The expression of a novel receptor-type tyrosine phosphatase suggests a role in morphogenesis and plasticity of the nervous system

Multi-ligand interactions with receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase beta: implications for intercellular signaling

Receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase beta (RPTP beta) shows structural and functional similarity to cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). It binds to several neuronal CAMs and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins that combine to form cell-recognition complexes. Here, the authors discuss the implications of such complexes for intercellular signaling, and the regulation of RPTP activity by cell-cell and cell-ECM contact.

LAR Tyrosine Phosphatase Receptor: A Developmental Isoform Is Present in Neurites and Growth Cones and Its Expression Is Regional- and Cell-Specific

Transgenic mice and Drosophila mutant studies demonstrate that the leukocyte common antigen-related (LAR) protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPase) receptor is required for formation of neural networks. We assessed the hypothesis that alternative splicing of the LAR extracellular region contributes to this function by establishing temporospatial expression patterns of LAR isoforms containing an alternatively spliced extracellular nine amino acid segment (LAR alternatively spliced element-c; LASE-c). LASE-c was present in multiple alternatively spliced and truncated LAR transcripts. In contrast to LAR isoforms without LASE-c, levels of LAR transcripts and protein isoforms containing LASE-c were primarily present during development, suggesting a mechanism for developmental regulation of LAR function. In situ analysis demonstrated increasingly region- and cell-specific expression of LASE-c during maturation. Immunostaining revealed LASE-c-containing LAR protein along neurites and in growth cones. The discovery of highly regulated, temporospatial extracellular domain alternative splicing of LAR-type PTPase receptors points to a novel mechanism by which these receptors might influence network formation. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.

Expression of a receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase in human glial tumors

We have analyzed expression of a receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTPzeta/beta) in tissue samples from 23 human gliomas. Using the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique, we assayed for the presence or absence of mRNA transcripts encoding the intact receptor and 2 alternatively spliced forms of RPTPzeta/beta. Transcripts encoding the intact and truncated receptors were expressed in all of the lower grade gliomas (WHO grade 1-3) analyzed, but not in 55% of the grade 4 glioblastomas multiforme (GBM). However, this subset of GBMs did express an alternatively spliced secreted form comprised of only the RPTPzeta/beta extracellular domain. Our data suggests there may be a correlation between the loss of transcripts encoding the receptor forms of RPTPzeta/beta and progression from low to high grade gliomas. This work provides additional evidence for the importance of phosphatase isoform expression in human tumors.

Isolation of a tenascin-R binding protein from mouse brain membranes. A phosphacan-related chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan

We have isolated a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan from mouse brain by affinity chromatography with a fragment of the extracellular matrix glycoprotein tenascin-R (TN-R) that comprises the amino-terminal cysteine-rich stretch and the 4.5 epidermal growth factor-like repeats. The isolated chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan has a molecular mass of 500-600 kDa and carries the HNK-1 carbohydrate epitope. Treatment with chondroitinase ABC reveals a major band of approximately 400 kDa and two minor bands at 200 and 150 kDa. Immunoblot analysis relates the molecule to phosphacan but not to the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans neurocan and versican. Binding of the phosphacan-related molecule to the epidermal growth factor-like repeats of TN-R is Ca2+-dependent. Co-localization of the molecule with TN-R in the retina and optic nerve by immunocytochemistry suggests a functional relationship between the two molecules in vivo. Inhibition of neurite outgrowth from hippocampal neurons by the phosphacan-related molecule in vitro is neutralized by TN-R when coated as a uniform substrate. Furthermore, the phosphacan-related molecule neutralizes growth cone repulsion induced by TN-R coated as a sharp substrate boundary with or without prior treatment with chondroitinase ABC. These observations indicate that TN-R can interact with a phosphacan-related molecule and thereby modulate its inhibitory influence on neuritogenesis.

Spatially and temporally regulated modification of the receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase zeta/beta isoforms with keratan sulphate in the developing chick brain

Protein tyrosine phosphatase zeta (PTPzeta/RPTPbeta) is a proteoglycan-type receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase specifically expressed in the brain. In addition to the transmembrane form (PTPzeta-A), the extracellular splice variant (PTPzeta-S) occurs as a major soluble chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan in the brain. We prepared antibodies which specifically recognize PTPzeta-A and -S, and analysed the carbohydrate structures on the two PTPzeta isoforms in the developing chick brain. Immunoprecipitation experiments using these antibodies revealed that almost all of the keratan sulphate recognized by a monoclonal antibody (5D4) was exclusively bound to PTPzeta-A and PTPzeta-S. Addition of keratan sulphate to these proteoglycans markedly increased from embryonic day (E) 11, in contrast to the addition of Le(x) and HNK-1 carbohydrates, which gradually increased during development in accordance with expression of the core proteins, suggesting that keratan sulphate modification plays some specific roles. Moreover, at the early embryonic stage keratan sulphate was observed only in several restricted regions, especially at boundary regions such as the roof plate of the tectum, the zona limitans intrathalamica in the diencephalon, and the mesencephalon-metencephalon boundary. At the mesencephalon-metencephalon boundary, keratan sulphate modification of PTPzeta isoforms was specifically observed from E3 to E6 on a ring of cells encircling the neural tube and their radially oriented processes, which were identified as radial glial fibres. This expression pattern of keratan sulphate spatiotemporally corresponded well to the formation of the fovea isthmi, a groove separating the mesencephalon from the metencephalon. These results suggest that carbohydrates including keratan sulphate on PTPzeta isoforms play important roles in brain development by modulating the cell-cell and/or cell-substrate interactions mediated by these molecules.

