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León R, Garcia AG, Marco-Contelles J. Recent advances in the multitarget-directed ligands approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Med Res Rev 2011; 33:139-89. [PMID: 21793014 DOI: 10.1002/med.20248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 354] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
With 27 million cases worldwide documented in 2006, Alzheimer's disease (AD) constitutes an overwhelming health, social, economic, and political problem to nations. Unless a new medicine capable to delay disease progression is found, the number of cases will reach 107 million in 2050. So far, the therapeutic paradigm one-compound-one-target has failed. This could be due to the multiple pathogenic mechanisms involved in AD including amyloid β (Aβ) aggregation to form plaques, τ hyperphosphorylation to disrupt microtubule to form neurofibrillary tangles, calcium imbalance, enhanced oxidative stress, impaired mitochondrial function, apoptotic neuronal death, and deterioration of synaptic transmission, particularly at cholinergic neurons. Approximately 100 compounds are presently been investigated directed to single targets, namely inhibitors of β and γ secretase, vaccines or antibodies that clear Aβ, metal chelators to inhibit Aβ aggregation, blockers of glycogen synthase kinase 3β, enhancers of mitochondrial function, antioxidants, modulators of calcium-permeable channels such as voltage-dependent calcium channels, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors for glutamate, or enhancers of cholinergic neurotransmission such as inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase or butyrylcholinesterase. In view of this complex pathogenic mechanisms, and the successful treatment of chronic diseases such as HIV or cancer, with multiple drugs having complementary mechanisms of action, the concern is growing that AD could better be treated with a single compound targeting two or more of the pathogenic mechanisms leading to neuronal death. This review summarizes the current therapeutic strategies based on the paradigm one-compound-various targets to treat AD. A treatment that delays disease onset and/or progression by 5 years could halve the number of people requiring institutionalization and/or dying from AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael León
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, Lensfield road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom.
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Vančová O, Bačiak L, Kašparová S, Kucharská J, Palacios HH, Horecký J, Aliev G. In vivo and in vitro assessment of brain bioenergetics in aging rats. J Cell Mol Med 2011; 14:2667-74. [PMID: 19906014 PMCID: PMC4373491 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2009.00879.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain energy disorders can be present in aged men and animals. To this respect, the mitochondrial and free radical theory of aging postulates that age-associated brain energy disorders are caused by an imbalance between pro- and anti-oxidants that can result in oxidative stress. Our study was designed to investigate brain energy metabolism and the activity of endogenous antioxidants during their lifespan in male Wistar rats. In vivo brain bioenergetics were measured using 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and in vitro by polarographic analysis of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. When compared to the young controls, a significant decrease of age-dependent mitochondrial respiration and adenosine-3-phosphate (ATP) production measured in vitro correlated with significant reduction of forward creatine kinase reaction (kfor) and with an increase in phosphocreatine (PCr)/ATP, PCr/Pi and PME/ATP ratio measured in vivo. The levels of enzymatic antioxidants catalase, GPx and GST significantly decreased in the brain tissue as well as in the peripheral blood of aged rats. We suppose that mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative inactivation of endogenous enzymes may participate in age-related disorders of brain energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ol'ga Vančová
- Pharmacobiochemical Laboratory, Comenius University School of Medicine, Bratislava, Slovakia
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Majd S, Smardencas A, Parish CL, Drago J. Development of an in vitro model to evaluate the regenerative capacity of adult brain-derived tyrosine hydroxylase-expressing dopaminergic neurons. Neurochem Res 2011; 36:967-77. [PMID: 21380845 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-011-0435-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 02/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The loss of nigral dopaminergic (DA) neurons is the disease-defining pathological change responsible for progressive motor dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. In this study, we sought to establish a culture method for adult rat tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive DA neurons. In this context, we investigated the role of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), transforming growth factor-β3 (TGF-β3), glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and dibutyryl-cyclic AMP (dbcAMP) in these cultures. Culturing in the presence of FGF2, BDNF and GDNF enhanced the survival of DA neurons by 15-fold and promoted neurite growth. In contrast, dbcAMP promoted neurite growth in all neurons but did not enhance DA cell survival. This study demonstrates that long-term cultures of DA neurons can be established from the mature rat brain and that survival and regeneration of DA neurons can be manipulated by epigenetic factors such as growth factors and intracellular cAMP pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shohreh Majd
