at any time. In a behavior analysis, FA-treated chicks defecated fewer times than vehicle-injected chicks, while other behaviors were not affected. There was an increase in c-Fos immunoreactivity within the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) of FA-treated chicks, and no differences were detected in other nuclei. mRNA abundance was measured in the whole hypothalamus and the ARC. There was decreased hypothalamic galanin, ghrelin, melanocortin receptor 3, and pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA in FA-treated chicks. Within the ARC, there was an increase in c-Fos mRNA and a decrease in POMC mRNA in response to FA. It is likely that the mechanism responsible for mediating FA's transient effects on food intake originates within the ARC, possibly involving POMC. A greater understanding of the short-term, mild appetite-suppressive effects of FA may have applications to treating eating disorders and modulating food intake in animal models of obesity.

Effects of medicine food Fructus Gardeniae on liver and kidney functions after oral administration to rats for 12 weeks

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is medicine food widely used for the treatment and prevention of various diseases. However, in recent years, research has suggested that high doses of FG can cause hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. To assess this potential toxicity in more depth, this study investigated the effects of decocted FG and two of its bioactive constituents (geniposide and genipin) on liver and kidney function in rats. Rats were intragastrically administered FG (330 mg/kg body weight), geniposide (50 mg/kg body weight), or genipin (50 mg/kg body weight) for 12 weeks. Changes in body weight, liver and kidney indices, biochemical indices, and inflammatory factors were monitored. In addition, pathological sections were assessed and the expression of caspase-3, NF-κBp65, COX-2, and iNOS was detected by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. It was found that the levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, and urea nitrogen increased following administration of FG, geniposide, and genipin. Furthermore, the activities of superoxide dismutase and reduced glutathione decreased following treatment, while malondialdehyde levels increased. Pathological and immunohistochemical evaluations further confirmed that FG and its constituents may cause damage to the liver and kidneys. The mechanism study revealed that the protein level of inflammatory pathway increased and further promoted apoptosis, suggesting that it should not be taken orally for extended periods of time. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Chinese medicine and food safety have always been public health concerns. Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is a plant with a dual-purpose as it is used as both a medicine and food. Medicinally, it has the effects of heat-clearing and detoxification. However, its adverse effects and related mechanisms are not clear, and this has potential safety implications. In this study, rats were treated with FG for 12 weeks and found that the long-term administration of FG or high dosing can lead to damage to liver and kidney function. Therefore, close attention must be paid to the dosage of FG in order to achieve a therapeutic effect and avoid adverse reactions. Thus, this study lays a foundation for the safety evaluation and clinical application of FG.

Protective Effects of α-Lipoic Acid and Chlorogenic Acid on Cadmium-Induced Liver Injury in Three-Yellow Chickens

Simple Summary

Cadmium (Cd) exerts pernicious influences on global health. We evaluated the protective effects of α-lipoic acid (α-LA) or chlorogenic acid (CGA) and their combination on counteracting Cd toxicity in vivo in three-yellow chickens. Administration of Cd (50 mg/L) alone lowered the production performance and resulted in biochemical, histologic and enzyme changes within the liver consistent with hepatic injury induced by oxidative stress and apoptosis of hepatocytes. However, the above variations of the Cd group were partially or fully reversed by administration of either α-LA or CGA; their combination showed an even better effect in attenuating Cd-induced hepatotoxicity. This study provided a practical and feasible approach to rescuing Cd intoxication in animal production.

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) is a type of noxious heavy metal that is distributed widely. It can severely injure the hepatocytes and cause liver dysfunction by inducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. We evaluated the protective effects of α-lipoic acid (α-LA) or chlorogenic acid (CGA) and their combination on counteracting cadmium toxicity in vivo in three-yellow chickens. For three months, CdCl₂ (50 mg/L) was administrated through their drinking water, α-LA (400 mg/kg) was added to feed and CGA (45 mg/kg) was employed by gavage. The administration of Cd led to variations in growth performance, biochemical markers (of the liver, kidney and heart), hematological parameters, liver histopathology (which suggested hepatic injury) and ultrastructure of hepatocytes. Some antioxidant enzymes and oxidative stress parameters showed significant differences in the Cd-exposure group when compared with the control group. The groups treated with Cd and administrated α-LA or CGA showed significant amelioration with inhibited mitochondrial pathway-induced apoptosis. Combining both drugs was the most effective in reducing Cd toxicity in the liver. In summary, the results demonstrated that α-LA and CGA may be beneficial in alleviating oxidative stress induced by oxygen free radicals and tissue injury resulting from Cd-triggered hepatotoxicity.

Effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles and ferulic acid on renal ischemia/reperfusion injury: possible underlying mechanisms

OBJECTIVES

The present study examined the effects of ferulic acid (FA) and Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) and a combination of both on renal ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) in rats and their possible underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

two-hundreds male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly allocated into the 5 groups; i) sham group, ii) control (IRI) group (occlusion of the left renal pedicle for 45 min), iii) FA group as IRI group with FA (100 mg/Kg oral 24 hrs before ischemia), iv) ZnO-NPs group as IRI group with ZnO-NPs single 5 mg/Kg i.p. 2 hrs before ischemia and v) FA + ZnO-NPs group as IRI group with both FA and ZnO-NPs in the same previous doses. According to the reperfusion times, each group was further subdivided into 4 hr, 24 hr, 48 hr and 7 days reperfusion subgroups.

RESULTS

administration of either FA or ZnO-NPs caused significant improvement in the elevated serum creatinine and BUN and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations and expression of TNF-α, Bax, caspase-3 in kidney tissues with significant rise in the creatinine clearance, the activities of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and the expression of HO-1, HIF-1α genes and proliferation marker (ki67) in kidney tissues compared to IRI group (p < 0.05). Moreover, a combination of both agents produced more significant improvement in the studied parameters than each agent did alone (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Both FA and ZnO-NPs exerted cytoprotective effects against ischemic kidney injury and a combination of both exhibited more powerful renoprotective effect. This renoprotective effect might be due to suppression of oxidative stress, enhancement of cell proliferation (ki67), upregulation of antioxidant genes (Nrf2, HO-1 and HIF-1α) and downregulation of inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α) and apoptotic genes (caspase-3 and Bax).

Modulatory effects of carvacrol against cadmium-induced hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity by molecular targeting regulation

AIM

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic heavy metal that causes severe toxic effects on different tissues including liver and kidney. Therefore the research for alternatives to reduce the damage caused by Cd has substantial importance. This study was performed to examine the possible modulatory effects of carvacrol (CRV) against Cd-induced hepatorenal toxicities and the possible mechanisms underlying these effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, 35 male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 5 groups. The rats were treated with Cd (25 mg/kg) and treated with CRV (25 and 50 mg/kg body weight) for 7 consecutive days.

KEY FINDINGS

CRV could modulate Cd-induced elevations of ALT, ALP, AST, urea, creatinine, MDA and enhance antioxidant enzymes' activities such as SOD, CAT, and GPx, and GSH's level. CRV also reversed the changes in levels of inflammatory biomarker and apoptotic genes that include NF-κB, Bcl-3, MAPK-14, iNOS, COX-2, MPO, PGE2, Bax, Bcl-2, P53, Caspase-9, Caspase-6 and Caspase-3 in both tissues. The levels of 8-OHdG in the Cd-induced liver and kidney tissues were modulated after CRV treatment. Furthermore, CRV treatment considerably lowered Cd, Na, Fe, and Zn content while increased K, Ca, Mg and Cu contents in both tissues as compared to the Cd-exposed rats.

SIGNIFICANCE

The results of the present study revealed that CRV supplementation could be a promising strategy to protect the liver and kidney tissues against Cd-induced oxidative damage, inflammation and apoptosis.

Environmental toxicants, oxidative stress and health adversities: interventions of phytochemicals

OBJECTIVES

Oxidative stress is the most common factor mediating environmental chemical-induced health adversities. Recently, an exponential rise in the use of phytochemicals as an alternative therapeutics against oxidative stress-mediated diseases has been documented. Due to their free radical quenching property, plant-derived natural products have gained substantial attention as a therapeutic agent in environmental toxicology. The present review aimed to describe the therapeutic role of phytochemicals in mitigating environmental toxicant-mediated sub-cellular and organ toxicities via controlling cellular antioxidant response.