Postnatal ontogeny of striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase (STEP) in rat striatum

The present study was undertaken to examine developmental change in expression of striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase (STEP) in the postnatal striatum of rats. For this purpose, immunohistochemical staining and transimmunoblotting analyses were carried out using a cDNA-generated polyclonal antibody to the STEP with a molecular weight of 46 kDa. Immunostaining showed that in neonatal striatum STEP-immunoreactivity was found in discrete patches composed of many immature cells, which corresponded to the tyrosine hydroxylase-immunopositive "dopamine islands." With development there was an increase in staining intensity and in the number of positively reacting cells. By 4 weeks postnatally, STEP-immunoreactivity was almost homogeneously distributed throughout the striatum, as was seen at the adult stage. Immunoblotting analysis showed that STEP protein expression abruptly increased from 2 to 4 weeks postnatally when it reached the adult level. These findings suggest that STEP is involved in development and maturation of the striatal neurons.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase-dependent activation of beta-globin and delta-aminolevulinic acid synthase genes in the camptothecin-induced IW32 erythroleukemia cell differentiation

Camptothecin, an antitumor drug that specifically targets topoisomerase I, induced IW32 erythroleukemia cells to differentiate along the erythroid pathway, as demonstrated by the increased mRNA and protein expression of hemoglobin. Unlike other chemically induced erythroleukemia cell differentiation, no c-myc mRNA down-regulation was observed in the early phases of drug treatment. Among the heme-synthesizing enzyme mRNAs that were analyzed, only that of the erythroid-specific delta-aminolevulinic acid synthase (ALAS-E) was stimulated. Vanadate or benzylphosphonic acid, which inhibited protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPase), blocked the camptothecin-induced differentiation. Maximal inhibition was attained if vanadate was added within the first 6 hr of camptothecin treatment, after which vanadate gradually lost its effectiveness. Camptothecin-induced expression of beta-globin or ALAS-E transcript levels was inhibited in the presence of cycloheximide or vanadate. It was also shown that vanadate blocked differentiation of IW32 cells induced by sodium butyrate, VM-26, and p53. Increased PTPase activity could be observed 48 hr after cells were treated with camptothecin, VM-26, or sodium butyrate. Analysis of PTPase activity in the course of camptothecin treatment showed elevated levels of PTPase in the cytosol and the nucleus, with a greater increase demonstrated in the cytosol than in the nucleus. Our results suggest that by stimulating the beta-globin and ALAS-E gene expression, PTPase plays a critical role in the induced differentiation of IW32 erythroleukemia cells.

Identification of a novel contactin-associated transmembrane receptor with multiple domains implicated in protein-protein interactions

Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase beta (RPTPbeta) expressed on the surface of glial cells binds to the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored recognition molecule contactin on neuronal cells leading to neurite outgrowth. We describe the cloning of a novel contactin-associated transmembrane receptor (p190/Caspr) containing a mosaic of domains implicated in protein-protein interactions. The extracellular domain of Caspr contains a neurophilin/coagulation factor homology domain, a region related to fibrinogen beta/gamma, epidermal growth factor-like repeats, neurexin motifs as well as unique PGY repeats found in a molluscan adhesive protein. The cytoplasmic domain of Caspr contains a proline-rich sequence capable of binding to a subclass of SH3 domains of signaling molecules. Caspr and contactin exist as a complex in rat brain and are bound to each other by means of lateral (cis) interactions in the plasma membrane. We propose that Caspr may function as a signaling component of contactin, enabling recruitment and activation of intracellular signaling pathways in neurons. The binding of RPTPbeta to the contactin-Caspr complex could provide a mechanism for cell-cell communication between glial cells and neurons during development.

