51
|
Weissbourd B, Momose T, Nair A, Kennedy A, Hunt B, Anderson DJ. A genetically tractable jellyfish model for systems and evolutionary neuroscience. Cell 2021; 184:5854-5868.e20. [PMID: 34822783 PMCID: PMC8629132 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Jellyfish are radially symmetric organisms without a brain that arose more than 500 million years ago. They achieve organismal behaviors through coordinated interactions between autonomously functioning body parts. Jellyfish neurons have been studied electrophysiologically, but not at the systems level. We introduce Clytia hemisphaerica as a transparent, genetically tractable jellyfish model for systems and evolutionary neuroscience. We generate stable F1 transgenic lines for cell-type-specific conditional ablation and whole-organism GCaMP imaging. Using these tools and computational analyses, we find that an apparently diffuse network of RFamide-expressing umbrellar neurons is functionally subdivided into a series of spatially localized subassemblies whose synchronous activation controls directional food transfer from the tentacles to the mouth. These data reveal an unanticipated degree of structured neural organization in this species. Clytia affords a platform for systems-level studies of neural function, behavior, and evolution within a clade of marine organisms with growing ecological and economic importance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Weissbourd
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering 140-18, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.
| | - Tsuyoshi Momose
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), 06230 Villefranche-sur-Mer, France
| | - Aditya Nair
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering 140-18, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Ann Kennedy
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering 140-18, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Bridgett Hunt
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering 140-18, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - David J Anderson
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering 140-18, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Kanwal JK, Coddington E, Frazer R, Limbania D, Turner G, Davila KJ, Givens MA, Williams V, Datta SR, Wasserman S. Internal State: Dynamic, Interconnected Communication Loops Distributed Across Body, Brain, and Time. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:867-886. [PMID: 34115114 PMCID: PMC8623242 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Internal state profoundly alters perception and behavior. For example, a starved fly may approach and consume foods that it would otherwise find undesirable. A socially engaged newt may remain engaged in the presence of a predator, whereas a solitary newt would otherwise attempt to escape. Yet, the definition of internal state is fluid and ill-defined. As an interdisciplinary group of scholars spanning five career stages (from undergraduate to full professor) and six academic institutions, we came together in an attempt to provide an operational definition of internal state that could be useful in understanding the behavior and the function of nervous systems, at timescales relevant to the individual. In this perspective, we propose to define internal state through an integrative framework centered on dynamic and interconnected communication loops within and between the body and the brain. This framework is informed by a synthesis of historical and contemporary paradigms used by neurobiologists, ethologists, physiologists, and endocrinologists. We view internal state as composed of both spatially distributed networks (body-brain communication loops), and temporally distributed mechanisms that weave together neural circuits, physiology, and behavior. Given the wide spatial and temporal scales at which internal state operates-and therefore the broad range of scales at which it could be defined-we choose to anchor our definition in the body. Here we focus on studies that highlight body-to-brain signaling; body represented in endocrine signaling, and brain represented in sensory signaling. This integrative framework of internal state potentially unites the disparate paradigms often used by scientists grappling with body-brain interactions. We invite others to join us as we examine approaches and question assumptions to study the underlying mechanisms and temporal dynamics of internal state.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessleen K Kanwal
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of
Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Emma Coddington
- Department of Biology, Willamette University, Salem, OR
97301, USA
| | - Rachel Frazer
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia Universitye,
New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Daniela Limbania
- Department of Neuroscience, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA
02481, USA
| | - Grace Turner
- Department of Neuroscience, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA
02481, USA
| | - Karla J Davila
- Department of Biology, Willamette University, Salem, OR
97301, USA
| | - Michael A Givens
- Department of Biology, Willamette University, Salem, OR
97301, USA
| | - Valarie Williams
- Department of Dance, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
43210, USA
| | | | - Sara Wasserman
- Department of Neuroscience, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA
02481, USA
| |
Collapse
|
53
|