METHODS

The present review has covered the recently related studies, mainly focussing on the free radical scavenging role of phytochemicals in environmental toxicology.

KEY FINDINGS

In vitro and in vivo studies have reported that supplementation of antioxidant-rich compounds can ameliorate the toxicant-induced oxidative stress, thereby improving the health conditions. Improving the cellular antioxidant pool has been considered as a mode of action of phytochemicals. However, the other cellular targets of phytochemicals remain uncertain.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowing the therapeutic value of phytochemicals to mitigate the chemical-induced toxicity is an initial stage; mechanistic understanding needs to decipher for development as therapeutics. Moreover, examining the efficacy of phytochemicals against mixer toxicity and identifying the bioactive molecule are major challenges in the field.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of the Genus Equisetum (Equisetaceae): A Narrative Review of the Species with Therapeutic Potential for Kidney Diseases

The Equisetum genus, Equisetaceae family, is widely distributed worldwide and may be the oldest nonextinct genus on Earth. There are about 30 known species, which are very often used in traditional medicine with diverse applications. This review aimed to compile scientific reports about Equisetum species with relevant pharmacological properties and/or therapeutic potential for kidney diseases. Our bibliographic survey demonstrates that the most widespread traditional use of Equisetum is as a diuretic, followed by the treatment of genitourinary diseases (kidney diseases, urethritis, kidney stones, and others), inflammation, wound healing, rheumatic diseases, prostatitis, and hypertension. The most popular species from the Equisetum genus with medicinal use is E. arvense L., whose diuretic effect was confirmed in animal models and clinical trials. The species E. bogotense Kunth also demonstrated the beneficial effect of inducing diuresis in both experimental and clinical assays. Several other species have also been studied regarding their therapeutic potential, showing different biological actions. Regarding the chemical composition, it contains many active constituents, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenol, phytosterols, saponins, sterols, silicic acid, tannin, triterpenoids, and volatile oils. However, despite the widespread traditional use, many species need to be explored in detail for scientific validation of popular use. Indeed, the species of the Equisetum genus have great potential in the management of kidney disorders.

Ferulic acid alleviates lipotoxicity-induced hepatocellular death through the SIRT1-regulated autophagy pathway and independently of AMPK and Akt in AML-12 hepatocytes

Background

Lipotoxicity-induced cell death plays a detrimental role in the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases. Ferulic acid, widespread in plant-based food, is a radical scavenger with multiple bioactivities. However, the benefits of ferulic acid against hepatic lipotoxicity are largely unclear. Here, we investigated the protective effect of ferulic acid against palmitate-induced lipotoxicity and clarified its potential mechanisms in AML-12 hepatocytes.

Methods

AML-12 mouse hepatocytes were exposed to palmitate to mimic lipotoxicity. Different doses (25, 50, and 100 μM) of ferulic acid were added 2 h before palmitate treatment. Cell viability was detected by measuring lactate dehydrogenase release, nuclear staining, and the expression of cleaved-caspase-3. Intracellular reactive oxygen species content and mitochondrial membrane potential were analysed by fluorescent probes. The potential mechanisms were explored by molecular biological methods, including Western blotting and quantitative real-time PCR, and were further verified by siRNA interference.

Results

Our data showed that ferulic acid significantly inhibited palmitate-induced cell death, rescued mitochondrial membrane potential, reduced reactive oxygen species accumulation, and decreased inflammatory factor activation, including IL-6 and IL-1beta. Ferulic acid significantly stimulated autophagy in hepatocytes, whereas autophagy suppression blocked the protective effect of ferulic acid against lipotoxicity. Ferulic acid-activated autophagy, which was triggered by SIRT1 upregulation, was mechanistically involved in its anti-lipotoxicity effects. SIRT1 silencing blocked most beneficial changes induced by ferulic acid.