Induction of neurite outgrowth through contactin and Nr-CAM by extracellular regions of glial receptor tyrosine phosphatase beta

Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase beta (RPTPbeta) is expressed as soluble and receptor forms with common extracellular regions consisting of a carbonic anhydrase domain (C), a fibronectin type III repeat (F), and a unique region called S. We showed previously that a recombinant Fc fusion protein with the C domain (beta C) binds to contactin and supports neuronal adhesion and neurite growth. As a substrate, betaCFS was less effective in supporting cell adhesion, but it was a more effective promoter of neurite outgrowth than betaCF. betaS had no effect by itself, but it potentiated neurite growth when mixed with betaCF. Neurite outgrowth induced by betaCFS was inhibited by antibodies against Nr-CAM and contactin, and these cell adhesion molecules formed a complex that bound betaCFS. NIH-3T3 cells transfected to express betaCFS on their surfaces induced neuronal differentiation in culture. These results suggest that binding of glial RPTPbeta to the contactin/Nr-CAM complex is important for neurite growth and neuronal differentiation.

RPTP delta and the novel protein tyrosine phosphatase RPTP psi are expressed in restricted regions of the developing central nervous system

Transmembrane receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatases (RPTPs) form a novel and potentially important class of cell regulatory proteins. To identify RPTPs expressed during neural development we have characterized RPTPs transcribed in embryonic day (E)13.5 rat neural tube. Nine different phosphatases, one of which was novel, were identified. We examined the expression of the novel phosphatase, called RPTP psi, and of two other phosphatases, RPTP delta and RPTP mu, whose expression in the developing nervous system has not yet been described in detail. The expression of RPTP mu in small blood capillaries in developing neural tissue is consistent with an involvement in angiogenesis. In contrast, the temporally and spatially regulated expression of RPTP psi and RPTP delta in neuroepithelium suggests a role in early neural development. In the spinal cord, early expression of RPTP delta in the roof plate is followed by its expression in differentiating motor neurons. RPTP psi mRNA is also transiently detectable in the roof plate as well as in floor plate cells. In the telencephalon as well as in the hindbrain at E13.5, the reciprocal expression patterns of RPTP delta and RPTP psi are consistent with a sequential function, RPTP psi exerting its activity in undifferentiated progenitor cells and RPTP delta functioning during neuronal differentiation.

6B4 proteoglycan/phosphacan, an extracellular variant of receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatase zeta/RPTPbeta, binds pleiotrophin/heparin-binding growth-associated molecule (HB-GAM)

A major chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan in the brain, 6B4 proteoglycan/phosphacan, corresponds to the extracellular region of a receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatase, PTPzeta/RPTPbeta. Here, we purified and characterized 6B4 proteoglycan-binding proteins from rat brain. From the CHAPS (3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonic acid) extract of brain microsomal fractions, 18-, 28-, and 40-kDa proteins were specifically isolated using 6B4 proteoglycan-Sepharose. N-terminal amino acid sequencing identified the 18-kDa protein as pleiotrophin/heparin-binding growth-associated molecule (HB-GAM). Scatchard analysis of 6B4 proteoglycan-pleiotrophin binding revealed low (Kd = 3 nM) and high (Kd = 0.25 nM) affinity binding sites. Chondroitinase ABC digestion of the proteoglycan decreased the binding affinities to a single value (Kd = 13 nM) without changing the number of binding sites. This suggested the presence of two subpopulations of the proteoglycan with different chondroitin sulfate structures. Heparin potently inhibited binding of 6B4 proteoglycan to pleiotrophin (IC50 = 3.5 ng/ml). Heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate C inhibited moderately (IC50 = 150 and 400 ng/ml, respectively), but, in contrast, chondroitin sulfate A and keratan sulfate were poor inhibitors (IC50 > 100 microg/ml). Immunofluorescence and immunoblotting analyses indicated that both 6B4 proteoglycan and PTPzeta are located on cortical neurons. Anti-6B4 proteoglycan antibody added to the culture medium suppressed pleiotrophin-induced neurite outgrowth of cortical neurons. These results suggested that interaction between 6B4 proteoglycan and pleiotrophin is required for the action of pleiotrophin, and chondroitin sulfate chains on 6B4 proteoglycan play regulatory roles in its binding.

PRL-1, a protein tyrosine phosphatase, is expressed in neurons and oligodendrocytes in the brain and induced in the cerebral cortex following transient forebrain ischemia

Protein tyrosine phosphorylation is thought to play an important role in the regulation of neural function. We reported previously that CL100, a cytoplasmic type protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP), was induced after transient forebrain ischemia. In the present study, changes in the mRNA levels after ischemia of PRL-1, a cytoplasmic type PTP and immediate-early gene similar to CL100, was examined. In situ hybridization histochemistry showed that PRL-1 mRNA was expressed in normal adult rats in neurons and oligodendrocytes in widespread regions including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum. PRL-1 mRNA was expressed in the developing brains on embryonic days 15 and 19 and postnatal day 1. Northern blot analysis showed that PRL-1 mRNA was induced from 6 h to 9 h after reperfusion in the cerebral cortex of postischemic rats. These findings suggest that PRL-1 plays a role in neurons and oliogodendrocytes, and that expression of PRL-1 mRNA is regulated by a mechanism different from those of other immediate-early genes such as c-fos and c-jun.