Lagache T, Hanson A, Pérez-Ortega JE, Fairhall A, Yuste R. Tracking calcium dynamics from individual neurons in behaving animals. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1009432. [PMID: 34624016 PMCID: PMC8528277 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Measuring the activity of neuronal populations with calcium imaging can capture emergent functional properties of neuronal circuits with single cell resolution. However, the motion of freely behaving animals, together with the intermittent detectability of calcium sensors, can hinder automatic monitoring of neuronal activity and their subsequent functional characterization. We report the development and open-source implementation of a multi-step cellular tracking algorithm (Elastic Motion Correction and Concatenation or EMC2) that compensates for the intermittent disappearance of moving neurons by integrating local deformation information from detectable neurons. We demonstrate the accuracy and versatility of our algorithm using calcium imaging data from two-photon volumetric microscopy in visual cortex of awake mice, and from confocal microscopy in behaving Hydra, which experiences major body deformation during its contractions. We quantify the performance of our algorithm using ground truth manual tracking of neurons, along with synthetic time-lapse sequences, covering a wide range of particle motions and detectability parameters. As a demonstration of the utility of the algorithm, we monitor for several days calcium activity of the same neurons in layer 2/3 of mouse visual cortex in vivo, finding significant turnover within the active neurons across days, with only few neurons that remained active across days. Also, combining automatic tracking of single neuron activity with statistical clustering, we characterize and map neuronal ensembles in behaving Hydra, finding three major non-overlapping ensembles of neurons (CB, RP1 and RP2) whose activity correlates with contractions and elongations. Our results show that the EMC2 algorithm can be used as a robust and versatile platform for neuronal tracking in behaving animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Lagache
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alison Hanson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jesús E Pérez-Ortega
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Adrienne Fairhall
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- UW Computational Neuroscience Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Rafael Yuste
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Donostia International Physics Center, San Sebastian, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
54
|
Nielsen SKD, Koch TL, Wiisbye SH, Grimmelikhuijzen CJP, Garm A. Neuropeptide expression in the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora-New insights into the complexity of a "simple" nervous system. J Comp Neurol 2021; 529:2865-2882. [PMID: 33660861 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Box jellyfish have an elaborate visual system and perform advanced visually guided behaviors. However, the rhopalial nervous system (RNS), believed to be the main visual processing center, only has 1000 neurons in each of the four eye carrying rhopalia. We have examined the detailed structure of the RNS of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora, using immunolabeling with antibodies raised against four putative neuropeptides (T. cystophora RFamide, VWamide, RAamide, and FRamide). In the RNS, T. cystophora RF-, VW-, and RAamide antibodies stain sensory neurons, the pit eyes, the neuropil, and peptide-specific subpopulations of stalk-associated neurons and giant neurons. Furthermore, RFamide ir+ neurites are seen in the epidermal stalk nerve, whereas VWamide antibodies stain the gastrodermal stalk nerve. RFamide has the most widespread expression including in the ring and radial nerves, the pedalium nerve plexus, and the tentacular nerve net. RAamide is the putative neurotransmitter in the motor neurons of the subumbrellar nerve net, and VWamide is a potential marker for neuronal differentiation as it is found in subpopulations of undifferentiated cells both in the rhopalia and in the bell. The results from the FRamide antibodies were not included as only few cells were stained, and in an unreproducible way. Our studies show hitherto-unseen details of the nervous system of T. cystophora and allowed us to identify specific functional groups of neurons. This identification is important for understanding visual processing in the RNS and enables experimental work, directly addressing the role of the different neuropeptides in vision.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sofie K D Nielsen
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas L Koch
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sofus H Wiisbye
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Anders Garm
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
55
|
Badhiwala KN, Primack AS, Juliano CE, Robinson JT. Multiple neuronal networks coordinate Hydra mechanosensory behavior. eLife 2021; 10:e64108. [PMID: 34328079 PMCID: PMC8324302 DOI: 10.7554/elife.64108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydra vulgaris is an emerging model organism for neuroscience due to its small size, transparency, genetic tractability, and regenerative nervous system; however, fundamental properties of its sensorimotor behaviors remain unknown. Here, we use microfluidic devices combined with fluorescent calcium imaging and surgical resectioning to study how the diffuse nervous system coordinates Hydra's mechanosensory response. Mechanical stimuli cause animals to contract, and we find this response relies on at least two distinct networks of neurons in the oral and aboral regions of the animal. Different activity patterns arise in these networks depending on whether the animal is contracting spontaneously or contracting in response to mechanical stimulation. Together, these findings improve our understanding of how Hydra's diffuse nervous system coordinates sensorimotor behaviors. These insights help reveal how sensory information is processed in an animal with a diffuse, radially symmetric neural architecture unlike the dense, bilaterally symmetric nervous systems found in most model organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Abby S Primack
- Department of Molecular and Cellular BiologyUniversity of California, DavisUnited States