Conclusions

We demonstrated that the phytochemical ferulic acid, which is found in plant-based food, protected against hepatic lipotoxicity, through the SIRT1/autophagy pathway. Increased intake of ferulic acid-enriched food is a potential strategy to prevent and/or improve metabolic diseases with lipotoxicity as a typical pathological feature.

Vitamin E protects against cadmium-induced sub-chronic liver injury associated with the inhibition of oxidative stress and activation of Nrf2 pathway

Hepatic oxidative stress, as one important mechanism of cadmium (Cd)-induced hepatic toxicity, could, as known, be ameliorated by vitamin E (VE). However, the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated. To investigate whether the antioxidant vitamin E can protect against Cd-induced sub-chronic liver injury associated with oxidative stress and nuclear factor erythrocyte 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway, male Sprague-Dawley rats (nine-week-old) were randomly divided into four groups (eight rats/group), namely, control, VE (100 mg/kg VE), Cd (5 mg/kg CdCl₂) and VE+Cd (100 mg/kg VE+5 mg/kg CdCl₂), and received intragastric administration of Cd and/or VE for four weeks. Cd-exposure alone resulted in reduced liver weight, liver histological alteration and oxidative stress, accumulation of Cd in the liver, elevated ALT and AST concentrations in serum together with decreased mRNA and protein expressions of Nrf2 pathway related molecules (Nrf2, HO-1, NQO-1, GCLC, GCLM and GST). However, the co-treatment of Cd and VE significantly ameliorated the changes mentioned above, and promoted the expression of genes and proteins of Nrf2 pathway related molecules in comparison to the Cd-exposure alone. Our results indicate that the protective effect of VE against Cd-induced sub-chronic hepatic damage in rats is associated with the inhibition of oxidative stress and activation of Nrf2 pathway.

Dietary Ferulic Acid Supplementation Improves Antioxidant Capacity and Lipid Metabolism in Weaned Piglets

Ferulic acid (FA) is a phenolic compound that has antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antimicrobial, antiviral, and vasodilatory effects. This study was conducted to explore the effects of dietary FA supplementation on antioxidant capacity and lipid metabolism in weaned piglets. Eighteen 21-day-old castrated male DLY (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire) weaned piglets were randomly divided into control, 0.05%, and 0.45% FA groups. The results showed that, in serum, CAT and T-SOD activities and content of HDL-C were increased, but the content of MDA and the activities of T-CHO and LDL-C were decreased, by FA supplementation. In liver, dietary FA supplementation increased CAT, T-SOD, and GSH-PX activities and upregulated the mRNA levels of SOD1, SOD2, CAT, GST, GPX1, GR, Nrf2, HSL, CPT1b, and PPARα but decreased the contents of MDA and TG. Furthermore, dietary FA supplementation increased the protein level of Nrf2, HO-1, and NQO-1. In longissimus dorsi muscle, dietary FA supplementation increased the activity of T-SOD and the mRNA abundance of SOD1, SOD2, CAT, GST, GPX1, GR, and Nrf2 but decreased the contents of MDA and T-CHO. Additionally, dietary FA supplementation increased the protein expressions of Nrf2, HO-1, and NQO1. Together, our data suggest that FA could improve antioxidant capacity and lipid metabolism in weaned piglets.

Hepatoprotective effect of Moringa oleifera leaves aquatic extract against lead acetate-induced liver injury in male Wistar rats