Comparison of RPTP zeta/beta, phosphacan, and trkB mRNA expression in the developing and adult rat nervous system and induction of RPTP zeta/beta and phosphacan mRNA following brain injury

The receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP) zeta/beta and a major isoform, phosphacan, a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan that contains the RPTP zeta/beta extracellular domain but not the transmembrane and intracellular phosphatase domains, are expressed abundantly in the nervous system, primarily by astroglia. Because of similarities in the expression patterns of RPTP zeta/beta and the receptor tyrosine kinase TrkB, we investigated whether RNAs encoding these proteins were co-localized during development, which would suggest that these molecules might functionally interact in vivo. By in-situ hybridization, we noted extensive areas of overlap in the expression of trkB and RPTP zeta/beta mRNAs in the developing peripheral and central nervous systems. Analysis with a probe specific for the catalytic TrkB isoform suggested that RPTP zeta/beta and non-catalytic trkB mRNAs were co-expressed in particular regions of the nervous system while the catalytic trkB and RPTP zeta/beta transcripts were also, but to a lesser extent. RPTP zeta/beta and phosphacan expression were extremely similar, differing particularly in the level of expression in the ventricular and subventricular zones, hippocampus, and ependyma. Furthermore, both RPTP zeta/beta and phosphacan mRNAs were found in several subsets of neurons as well as astrocytes. Following CNS injury, we observed robust induction of RPTP zeta/beta mRNA in areas of axonal sprouting, and of both RPTP zeta/beta and phosphacan mRNAs in areas of glial scarring, implying that the encoded proteins and the cell adhesion molecules and extracellular matrix proteins to which they bind may contribute to recovery from injury and perhaps regulation of axonal regrowth in the nervous system.

PTP-NP, a new member of the receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase family, implicated in development of nervous system and pancreatic endocrine cells

The regulation of protein tyrosine phosphorylation is an important mechanism for developmental control. We describe here a new member of the protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) family, called PTP-NP (for neural and pancreatic). The cDNA sequence indicates a receptor-type transmembrane molecule. At early organogenesis, in situ hybridization with a probe for the PTP-NP extracellular region detects expression confined to the region of the developing pancreas, an organ of medical importance, but poorly understood with regard to molecular mechanisms of developmental control. This localized expression appears early, even before morphological differentiation of the pancreas, and is found in presumptive precursors of the endocrine cells by the earliest times that they can be distinguished. In neural development, an alternate RNA with a different or missing extracellular region is expressed transiently at early stages of neurogenesis and the full-length PTP-NP RNA appears later. To search for a ligand of PTP-NP, a fusion protein probe was made with the extracellular domain fused to an alkaline phosphatase tag. This probe bound strongly to pancreatic islets, providing evidence for a ligand-receptor interaction that could be involved in endocrine cell regulation. The results show PTP-NP is an especially early marker for pancreatic development and suggest it may be a receptor that could control the development of pancreatic endocrine cells.

Cloning and Expression of Chicken Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Gamma

A 5,403 bp cDNA encoding chicken protein tyrosine phosphatase gamma (PTPgamma) was isolated and sequenced. The predicted open reading frame of 1,422 amino acids (aa) includes 742 aa of extracellular (EC) domain, 26 aa of transmembrane (TM) domain and 634 aa of intracellular domain. The chicken PTPgamma has a 86.7% aa identity to its human homolog and contains the carbonic anhydrase-like domain and fibronectin type III homologous regions in the EC domain, as well as the tandem linked catalytic sequences in the cytoplasmic domain. However, the chicken PTPgamma lacks 29 aa immediate downstream of the putative TM domain in comparison with its human counterpart. Northern analysis revealed the presence of two transcripts of 6.3 and 9.5 kb in various tissues. The cytoplasmic domain of the PTPgamma could be expressed as an enzymatically active form in SF9 insect cells. PTPgamma could also be expressed in normal and rsc-transformed NIH3T3 and Rat 1 cells as a gag-PTP fusion protein, but no detectable effects on growth and colony formation of these cells were observed. Copyright 1996 S. Karger AG, Basel

Three forms of RPTP-beta are differentially expressed during gliogenesis in the developing rat brain and during glial cell differentiation in culture

In situ hybridization and Northern analysis demonstrate that the three splicing variants of RPTP-beta have different spatial and temporal patterns of expression in the developing brain. The 9.5-kb and 6.4-kb transcripts, which encode transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatases with different extracellular domains, are predominantly expressed in glial progenitors located in the subventricular zone (SVZ). The 8.4-kb transcript, which encodes a secreted chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (phosphacan), is expressed at high levels by more mature glia that have migrated out of the SVZ. The three transcripts are also differentially expressed in glial cell cultures; O2A progenitors express high levels of the 9.5- and 8.4-kb transcript, whereas type 1 astrocyte progenitors predominantly express the 6.4-kb transcript. C6 gliomas also express high levels of the 6.4-kb transcript. Treating C6 cells with the differentiating agent dibutyryl cyclic-AMP (DBcAMP), induces a decrease in the 6.4-kb transcript and a corresponding increase in the 8.4-kb transcript. O2A cells grown in the presence of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) remain highly proliferative and undifferentiated, and continue to express high levels of RPTP-beta. However, when O2A cells are grown in conditions that induce oligodendrocyte differentiation, there is a marked decrease in the expression of the transmembrane forms of RPTP-beta, as determined by immunofluorescence. These results demonstrate that RPTP-beta expression is regulated during glial cell differentiation and suggest that the different forms of RPTP-beta perform distinct functions during brain development.