| | - Celina E Juliano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular BiologyUniversity of California, DavisUnited States
| | - Jacob T Robinson
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice UniversityHoustonUnited States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice UniversityHoustonUnited States
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of MedicineHoustonUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Lovas JR, Yuste R. Ensemble synchronization in the reassembly of Hydra's nervous system. Curr Biol 2021; 31:3784-3796.e3. [PMID: 34297913 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Although much is known about how the structure of the nervous system develops, it is still unclear how its functional modularity arises. A dream experiment would be to observe the entire development of a nervous system, correlating the emergence of functional units with their associated behaviors. This is possible in the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris, which, after its complete dissociation into individual cells, can reassemble itself back together into a normal animal. We used calcium imaging to monitor the complete neuronal activity of dissociated Hydra as they reaggregated over several days. Initially uncoordinated neuronal activity became synchronized into coactive neuronal ensembles. These local modules then synchronized with others, building larger functional ensembles that eventually extended throughout the entire reaggregate, generating neuronal rhythms similar to those of intact animals. Global synchronization was not due to neurite outgrowth but to strengthening of functional connections between ensembles. We conclude that Hydra's nervous system achieves its functional reassembly through the hierarchical modularity of neuronal ensembles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R Lovas
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02354, USA.
| | - Rafael Yuste
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02354, USA
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Tzouanas CN, Kim S, Badhiwala KN, Avants BW, Robinson JT. Hydra vulgaris shows stable responses to thermal stimulation despite large changes in the number of neurons. iScience 2021; 24:102490. [PMID: 34095784 PMCID: PMC8164038 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animals that lose neural tissue to injury or disease can maintain behavioral repertoires by regenerating new neurons or reorganizing existing neural circuits. However, most neuroscience small model organisms lack this high degree of neural plasticity. We show that Hydra vulgaris can maintain stable sensory-motor behaviors despite 2-fold changes in neuron count, due to naturally occurring size variation or surgical resection. Specifically, we find that both behavioral and neural responses to rapid temperature changes are maintained following these perturbations. We further describe possible mechanisms for the observed neural activity and argue that Hydra's radial symmetry may allow it to maintain stable behaviors when changes in the numbers of neurons do not selectively eliminate any specific neuronal cell type. These results suggest that Hydra provides a powerful model for studying how animals maintain stable sensory-motor responses within dynamic neural circuits and may lead to the development of general principles for injury-tolerant neural architectures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Soonyoung Kim
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Krishna N. Badhiwala
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Benjamin W. Avants
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Jacob T. Robinson
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
Noro Y, Shimizu H, Mineta K, Gojobori T. A single neuron subset governs a single coactive neuron circuit in Hydra vulgaris, representing a possible ancestral feature of neural evolution. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10828. [PMID: 34031445 PMCID: PMC8144215 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89325-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The last common ancestor of Bilateria and Cnidaria is believed to be one of the first animals to develop a nervous system over 500 million years ago. Many of the genes involved in the neural function of the advanced nervous system in Bilateria are well conserved in Cnidaria. Thus, the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris is a good model organism for the study of the putative primitive nervous system in its last common ancestor. The diffuse nervous system of Hydra consists of several peptidergic neuron subsets. However, the specific functions of these subsets remain unclear. Using calcium imaging, here we show that the neuron subsets that express neuropeptide, Hym-176, function as motor circuits to evoke longitudinal contraction. We found that all neurons in a subset defined by the Hym-176 gene (Hym-176A) or its paralogs (Hym-176B) expression are excited simultaneously, followed by longitudinal contraction. This indicates not only that these neuron subsets have a motor function but also that a single molecularly defined neuron subset forms a single coactive circuit. This is in contrast with the bilaterian nervous system, where a single molecularly defined neuron subset harbors multiple coactive circuits, showing a mixture of neurons firing with different timings. Furthermore, we found that the two motor circuits, one expressing Hym-176B in the body column and the other expressing Hym-176A in the foot, are coordinately regulated to exert region-specific contraction. Our results demonstrate that one neuron subset is likely to form a monofunctional circuit as a minimum functional unit to build a more complex behavior in Hydra. This simple feature (one subset, one circuit, one function) found in Hydra may represent the simple ancestral condition of neural evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yukihiko Noro
- Computational Biosciences Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Hiroshi Shimizu