Current research was performed to explore the hepatoprotective potential of Moringa oleifera leaves extract on lead acetate-induced hepatic injury. Twenty-four male Wistar rats were divided equally into 4 groups. The first group was control, while the second, third, and fourth groups were given 200 mg/kg aqueous Moringa extract only, 100 mg/kg lead only, and 100 mg/kg lead plus 200 mg/kg aqueous Moringa leaves extract, respectively, via oral gavage for 4 weeks. Weight gain and feed efficiency ratio were recorded. Serum lipid profiles, liver enzyme activities, and proteins beside hepatic superoxide dismutase activity, reduced glutathione, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and deoxyribonucleic acid fragmentation were assessed. Liver histopathological examination and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) immunohistochemistry were performed. Administration of lead lowered (P < 0.05) weight gain, feed efficiency ratio, and perturbed lipid profile than control. Lead increased liver enzyme activities and TNF-α, while reduced serum proteins and hepatic antioxidant markers compared to control. Lead aggravated hepatic DNA fragmentation beside the presence of histopathological lesions. Co-administration of aqueous Moringa extract with lead significantly alleviated lead-induced adverse effects. The administration of aqueous Moringa extract with its antioxidant significantly restored the lead perturbations through reduction of oxidative stress-induced DNA damage via amelioration of NF-kB and TNF-α which kept hepatocyte integrity and reduced serum hepatic enzyme activities.

Ferulic acid influences Nrf2 activation to restore testicular tissue from cadmium-induced oxidative challenge, inflammation, and apoptosis in rats

Here, we examined the protective effect of ferulic acid (FA) on cadmium chloride (CdCl₂ )-mediated reproductive toxicity in male rats. Animals were divided into four groups: control, FA (20 mg/kg), CdCl₂ (6.5 mg/kg), and FA + CdCl₂ . CdCl₂ treatment evoked a significant increase in testis cadmium concentration in addition to obvious increase in testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone levels. Moreover, CdCl₂ -induced oxidative damage through exhausting the cellular defenses (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione) and downregulating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression accompanied by increases of malondialdehyde and nitric oxide contents. Testicular inflammation was evident indicated by increased levels of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α in CdCl₂ -treated rats. CdCl₂ exposure also decreased the expression of the proliferating cell nuclear antigen and augmented apoptotic events associated with prominent histopathological alterations. However, FA coadministration mitigated the impaired hormonal level, apoptotic and inflammatory injuries elicited by CdCl_2, and maintained the oxidant/antioxidant balance in testicular tissue via Nrf2 activation. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Cadmium is an environmental toxicant and known to cause adverse effects including reproductive toxicity. However, antioxidant application has been found to protect against heavy metals-mediated toxic effects. Here, we examined the potential protective efficacy of ferulic acid against cadmium-mediated testicular impairments through estimating the amount of cadmium in the testis, hormonal profile, oxidative status, inflammatory response, apoptotic and proliferating markers in addition to the histopathological alterations. The obtained findings revealed that ferulic acid supplementation was able to abolish the testicular damages coupled with cadmium exposure. The protective efficiency of ferulic acid may correlated with its strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic activities; suggesting that ferulic acid may be used to ameliorate cadmium-induced testicular deficits.

Hesperidin ameliorates hepatic dysfunction and dyslipidemia in male Wistar rats exposed to cadmium chloride

The ever-increasing human population with attendant industrialization poses serious global health challenge. Cadmium (Cd) with other heavy metals contribute greatly to environmental pollutions and humans are daily exposed to them, leading to diverse ailments. We explored whether Hesperidin (HSP) could protect against hepatic damage and dyslipidemia in Wistar rats exposed to Cd. Forty wistar rats were randomly assigned into five groups (n = 8). Group 1 received 2 mL/kg body weight of normal saline; Group 2 received 100 mg/kg body weight of HSP while Group 3 received 5 mg/kg body weight of Cadmium Chloride (CdCl2) for 28 days. Group 4 received 100 mg/kg body weight of HSP and after 90 min, CdCl2 (5 mg/kg) body weight was administered for 28 days. Group 5 received 50 mg/kg body weight of HSP and after 90 min, CdCl2 (5 mg/kg) body weight was administered for 28 days. The serum lipid profiles, hepatic dysfunction and oxidative stress markers were determined using standard methods. Cd toxicity in rats prominently elevated serum activities of AST, ALT, ALP and levels of total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, cholesterol, LDL-C and malondialdehyde with decreased levels of HDL-C, triglycerides, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione and body weights. The pre-treatment of HSP before Cd intoxication prevented the dysregulated activities of liver enzymes and levels of lipid profiles, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants and other biomarkers investigated, thus suggesting anti-hyperlipidemic and hepato-protective potentials. HSP may have great potentials for development of therapeutics that could enhance the management of dyslipidemia and liver disorders associated with heavy metal exposure.