Characterization of chicken protein tyrosine phosphatase alpha and its expression in the central nervous system

Protein tyrosine phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are important in cell proliferation, differentiation and functioning of the central nervous system. We have identified a cDNA clone encoding a new transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase from a chicken brain cDNA library. The predicted amino acid sequence contains two phosphatase tandem repeats in the intracellular domain and multiple glycosylation sites in the extracellular domain. Since its intracellular domain shares 94% identity with human PTP alpha, we call it chicken PTP alpha (ChPTP alpha). Antibodies specific to ChPTP alpha recognize two major protein bands at 130 and 85 kDa in immunoblot and immunoprecipitation. ChPTP alpha transcript and protein are found in many tissues, but they are particularly abundant in brain. To gain insight into the function of PTP alpha s, we investigated the cell-type specific localization of ChPTP alpha in cerebellum by in situ hybridization and immunostaining. Throughout development, the level of ChPTP alpha remains similar from embryonic day 7 to post-hatching day 14, but the abundance and distribution of cells expressing this protein vary systematically through this period. During development, ChPTP alpha appears in pre-migratory and migrating granule cells, and in Bergmann glia and their radial processes. By 2-weeks after hatching, ChPTP alpha disappears from all cells of the cerebellum except Bergmann glia. Our data, which show for the first time the temporal and spacial distribution of a PTP alpha, suggest that these transmembrane phosphatases are important in the differentiation and function of Bergmann glia and in the migration of granule cells, and thereby play a role in development of the cerebellum.

Expression of polypeptide variants of receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase beta: the secreted form, phosphacan, increases dramatically during embryonic development and modulates glial cell behavior in vitro

Glial cells express three splicing variants of a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase called RPTP beta. Two are receptor forms that differ in a large extracellular domain. The third is a secreted proteoglycan called phosphacan that lacks the cytoplasmic phosphatase domains. We have now identified, by immunoblotting, proteins corresponding to these three forms of RPTP beta in rat C6 glioma cells and brain. The short receptor form is much more prevalent than the full-length receptor in C6 glioma cells. Phosphacan is much more abundant than either of the receptor forms in rat brain, and its expression increases progressively during embryonic development, while the receptor forms show only moderate changes. In contrast to the long form and phosphacan that were detected as proteoglycans, the short receptor form, lacking the large alternatively spliced domain, was not detected as a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan. We recently showed that phosphacan binds to the neuron-glia cell adhesion molecule, Ng-CAM, and we now report that glia expressing RPTP beta adhere and extend processes on substrates coated with Ng-CAM. After one day in culture, however, the glia retract their processes and often lift off the substrate. Conditioned medium from glial cells, which contains large amounts of phosphacan, inhibits glial adhesion to Ng-CAM, and depletion of phosphacan from the conditioned medium by immunoadsorption reduces the inhibitory activity. The results show that phosphacan increases dramatically during development, and indicate that secreted forms of RPTP beta can modulate glial cell adhesion and behavior.

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in the developing central nervous system. I. cellular sites of synthesis of neurocan and phosphacan

We have used in situ hybridization histochemistry to examine the cellular sites of synthesis of two major nervous tissue proteoglycans, neurocan and phosphacan, in embryonic and postnatal rat brain and spinal cord. Both proteoglycans were detected only in nervous tissue. Neurocan mRNA was evident in neurons, including cerebellar granule cells and Purkinje cells, and in neurons of the hippocampal formation and cerebellar nuclei. In contrast, phosphacan message was detected only in astroglia, such as the Golgi epithelial cells of the cerebellum. At embryonic day 13-16, phosphacan mRNA is largely confined to areas of active cell proliferation (e.g., the ventricular zone of the ganglionic eminence and septal area of the brain and the ependymal layer surrounding the central canal of the spinal cord) as well as being present in the roof plate. The distribution of neurocan message is more widespread, extending to the cortex, hippocampal formation, caudate putamen, and basal telencephalic neuroepithelium, and neurocan mRNA is present in both the ependymal and mantle layers of the spinal cord but not in the roof plate. The presence of neurocan mRNA in areas where the proteoglycan is not expressed suggests that the short open reading frame in the 5'-leader of neurocan may function as a cis-acting regulatory signal for the modulation of neurocan expression in the developing central nervous system.