- Computational Biosciences Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Katsuhiko Mineta
- Computational Biosciences Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Takashi Gojobori
- Computational Biosciences Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
| |
Collapse
|
59
|
Discovery of a body-wide photosensory array that matures in an adult-like animal and mediates eye-brain-independent movement and arousal. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2021426118. [PMID: 33941643 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2021426118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to respond to light has profoundly shaped life. Animals with eyes overwhelmingly rely on their visual circuits for mediating light-induced coordinated movements. Building on previously reported behaviors, we report the discovery of an organized, eye-independent (extraocular), body-wide photosensory framework that allows even a head-removed animal to move like an intact animal. Despite possessing sensitive cerebral eyes and a centralized brain that controls most behaviors, head-removed planarians show acute, coordinated ultraviolet-A (UV-A) aversive phototaxis. We find this eye-brain-independent phototaxis is mediated by two noncanonical rhabdomeric opsins, the first known function for this newly classified opsin-clade. We uncover a unique array of dual-opsin-expressing photoreceptor cells that line the periphery of animal body, are proximal to a body-wide nerve net, and mediate UV-A phototaxis by engaging multiple modes of locomotion. Unlike embryonically developing cerebral eyes that are functional when animals hatch, the body-wide photosensory array matures postembryonically in "adult-like animals." Notably, apart from head-removed phototaxis, the body-wide, extraocular sensory organization also impacts physiology of intact animals. Low-dose UV-A, but not visible light (ocular-stimulus), is able to arouse intact worms that have naturally cycled to an inactive/rest-like state. This wavelength selective, low-light arousal of resting animals is noncanonical-opsin dependent but eye independent. Our discovery of an autonomous, multifunctional, late-maturing, organized body-wide photosensory system establishes a paradigm in sensory biology and evolution of light sensing.
Collapse
|
60
|
Brette R. Integrative Neuroscience of Paramecium, a "Swimming Neuron". eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0018-21.2021. [PMID: 33952615 PMCID: PMC8208649 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0018-21.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramecium is a unicellular organism that swims in fresh water by beating thousands of cilia. When it is stimulated (mechanically, chemically, optically, thermally…), it often swims backward then turns and swims forward again. This "avoiding reaction" is triggered by a calcium-based action potential. For this reason, some authors have called Paramecium a "swimming neuron." This review summarizes current knowledge about the physiological basis of behavior of Paramecium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Romain Brette
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de la Vision, Paris 75012, France
| |
Collapse
|
61
|
Abstract
The evolutionary origin of the nervous system has been a matter of long-standing debate. This is due to the different perspectives taken. Earlier studies addressed nervous system origins at the cellular level. They focused on the selective advantage of the first neuron in its local context, and considered vertical sensory-motor reflex arcs the first nervous system. Later studies emphasized the value of the nervous system at the tissue level. Rather than acting locally, early neurons were seen as part of an elementary nerve net that enabled the horizontal coordination of tissue movements. Opinions have also differed on the nature of effector cells. While most authors have favoured contractile systems, others see the key output of the incipient nervous system in the coordination of motile cilia, or the secretion of antimicrobial peptides. I will discuss these divergent views and explore how they can be validated by molecular and single-cell data. From this survey, possible consensus emerges: (i) the first manifestation of the nervous system likely was a nerve net, whereas specialized local circuits evolved later; (ii) different nerve nets may have evolved for the coordination of contractile or cilia-driven movements; (iii) all evolving nerve nets facilitated new forms of animal behaviour with increasing body size. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: multicellularity, neurons and the cognitive lens'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Detlev Arendt
- Developmental Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
- Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
62
|
Jékely G, Godfrey-Smith P, Keijzer F. Reafference and the origin of the self in early nervous system evolution. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20190764. [PMID: 33550954 PMCID: PMC7934971 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Discussions of the function of early nervous systems usually focus on a causal flow from sensors to effectors, by which an animal coordinates its actions with exogenous changes in its environment. We propose, instead, that much early sensing was reafferent; it was responsive to the consequences of the animal's own actions. We distinguish two general categories of reafference-translocational and deformational-and use these to survey the distribution of several often-neglected forms of sensing, including gravity sensing, flow sensing and proprioception. We discuss sensing of these kinds in sponges, ctenophores, placozoans, cnidarians and bilaterians. Reafference is ubiquitous, as ongoing action, especially whole-body motility, will almost inevitably influence the senses. Corollary discharge-a pathway or circuit by which an animal tracks its own actions and their reafferent consequences-is not a necessary feature of reafferent sensing but a later-evolving mechanism. We also argue for the importance of reafferent sensing to the evolution of the body-self, a form of organization that enables an animal to sense and act as a single unit. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: multicellularity, neurons and the cognitive lens'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gáspár Jékely