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Royal Parade, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
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Ravera S, Panfoli I, Aluigi MG, Calzia D, Morelli A. Characterization of Myelin Sheath F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase and its regulation by IF(1). Cell Biochem Biophys 2011; 59:63-70. [PMID: 20809181 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-010-9112-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase is the nanomotor responsible for most of ATP synthesis in the cell. In physiological conditions, it carries out ATP synthesis thanks to a proton gradient generated by the respiratory chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. We previously reported that isolated myelin vesicles (IMV) contain functional F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase and respiratory chain complexes and are able to conduct an aerobic metabolism, to support the axonal energy demand. In this study, by biochemical assay, Western Blot (WB) analysis and immunofluorescence microscopy, we characterized the IMV F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase. ATP synthase activity decreased in the presence of the specific inhibitors (olygomicin, DCCD, FCCP, valynomicin/nigericin) and respiratory chain inhibitors (antimycin A, KCN), suggesting a coupling of oxygen consumption and ATP synthesis. ATPase activity was inhibited in low pH conditions. WB and microscopy analyses of both IMV and optic nerves showed that the Inhibitor of F(1) (IF(1)), a small protein that binds the F(1) moiety in low pH when of oxygen supply is impaired, is expressed in myelin sheath. Data are discussed in terms of the role of IF(1) in the prevention of the reversal of ATP synthase in myelin sheath during central nervous system ischemic events. Overall, data are consistent with an energetic role of myelin sheath, and may shed light on the relationship among demyelination and axonal degeneration.
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Chauhan A, Gu F, Essa MM, Wegiel J, Kaur K, Brown WT, Chauhan V. Brain region-specific deficit in mitochondrial electron transport chain complexes in children with autism. J Neurochem 2011; 117:209-20. [PMID: 21250997 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07189.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria play important roles in generation of free radicals, ATP formation, and in apoptosis. We studied the levels of mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) complexes, that is, complexes I, II, III, IV, and V, in brain tissue samples from the cerebellum and the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal cortices of subjects with autism and age-matched control subjects. The subjects were divided into two groups according to their ages: Group A (children, ages 4-10 years) and Group B (adults, ages 14-39 years). In Group A, we observed significantly lower levels of complexes III and V in the cerebellum (p<0.05), of complex I in the frontal cortex (p<0.05), and of complexes II (p<0.01), III (p<0.01), and V (p<0.05) in the temporal cortex of children with autism as compared to age-matched control subjects, while none of the five ETC complexes was affected in the parietal and occipital cortices in subjects with autism. In the cerebellum and temporal cortex, no overlap was observed in the levels of these ETC complexes between subjects with autism and control subjects. In the frontal cortex of Group A, a lower level of ETC complexes was observed in a subset of autism cases, that is, 60% (3/5) for complexes I, II, and V, and 40% (2/5) for complexes III and IV. A striking observation was that the levels of ETC complexes were similar in adult subjects with autism and control subjects (Group B). A significant increase in the levels of lipid hydroperoxides, an oxidative stress marker, was also observed in the cerebellum and temporal cortex in the children with autism. These results suggest that the expression of ETC complexes is decreased in the cerebellum and the frontal and temporal regions of the brain in children with autism, which may lead to abnormal energy metabolism and oxidative stress. The deficits observed in the levels of ETC complexes in children with autism may readjust to normal levels by adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abha Chauhan
- NYS Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA.
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Listeria monocytogenes transiently alters mitochondrial dynamics during infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:3612-7. [PMID: 21321208 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1100126108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are essential and highly dynamic organelles, constantly undergoing fusion and fission. We analyzed mitochondrial dynamics during infection with the human bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes and show that this infection profoundly alters mitochondrial dynamics by causing transient mitochondrial network fragmentation. Mitochondrial fragmentation is specific to pathogenic Listeria monocytogenes, and it is not observed with the nonpathogenic Listeria innocua species or several other intracellular pathogens. Strikingly, the efficiency of Listeria infection is affected in cells where either mitochondrial fusion or fission has been altered by siRNA treatment, highlighting the relevance of mitochondrial dynamics for Listeria infection. We identified the secreted pore-forming toxin listeriolysin O as the bacterial factor mainly responsible for mitochondrial network disruption and mitochondrial function modulation. Together, our results suggest that the transient shutdown of mitochondrial function and dynamics represents a strategy used by Listeria at the onset of infection to interfere with cellular physiology.