Expression of rat cathepsin S in phagocytic cells

Cysteine lysosomal proteases are essential for turnover of intracellular and extracellular proteins. These enzymes are strongly implicated in normal and pathological processes involving tissue remodeling. Among the cysteine proteases, cathepsin S seems to be best suited for such a process since it retains most of its enzymatic activity at neutral pH. In situ hybridization analyses of the adult rat brain, spleen, and lung reveal that cathepsin S mRNA is preferentially expressed in cells of mononuclear-phagocytic origin. After entorhinal cortex lesion of adult rat brain (a paradigm for neuronal degeneration and reactive synaptogenesis), cathepsin S mRNA is dramatically increased in activated microglia in the deafferented dentate gyrus and in macrophages at the wound site, suggesting a role in lesion-induced tissue remodeling. This possibility is further supported by the finding that cathepsin S degrades a number of extracellular matrix molecules at neutral pH and by the finding that inflammatory mediators stimulate its secretion from the microglia and macrophages. These data suggest that cathepsin S is an important player in degenerative disorders associated with the cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system.

6B4 proteoglycan/phosphacan is a repulsive substratum but promotes morphological differentiation of cortical neurons

6B4 proteoglycan/phosphacan is one of the major phosphate-buffered saline-soluble chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans of the brain. Recently, this molecule has been demonstrated to be an extracellular variant of the proteoglycan-type protein tyrosine phosphatase, PTPzeta (RPTPbeta). The influence of the 6B4 proteoglycan, adsorbed onto the substratum, on cell adhesion and neurite outgrowth was studied using dissociated neurons from the cerebral cortex and thalamus. 6B4 proteoglycan adsorbed onto plastic tissue culture dishes did not support neuronal cell adhesion, but rather exerted repulsive effects on cortical and thalamic neurons. When neurons were densely seeded on patterned substrata consisting of a grid-like structure of alternating poly-L-lysine and 6B4 proteoglycan-coated poly-L-lysine domains, they were concentrated on the poly-L-lysine domains. However, 6B4 proteoglycan did not retard the differentiation of neurons but rather promoted neurite outgrowth and development of the dendrites of cortical neurons, when neurons were sparsely seeded on poly-L-lysine-conditioned coverslips continuously coated with 6B4 proteoglycan. This effect of 6B4 proteoglycan on the neurite extension of cortical neurons was apparent even on coverslips co-coated with fibronectin or tenascin. By contrast, the neurite extension of thalamic neurons was not modified by 6B4 proteoglycan. Chondroitinase ABC or keratanase digestion of 6B4 proteoglycan did not affect its neurite outgrowth promoting activity, but a polyclonal antibody against 6B4 proteoglycan completely suppressed this activity, suggesting that a protein moiety is responsible for the activity. 6B4 proteoglycan transiently promoted tyrosine phosphorylation of an 85x10(3) Mr protein in the cortical neurons, which correlated with the induction of neurite outgrowth. These results suggest that 6B4 proteoglycan/phosphacan modulates morphogenesis and differentiation of neurons dependent on its spatiotemporal distribution and the cell types in the brain.

Immunocytochemical localization of the striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase in the rat striatum: a light and electron microscopic study with a complementary DNA-generated polyclonal antibody

The present study concerns the immunocytochemical localization of the striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase in the rat striatum. A novel molecular biology technique allowed us to produce a complementary DNA-generated polyclonal antibody raised against the non-catalytic domain of the striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase, which selectively recognized the striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase protein with 46,000 mol. wt on western blots. Immunocytochemical analysis with the specific antibody revealed strong striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase immunoreactivity in the striatum. Light microscopy showed striatal striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase-immunopositive neurons to be of medium size (mean diameter of 14.4 microns), and to comprise approximately 80% of the total neuronal population in the striatum. These cells had round, triangular or polygonal cell bodies with relatively little cytoplasm. Nerve fibers stained positively for striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase were also present in the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra, and the nigral labeling on the ipsilateral side almost disappeared subsequent to cerebral hemitransection, suggesting these immunolabeled structures to be striatal projections. Double-immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated separate populations of striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase-positive cells and neurons stained for parvalbumin. Also, ultrastructural study showed that the striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase-positive neurons (n = 50) possessed no nuclear indentations or intranuclear inclusions. Thus, most striatal striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase-positive neurons were thought to be of the medium-sized spinous type. At the light microscopic level, stained striatal neurons exhibited striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase immunolabeling in their somata, dendrites and axonal processes, but not in their nuclei. Electron microscopic observation showed strong striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase-immunoreactivity on the inner surface of the plasmalemma, on the outer surfaces of mitochondria and on microtubules, particularly of dendrites. A heavy deposit of immunoreaction product was also present on postsynaptic densities in labeled dendrites, while a light deposit was seen on the synaptic vesicles of nerve terminals. The characteristic distribution profile of striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase suggested that the enzyme may play a role in a variety of functional properties of striatal neurons, especially in postsynaptic signaling processes and in regulation of microtubular functions. On the basis of the present findings, we propose the following conclusions: (i) a protein tyrosine phosphorylation system regulated by striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase is involved in certain specialized cellular processes (e.g. signal transduction cascades) of medium-sized spinous neurons distinct from those of other neuronal subsets in the striatum; (ii) a striatal medium spiny neuron is characterized by its expression of striatal enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase and, therefore, the enzyme is useful for detection of the distinct subset of striatal cells or for tracing their axonal projection fibers in the basal ganglia.