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Peter Godfrey-Smith
- School of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | - Fred Keijzer
- Department of Theoretical Philosophy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
63
|
Jékely G. The chemical brain hypothesis for the origin of nervous systems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20190761. [PMID: 33550946 PMCID: PMC7935135 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In nervous systems, there are two main modes of transmission for the propagation of activity between cells. Synaptic transmission relies on close contact at chemical or electrical synapses while volume transmission is mediated by diffusible chemical signals and does not require direct contact. It is possible to wire complex neuronal networks by both chemical and synaptic transmission. Both types of networks are ubiquitous in nervous systems, leading to the question which of the two appeared first in evolution. This paper explores a scenario where chemically organized cellular networks appeared before synapses in evolution, a possibility supported by the presence of complex peptidergic signalling in all animals except sponges. Small peptides are ideally suited to link up cells into chemical networks. They have unlimited diversity, high diffusivity and high copy numbers derived from repetitive precursors. But chemical signalling is diffusion limited and becomes inefficient in larger bodies. To overcome this, peptidergic cells may have developed projections and formed synaptically connected networks tiling body surfaces and displaying synchronized activity with pulsatile peptide release. The advent of circulatory systems and neurohemal organs further reduced the constraint imposed on chemical signalling by diffusion. This could have contributed to the explosive radiation of peptidergic signalling systems in stem bilaterians. Neurosecretory centres in extant nervous systems are still predominantly chemically wired and coexist with the synaptic brain. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: multicellularity, neurons and the cognitive lens'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gáspár Jékely
- Living Systems Institute, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| |
Collapse
|
64
|
Lyon P, Keijzer F, Arendt D, Levin M. Reframing cognition: getting down to biological basics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20190750. [PMID: 33487107 PMCID: PMC7935032 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The premise of this two-part theme issue is simple: the cognitive sciences should join the rest of the life sciences in how they approach the quarry within their research domain. Specifically, understanding how organisms on the lower branches of the phylogenetic tree become familiar with, value and exploit elements of an ecological niche while avoiding harm can be expected to aid understanding of how organisms that evolved later (including Homo sapiens) do the same or similar things. We call this approach basal cognition. In this introductory essay, we explain what the approach involves. Because no definition of cognition exists that reflects its biological basis, we advance a working definition that can be operationalized; introduce a behaviour-generating toolkit of capacities that comprise the function (e.g. sensing/perception, memory, valence, learning, decision making, communication), each element of which can be studied relatively independently; and identify a (necessarily incomplete) suite of common biophysical mechanisms found throughout the domains of life involved in implementing the toolkit. The articles in this collection illuminate different aspects of basal cognition across different forms of biological organization, from prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes-the focus of Part 1-to plants and finally to animals, without and with nervous systems, the focus of Part 2. By showcasing work in diverse, currently disconnected fields, we hope to sketch the outline of a new multidisciplinary approach for comprehending cognition, arguably the most fascinating and hard-to-fathom evolved function on this planet. Doing so has the potential to shed light on problems in a wide variety of research domains, including microbiology, immunology, zoology, biophysics, botany, developmental biology, neurobiology/science, regenerative medicine, computational biology, artificial life and synthetic bioengineering. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: conceptual tools and the view from the single cell'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Lyon
- Southgate Institute for Health, Society and Equity, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Fred Keijzer
- Department of Theoretical Philosophy, Universityof Groningen, Oude Boteringestraat 52, Groningen 9712GL, The Netherlands
| | - Detlev Arendt
- Developmental Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstraße 1, 69012 Heidelberg, Germany
- Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 230, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michael Levin
- Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
| |
Collapse
|
65
|
Hanson A. Spontaneous electrical low-frequency oscillations: a possible role in Hydra and all living systems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20190763. [PMID: 33487108 PMCID: PMC7934974 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