Rosa persica hydroalcoholic extract improves cadmium-hepatotoxicity by modulating oxidative damage and tumor necrosis factor-alpha status

Rosa persica is a member of the Rosaceae family that has a wide range of pharmacological properties. In this study, the antioxidant and therapeutic potential of this plant was investigated on cadmium (Cd)-induced hepatotoxicity. Rosa persica extract (RPE) was prepared by a maceration method in hydroalcoholic solvent, and its antioxidant properties were determined. Then, 36 mice were divided to six groups and treated for 2 weeks as follows: control, Cd (3 mg/kg), RPE (50 mg/kg), and groups 4-6 received Cd (3 mg/kg) and 12.5, 25, and 50 mg/kg of RPE respectively. The total polyphenol, flavonoids contents, and total antioxidant capacity in RPE were measured 263.4 ± 7.2 mg rutin equivalent/g extract, 72.3 ± 2.3 mg quercetin equivalent/g extract, and 8.46 ± 0.27 μmol ferrous sulfate/g extract, respectively. The in vivo results showed that Cd elicited remarkable hepatic injury that was manifested by the significant increase in serum hepatic enzymes. In addition, Cd significantly increased the levels of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and decreased total thiol molecules (TTM) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in hepatic tissue. However, RPE decreased serum hepatic enzyme levels and improved oxidative hepatic damage by lowering the LPO and TNF-α levels and raising TAC and TTM in in Cd-treated groups. Although the RPE increased the metallothionein (MT) protein content, there was no change in MT gene expression. The present study showed that the RPE due to having antioxidant properties might partially prevent hepatic oxidative damage by the improvement of oxidant/antioxidant balance in animals exposed to Cd.

Comparative in vivo pharmacokinetics study of affeic acid, isoferulic acid and ferulic acid in crude and three different prepared Cimicifuga foetida L

Our study investigated the differences in pharmacokinetics of three major components of crude Cimicifuga foetida L. and its fried product and honey- and liquor-prepared products. A rapid and sensitive ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry approach was established for determing caffeic acid, isoferulic acid and ferulic acid in rat plasma. The approach has good linearity, precision, accuracy, recovery and stability. Phenolic acid was rapidly absorbed. The times to peak concentration were shorter in the processed group than those for the crude product, with their values of <30 min. The peak concentration values of caffeic acid and isoferulic acid were higher in the crude group than in the processed groups (p < 0.05). Area under the curve values of the three phenolics in the crude group were significantly higher than those of the processed groups (p < 0.05).

Screening of the Hepatotoxic Components in Fructus Gardeniae and Their Effects on Rat Liver BRL-3A Cells

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is a common Chinese medicine and food. However, the toxicity of FG has drawn increasing concern, especially its hepatotoxicity. The purpose of this study was to screen the hepatotoxic components of FG and evaluate their effects on rat liver BRL-3A cells. The chemical composition of FG was determined by HPLC-ESI-MS. CCK-8 assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of ten chemical components from FG, and then the toxic components with significant inhibitory activity were selected for further study. The results showed that geniposide, genipin, genipin-1-gentiobioside, gardenoside, and shanzhiside all suppress cells viability. Apoptosis assays further indicated that geniposide and its metabolite genipin are the main hepatotoxic components of FG. Pretreatment of cells with geniposide or genipin increased the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) were decreased, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) level was increased. The cell contents of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and nitric oxide (NO) were also increased. Molecular docking simulations were used to investigate the mechanism of FG-induced hepatotoxicity, revealing that geniposide and genipin bind strongly to the pro-inflammatory factor TNFR1 receptor of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. The obtained results strongly indicate that the hepatotoxicity of FG is caused by iridoids compounds. Genipin had the most significant hepatotoxic effect. These toxic substances destroy the cell antioxidant defense system, increasing inflammatory injury to the liver cells and leading to apoptosis and even necrosis. Thus, this study lays a foundation for toxicology research into FG and its rational application.