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Cunnane S, Nugent S, Roy M, Courchesne-Loyer A, Croteau E, Tremblay S, Castellano A, Pifferi F, Bocti C, Paquet N, Begdouri H, Bentourkia M, Turcotte E, Allard M, Barberger-Gateau P, Fulop T, Rapoport SI. Brain fuel metabolism, aging, and Alzheimer's disease. Nutrition 2011; 27:3-20. [PMID: 21035308 PMCID: PMC3478067 DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2010.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 408] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2010] [Revised: 07/28/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Lower brain glucose metabolism is present before the onset of clinically measurable cognitive decline in two groups of people at risk of Alzheimer's disease--carriers of apolipoprotein E4, and in those with a maternal family history of AD. Supported by emerging evidence from in vitro and animal studies, these reports suggest that brain hypometabolism may precede and therefore contribute to the neuropathologic cascade leading to cognitive decline in AD. The reason brain hypometabolism develops is unclear but may include defects in brain glucose transport, disrupted glycolysis, and/or impaired mitochondrial function. Methodologic issues presently preclude knowing with certainty whether or not aging in the absence of cognitive impairment is necessarily associated with lower brain glucose metabolism. Nevertheless, aging appears to increase the risk of deteriorating systemic control of glucose utilization, which, in turn, may increase the risk of declining brain glucose uptake, at least in some brain regions. A contributing role of deteriorating glucose availability to or metabolism by the brain in AD does not exclude the opposite effect, i.e., that neurodegenerative processes in AD further decrease brain glucose metabolism because of reduced synaptic functionality and hence reduced energy needs, thereby completing a vicious cycle. Strategies to reduce the risk of AD by breaking this cycle should aim to (1) improve insulin sensitivity by improving systemic glucose utilization, or (2) bypass deteriorating brain glucose metabolism using approaches that safely induce mild, sustainable ketonemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Cunnane
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada.
| | - Scott Nugent
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Maggie Roy
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Alexandre Courchesne-Loyer
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Etienne Croteau
- Department of Radiobiology and Nuclear Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Sébastien Tremblay
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Radiobiology and Nuclear Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Alex Castellano
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | | | - Christian Bocti
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Nancy Paquet
- Department of Radiobiology and Nuclear Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Hadi Begdouri
- Department of Radiobiology and Nuclear Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - M'hamed Bentourkia
- Department of Radiobiology and Nuclear Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Eric Turcotte
- Department of Radiobiology and Nuclear Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Michèle Allard
- UMR CNRS 5231 and Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, France
| | - Pascale Barberger-Gateau
- INSERM U897, Bordeaux F-33076, France; Université Victor Segalen Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux F-33076, France
| | - Tamas Fulop
- Research Center on Aging, Health and Social Services Center-Sherbrooke University Geriatrics Institute, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada; Department of Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
| | - Stanley I Rapoport
- Brain Physiology and Metabolism Section, National Institute of Aging, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Gong Y, Chai Y, Ding JH, Sun XL, Hu G. Chronic mild stress damages mitochondrial ultrastructure and function in mouse brain. Neurosci Lett 2011; 488:76-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Azarashvili T, Stricker R, Reiser G. The mitochondria permeability transition pore complex in the brain with interacting proteins - promising targets for protection in neurodegenerative diseases. Biol Chem 2010; 391:619-29. [PMID: 20370325 DOI: 10.1515/bc.2010.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria increasingly attract attention as control points within the mechanisms of neuronal death. Mitochondria play a central role in swinging the balance in favor of either survival or death of brain tissue. Cell death in vertebrates proceeds mostly via the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. Permeability transition pore (PTP) development in mitochondria is a decisive stage of apoptosis. Therefore, regulation of the permeability of both outer and inner mitochondrial membranes helps to induce neuroprotection. Through PTP control, mitochondria can to a large degree manage the intracellular calcium homeostasis, and thus control the potent death cascade initiated by excess calcium. Here we summarize the evidence for the role of mitochondria in brain cell death. We describe the involvement of the 18-kDa translocator protein (TSPO; previously called peripheral benzodiazepine receptor), and of two new mitochondrial proteins, that is, 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNP) and p42(IP4) (also designated centaurin alpha1; ADAP 1), in the control of the PTP. Furthermore, ligands of TSPO, as well as substrates of CNP, are possible modulators of PTP function. This scenario of control and regulation of PTP function might provide multiple important targets, which are suitable for developing protective strategies for neurons and non-neuronal brain cells in therapies of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Azarashvili