As one of the first model systems in biology, the basal metazoan Hydra has been revealing fundamental features of living systems since it was first discovered by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the early eighteenth century. While it has become well-established within cell and developmental biology, this tiny freshwater polyp is only now being re-introduced to modern neuroscience where it has already produced a curious finding: the presence of low-frequency spontaneous neural oscillations at the same frequency as those found in the default mode network in the human brain. Surprisingly, increasing evidence suggests such spontaneous electrical low-frequency oscillations (SELFOs) are found across the wide diversity of life on Earth, from bacteria to humans. This paper reviews the evidence for SELFOs in diverse phyla, beginning with the importance of their discovery in Hydra, and hypothesizes a potential role as electrical organism organizers, which supports a growing literature on the role of bioelectricity as a 'template' for developmental memory in organism regeneration. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: conceptual tools and the view from the single cell'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alison Hanson
- Neurotechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
66
|
Expanding evolutionary neuroscience: insights from comparing variation in behavior. Neuron 2021; 109:1084-1099. [PMID: 33609484 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Neuroscientists have long studied species with convenient biological features to discover how behavior emerges from conserved molecular, neural, and circuit level processes. With the advent of new tools, from viral vectors and gene editing to automated behavioral analyses, there has been a recent wave of interest in developing new, "nontraditional" model species. Here, we advocate for a complementary approach to model species development, that is, model clade development, as a way to integrate an evolutionary comparative approach with neurobiological and behavioral experiments. Capitalizing on natural behavioral variation in and investing in experimental tools for model clades will be a valuable strategy for the next generation of neuroscience discovery.
Collapse
|
67
|
Fóthi Á, Soorya L, Lőrincz A. The Autism Palette: Combinations of Impairments Explain the Heterogeneity in ASD. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:503462. [PMID: 33343403 PMCID: PMC7738611 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.503462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neuropsychiatric condition traditionally defined by core symptoms in social behavior, speech/communication, repetitive behavior, and restricted interests. Beyond the core symptoms, autism has strong association with other disorders such as intellectual disability (ID), epilepsy, schizophrenia among many others. This paper outlines a theory of ASD with capacity to connect heterogeneous "core" symptoms, medical and psychiatric comorbidities as well as other etiological theories of autism in a unifying cognitive framework rooted in neuroscience and genetics. Cognition is embedded into an ever-developing structure modified by experiences, including the outcomes of environment influencing behaviors. The key constraint of cognition is that the brain can handle only 7±2 relevant variables at a time, whereas sensory variables, i.e., the number of sensory neurons is orders of magnitude larger. As a result, (a) the extraction, (b) the encoding, and (c) the capability for the efficient cognitive manipulation of the relevant variables, and (d) the compensatory mechanisms that counteract computational delays of the distributed components are critical. We outline our theoretical model to describe a Cartesian Factor (CF) forming, autoencoder-like cognitive mechanism which breaks combinatorial explosion and is accelerated by internal reinforcing machineries and discuss the neural processes that support CF formation. Impairments in any of these aspects may disrupt learning, cognitive manipulation, decisions on interactions, and execution of decisions. We suggest that social interactions are the most susceptible to combinations of diverse small impairments and can be spoiled in many ways that pile up. Comorbidity is experienced, if any of the many potential impairments is relatively strong. We consider component spoiling impairments as the basic colors of autism, whereas the combinations of individual impairments make the palette of autism. We put forth arguments on the possibility of dissociating the different main elements of the impairments that can appear together. For example, impairments of generalization (domain general learning) and impairments of dealing with many variable problems, such as social situations may appear independently and may mutually enhance their impacts. We also consider mechanisms that may lead to protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ábel Fóthi
- Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Informatics, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Latha Soorya
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - András Lőrincz
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, Faculty of Informatics, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
68
|