The carbonic anhydrase domain of receptor tyrosine phosphatase beta is a functional ligand for the axonal cell recognition molecule contactin

Receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase beta (RPTP beta) is expressed in the developing nervous system and contains a carbonic anhydrase (CAH) domain as well as a fibronectin type III repeat in its extracellular domain. Fusion proteins containing these domains were used to search for ligands of RPTP beta. The CAH domain bound specifically to a 140 kDa protein expressed on the surface of neuronal cells. Expression cloning in COS7 cells revealed that this protein is contactin, a GPI membrane-anchored neuronal cell recognition molecule. The CAH domain of RPTP beta induced cell adhesion and neurite growth of primary tectal neurons, and differentiation of neuroblastoma cells. These responses were blocked by antibodies against contactin, demonstrating that contactin is a neuronal receptor for RPTP beta. These experiments show that an individual domain of RPTP beta acts as a functional ligand for the neuronal receptor contactin. The interaction between contactin and RPTP beta may generate unidirectional or bidirectional signals during neural development.

Expression of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase-sigma (RPTP-sigma) in the nervous system of the developing and adult rat

The expression of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase-sigma (RPTP-sigma) mRNA during rat development was examined by Northern blot and in situ hybridization analyses. Northern blot analysis revealed that the two transcripts (5.7 kb and 6.9 kb) had different spatial and temporal patterns of expression. The 6.9-kb transcript was more abundant during embryonic development, whereas the 5.7-kb transcript was more abundant during postnatal development and in the adult. In situ hybridization revealed that RPTP-sigma mRNA was widely expressed throughout the central and peripheral nervous system during embryonic development. Very high levels were seen in the ventricular zone, subventricular zone, cortex, dorsal root ganglia, cranial nerve ganglia, olfactory epithelium, and retina. During postnatal development the level of expression decreased in most brain regions. However, high levels continued to be seen in the hippocampus. Emulsion autoradiography revealed that the majority of RPTP-sigma mRNA is expressed in neurons. Northern analysis showed that cultured glial cells expressed the 6.9-kb transcript, but not the 5.7-kb. RPTP-sigma mRNA expression profiles were clearly distinct from those of leukocyte antigen-related protein (LAR), a closely related RPTP. The spatiotemporal pattern of RPTP-sigma mRNA expression indicates that RPTP-sigma may play a role in the development of the nervous system.

Axonal localisation of the CAM-like tyrosine phosphatase CRYP alpha: a signalling molecule of embryonic growth cones

Migrating embryonic growth cones require multiple, membrane-associated signalling molecules to monitor and respond to guidance cues. Here we present the first evidence that vertebrate cell adhesion molecule-like protein tyrosine phosphatases are likely to be components of this signalling system. CRYP alpha, the gene for an avian cell adhesion molecule-like phosphatase, is strongly expressed in the embryonic nervous system. In this study we have immunolocalised the protein in the early chick embryo and demonstrated its predominant localisation in axons of the central and peripheral nervous systems. This location suggests that the major, early role of the enzyme is in axonal development. In a study of sensory neurites in culture, we furthermore show that this phosphatase localises in migrating growth cones, within both the lamellipodia and filopodia. The dependence of growth cone migration on both cell adhesion and signalling through phosphotyrosine turnover, places the cell adhesion molecule-like CRYP alpha phosphatase in a position to be a regulator of these processes.

Nucleotide sequence and molecular variants of rat receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase-zeta/beta

We have previously described the cloning of phosphacan, a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan of nervous tissue which interacts with neurons, glia, neural cell adhesion molecules, and tenascin, and represents the extracellular domain of a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase. We now report the complete cDNA and deduced amino acid sequences of the rat transmembrane phosphatase, and demonstrate that the phosphatase and the extracellular proteoglycan have different 3'-untranslated regions. Northern analysis showed three probable splice variants, comprising the extracellular proteoglycan (phosphacan) and long and short forms of the transmembrane phosphatase. PCR studies of rat genomic DNA indicated that there are no introns at the putative 5' and 3' splice sites or in the 2.6 kb segment which is deleted in the short transmembrane protein. Using variant-specific riboprobes corresponding to sequences in the 3'-untranslated region of phosphacan and in the first or second phosphatase domains of the transmembrane protein, in situ hybridization histochemistry of embryonic rat brain and spinal cord and early postnatal cerebellum demonstrated identical localizations of phosphacan and phosphatase mRNAs.