- Institut für Neurobiochemie, Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg, Medizinische Fakultät, Leipziger Strasse 44, D-39120 Magdeburg, Germany
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Sas K, Párdutz A, Toldi J, Vécsei L. Dementia, stroke and migraine--some common pathological mechanisms. J Neurol Sci 2010; 299:55-65. [PMID: 20828765 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Revised: 03/26/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Dementia, stroke and migraine are very common neurological disorders affecting a large percentage of the population, and leading to a high degree of disability. Often, adequate therapy is not available. Although the symptoms, the progression and the outcome differ in these disorders, to some extent they may share some common pathophysiological mechanisms. The genetic background, an energy deficit, and excitotoxicity, vascular and thrombotic properties can influence all three disorders, resulting in a neuronal dysfunction, increased cellular vulnerability, neurodegeneration and ultimately cell death. All these cellular events occur in dementias and stroke, moreover recent studies suggest that, besides a dysfunction, neuronal damage may be an issue in migraine too. One of the most central events in the multiple mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of these disorders is a metabolic disturbance of certain brain cells. As mitochondria provide the cells with energy, realization of the importance of these organelles in the aetiopathogenesis of several disorders has emerged in recent years. This review surveys the most important features of the pathogenesis of dementia, stroke and migraine from the aspect of mitochondrial malfunction highlighting some of the considerable connections between these neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katalin Sas
- Department of Neurology, University of Szeged, H-6725 Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6., Hungary
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61
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Aliev G, Palacios HH, Gasimov E, Obrenovich ME, Morales L, Leszek J, Bragin V, Solís Herrera A, Gokhman D. Oxidative Stress Induced Mitochondrial Failure and Vascular Hypoperfusion as a Key Initiator for the Development of Alzheimer Disease. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:158-187. [PMID: 27713247 PMCID: PMC3991025 DOI: 10.3390/ph3010158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2009] [Revised: 01/11/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction may be a principal underlying event in aging, including age-associated brain degeneration. Mitochondria provide energy for basic metabolic processes. Their decay with age impairs cellular metabolism and leads to a decline of cellular function. Alzheimer disease (AD) and cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs) are two leading causes of age-related dementia. Increasing evidence strongly supports the theory that oxidative stress, largely due to reactive oxygen species (ROS), induces mitochondrial damage, which arises from chronic hypoperfusion and is primarily responsible for the pathogenesis that underlies both disease processes. Mitochondrial membrane potential, respiratory control ratios and cellular oxygen consumption decline with age and correlate with increased oxidant production. The sustained hypoperfusion and oxidative stress in brain tissues can stimulate the expression of nitric oxide synthases (NOSs) and brain endothelium probably increase the accumulation of oxidative stress products, which therefore contributes to blood brain barrier (BBB) breakdown and brain parenchymal cell damage. Determining the mechanisms behind these imbalances may provide crucial information in the development of new, more effective therapies for stroke and AD patients in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gjumrakch Aliev
- School of Health Science and Healthcare Administration, University of Atlanta, 6685 Peachtree Industrial Blvd., Atlanta, Georgia, 30360, USA.
- Department of Nutrition and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Javeriana University, Bogotà D.C., Colombia.
- Stress Relief and Memory Training Center, Brooklyn, New York, NY 11235, USA.
| | - Hector H Palacios
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249-1664, USA
| | - Eldar Gasimov
- Department of Cytology, Histology and Embryology, Azerbaijan Medical University, 25 Street Bakhikhanov, Baku AZ10 25, Azerbaijan
| | - Mark E Obrenovich
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, WRB 5301, Cleveland, Ohio, 44106, USA
| | - Ludis Morales
- Department of Nutrition and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Javeriana University, Bogotà D.C., Colombia
| | - Jerzy Leszek
- Department of Psychiatry, Wroclaw Medical University, 25 St. Kraszewskiego, Wroclaw, 50-229, Poland
| | - Valentin Bragin
- Stress Relief and Memory Training Center, Brooklyn, New York, NY 11235, USA
| | - Arturo Solís Herrera
- Dirección de Investigación y desarrollo, Centro de Estudios de la Fotosíntesis Humana, S.C. López Velarde 108 y 109, Centro, Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, 20000, México
| | - Dmitry Gokhman
- Department of Mathematics, College of Sciences, University of Texas at San Antonio, One UTSA Circle, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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