Stone MC, Kothe GO, Rolls MM, Jegla T. Cytoskeletal and synaptic polarity of LWamide-like+ ganglion neurons in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb233197. [PMID: 32968001 PMCID: PMC7673360 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.233197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The centralized nervous systems of bilaterian animals rely on directional signaling facilitated by polarized neurons with specialized axons and dendrites. It is not known whether axo-dendritic polarity is exclusive to bilaterians or was already present in early metazoans. We therefore examined neurite polarity in the starlet sea anemone Nematostella vectensis (Cnidaria). Cnidarians form a sister clade to bilaterians and share many neuronal building blocks characteristic of bilaterians, including channels, receptors and synaptic proteins, but their nervous systems comprise a comparatively simple net distributed throughout the body. We developed a tool kit of fluorescent polarity markers for live imaging analysis of polarity in an identified neuron type, large ganglion cells of the body column nerve net that express the LWamide-like neuropeptide. Microtubule polarity differs in bilaterian axons and dendrites, and this in part underlies polarized distribution of cargo to the two types of processes. However, in LWamide-like+ neurons, all neurites had axon-like microtubule polarity suggesting that they may have similar contents. Indeed, presynaptic and postsynaptic markers trafficked to all neurites and accumulated at varicosities where neurites from different neurons often crossed, suggesting the presence of bidirectional synaptic contacts. Furthermore, we could not identify a diffusion barrier in the plasma membrane of any of the neurites like the axon initial segment barrier that separates the axonal and somatodendritic compartments in bilaterian neurons. We conclude that at least one type of neuron in Nematostella vectensis lacks the axo-dendritic polarity characteristic of bilaterian neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle C Stone
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Gregory O Kothe
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Melissa M Rolls
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Timothy Jegla
- Department of Biology and the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| |
Collapse
|
69
|
Naik S, Unni M, Sinha D, Rajput SS, Reddy PC, Kartvelishvily E, Solomonov I, Sagi I, Chatterji A, Patil S, Galande S. Differential tissue stiffness of body column facilitates locomotion of Hydra on solid substrates. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb232702. [PMID: 32958523 PMCID: PMC7116704 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.232702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The bell-shaped members of the Cnidaria typically move around by swimming, whereas the Hydra polyp can perform locomotion on solid substrates in an aquatic environment. To address the biomechanics of locomotion on rigid substrates, we studied the 'somersaulting' locomotion in Hydra We applied atomic force microscopy to measure the local mechanical properties of Hydra's body column and identified the existence of differential Young's modulus between the shoulder region versus rest of the body column at 3:1 ratio. We show that somersaulting primarily depends on differential tissue stiffness of the body column and is explained by computational models that accurately recapitulate the mechanics involved in this process. We demonstrate that perturbation of the observed stiffness variation in the body column by modulating the extracellular matrix polymerization impairs the 'somersault' movement. These results provide a mechanistic basis for the evolutionary significance of differential extracellular matrix properties and tissue stiffness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suyash Naik
- Department of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Manu Unni
- Department of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Devanshu Sinha
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Shatruhan Singh Rajput
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Puli Chandramouli Reddy
- Department of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Elena Kartvelishvily
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Inna Solomonov
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Irit Sagi
- Department of Biological Regulation, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Apratim Chatterji
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Shivprasad Patil
- Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| | - Sanjeev Galande
- Department of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune 411008, India
| |
Collapse
|
70
|
Whole-Body Imaging of Neural and Muscle Activity during Behavior in Hydra vulgaris: Effect of Osmolarity on Contraction Bursts. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0539-19.2020. [PMID: 32699071 PMCID: PMC7452734 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0539-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural code relates the activity of the nervous system to the activity of the muscles to the generation of behavior. To decipher it, it would be ideal to comprehensively measure the activity of the entire nervous system and musculature in a behaving animal. As a step in this direction, we used the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris to explore how physiological and environmental conditions alter simple contractile behavior and its accompanying neural and muscle activity. We used whole-body calcium imaging of neurons and muscle cells and studied the effect of temperature, media osmolarity, nutritional state, and body size on contractile behavior. In mounted Hydra preparations, changes in temperature, nutrition state, or body size did not have a major effect on neural or muscle activity, or on contractile behavior. But changes in media osmolarity systematically altered contractile behavior and foot detachments, increasing their frequency in hypo-osmolar media solutions and decreasing it in hyperosmolar media. Similar effects were seen in ectodermal, but not in endodermal muscle. Osmolarity also bidirectionally changed the activity of contraction burst (CB) neurons, but did not affect the network of rhythmic potential (RP) neurons in the ectoderm. These findings show osmolarity-dependent changes in the activity of CB neurons and ectodermal muscle, consistent with the hypothesis that CB neurons respond to media hypo-osmolarity, activating ectodermal muscle to generate CBs. This dedicated reflex could serve as an excretory system to prevent osmotic injury. This work demonstrates the feasibility of studying an entire neuronal and muscle activity in a behaving animal.