Interactions of the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan phosphacan, the extracellular domain of a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase, with neurons, glia, and neural cell adhesion molecules

Phosphacan is a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan produced by glial cells in the central nervous system, and represents the extracellular domain of a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP zeta/beta). We previously demonstrated that soluble phosphacan inhibited the aggregation of microbeads coated with N-CAM or Ng-CAM, and have now found that soluble 125I-phosphacan bound reversibly to these neural cell adhesion molecules, but not to a number of other cell surface and extracellular matrix proteins. The binding was saturable, and Scatchard plots indicated a single high affinity binding site with a Kd of approximately 0.1 nM. Binding was reduced by approximately 15% after chondroitinase treatment, and free chondroitin sulfate was only moderately inhibitory, indicating that the phosphacan core glycoprotein accounts for most of the binding activity. Immunocytochemical studies of embryonic rat spinal phosphacan, Ng-CAM, and N-CAM have overlapping distributions. When dissociated neurons were incubated on dishes coated with combinations of phosphacan and Ng-CAM, neuronal adhesion and neurite growth were inhibited. 125I-phosphacan bound to neurons, and the binding was inhibited by antibodies against Ng-CAM and N-CAM, suggesting that these CAMs are major receptors for phosphacan on neurons. C6 glioma cells, which express phosphacan, adhered to dishes coated with Ng-CAM, and low concentrations of phosphacan inhibited adhesion to Ng-CAM but not to laminin and fibronectin. Our studies suggest that by binding to neural cell adhesion molecules, and possibly also by competing for ligands of the transmembrane phosphatase, phosphacan may play a major role in modulating neuronal and glial adhesion, neurite growth, and signal transduction during the development of the central nervous system.

Isoforms of a novel cell adhesion molecule-like protein tyrosine phosphatase are implicated in neural development

The controlled development of embryo cells depends on their ability to monitor and respond to dynamic microenvironmental signals. This is frequently effected through membrane-associated receptor proteins which signal directly or indirectly through protein tyrosine phosphorylation. A search for such proteins in the developing nervous system of the chick has identified a new receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase (R-PTP) gene which may be responsible in part for this signalling. This gene, named CRYP alpha, is related to the LAR subfamily of R-PTPs and has extracellular homology to the neural cell adhesion molecules (CAMs). The gene is widely expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, with particularly strong expression in motor neurons and in brain subregions such as the optic tectum and hypothalamus. Expression is seen both in early proliferating neuroepithelia and in subsets of post-mitotic nerve cells. Moreover, tissue-specific and developmentally-regulated exon use has been found in the brain, suggesting that isoforms of the R-PTP protein have stage-specific neural roles. This alternative RNA splicing event affects the encoded structure of the CAM-like domain, which may in turn influence its ligand binding properties. The novel, regulated expression of this R-PTP gene suggests that it plays a role in early neural development, and that the signalling properties of the encoded phosphatase can be modified according to the differentiated state of the cells.

Phosphacan, a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan of brain that interacts with neurons and neural cell-adhesion molecules, is an extracellular variant of a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase

We have identified cDNA clones encoding a chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan of rat brain (previously designated 3F8 and now named phosphacan) that binds to neurons and neural cell-adhesion molecules. A sequence of 1616 amino acids deduced from a 4.8-kb open reading frame contains the N-terminal amino acid sequence of the 3F8 core glycoprotein as well as four internal CNBr, tryptic, and endoproteinase Lys-C peptide sequences from the proteoglycan. The deduced amino acid sequence, beginning with a 24-amino acid signal peptide, reveals an N-terminal domain of 255 amino acids homologous to carbonic anhydrases. The entire amino acid sequence deduced from our cDNA clones corresponds to the extracellular portion of a human receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP zeta/beta) with which it has 76% identity, and the proteoglycan may represent an mRNA splicing variant of the larger transmembrane protein. RNA analysis demonstrated that a probe to the N-terminal carbonic anhydrase domain of the proteoglycan hybridizes with rat brain mRNA of 9.5, 8.4, and 6.4 kb, whereas probes to the phosphatase domains hybridize with only the 9.5-kb message and with the 6.4-kb message (which corresponds to a previously identified variant of the transmembrane protein in which half of the extracellular domain is deleted). The 30 N-terminal amino acids of the 3H1 chondroitin/keratan sulfate proteoglycan of brain are identical to those of the 3F8 proteoglycan, and six internal tryptic peptide sequences also matched those found in sequenced peptides of the 3F8 proteoglycan and/or amino acid sequences deduced from the cDNA clones. We therefore conclude that the 3H1 chondroitin/keratan sulfate proteoglycan and the 3F8 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan represent glycosylation and possible extracellular splicing variants of a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase. These proteoglycans may modulate cell interactions and other developmental processes in nervous tissue through heterophilic binding to cell-surface and extracellular matrix molecules, and by competition with ligands of the transmembrane phosphatase.