Collapse
|
71
|
|
72
|
Carrillo-Reid L, Yuste R. Playing the piano with the cortex: role of neuronal ensembles and pattern completion in perception and behavior. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2020; 64:89-95. [PMID: 32320944 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal ensembles, i.e. coactive groups of neurons, have been long postulated to be functional building blocks of cortical circuits and units of the neural code. Calcium imaging of neuronal populations has demonstrated the widespread existence of spontaneous and sensory-evoked ensembles in cortical circuits in vivo. The development of two-photon optical techniques to simultaneously record and activate neurons with single cell resolution ("piano" experiments) has revealed the existence of pattern completion neurons, which can trigger an entire ensemble, and demonstrated a causal relation between ensembles and behavior. We review recent results controlling visual perception with targeted holographic manipulation of cortical ensembles by stimulating pattern completion neurons. Analyzing population activity as neuronal ensembles and exploiting pattern completion could enable control of brain states in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Carrillo-Reid
- Neurobiology Institute, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Queretaro, Mexico.
| | - Rafael Yuste
- NeuroTechnology Center, Columbia University, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
73
|
Bando Y, Sakamoto M, Kim S, Ayzenshtat I, Yuste R. Comparative Evaluation of Genetically Encoded Voltage Indicators. Cell Rep 2020; 26:802-813.e4. [PMID: 30650368 PMCID: PMC7075032 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.12.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Imaging voltage using fluorescent-based sensors could be an ideal technique to probe neural circuits with high spatiotemporal resolution. However, due to insufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), imaging membrane potential in mammalian preparations is still challenging. In recent years, many genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVIs) have been developed. To compare them and guide decisions on which GEVI to use, we have characterized side by side the performance of eight GEVIs that represent different families of molecular constructs. We tested GEVIs in vitro with 1-photon imaging and in vivo with 1-photon wide-field imaging and 2-photon imaging. We find that QuasAr2 exhibited the best performance in vitro, whereas only ArcLight-MT could be used to reliably detect electrical activity in vivo with 2-photon excitation. No single GEVI was ideal for every experiment. These results provide a guide for choosing optimal GEVIs for specific applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Bando
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA.
| | - Masayuki Sakamoto
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA.
| | - Samuel Kim
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Inbal Ayzenshtat
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Rafael Yuste
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| |
Collapse
|
74
|
Martinez P, Sprecher SG. Of Circuits and Brains: The Origin and Diversification of Neural Architectures. Front Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
|
75
|
Gonzales DL, Badhiwala KN, Avants BW, Robinson JT. Bioelectronics for Millimeter-Sized Model Organisms. iScience 2020; 23:100917. [PMID: 32114383 PMCID: PMC7049667 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.100917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Advances in microfabrication technologies and biomaterials have enabled a growing class of electronic devices that can stimulate and record bioelectronic signals. Many of these devices have been developed for humans or vertebrate animals, where miniaturization allows for implantation within the body. There are, however, another class of bioelectronic interfaces that exploit microfabrication and nanoelectronics to record signals from tiny, millimeter-sized organisms. In these cases, rather than implanting a device inside an animal, animals themselves are loaded in large numbers into bioelectronic devices for neural circuit and behavioral interrogation. These scalable interfaces provide platforms to develop new therapeutics as well as better understand basic principles of bioelectronic communication, neuroscience, and behavior. Here we review recent progress in these bioelectronic technologies and describe how they can complement on-chip optical, mechanical, and chemical interrogation methods to achieve high-throughput, multimodal studies of millimeter-sized small animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Gonzales
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, 206 S. Martin Jischke Dr., West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Krishna N Badhiwala
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Benjamin W Avants
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX 77005, USA
| | - Jacob T Robinson
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX 77005, USA; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX 77005, USA; Applied Physics Program, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX 77005, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
76
|
Pallasdies F, Goedeke S, Braun W, Memmesheimer RM. From single neurons to behavior in the jellyfish Aurelia aurita. eLife 2019; 8:e50084. [PMID: 31868586 PMCID: PMC6999044 DOI: 10.7554/elife.50084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Jellyfish nerve nets provide insight into the origins of nervous systems, as both their taxonomic position and their evolutionary age imply that jellyfish resemble some of the earliest neuron-bearing, actively-swimming animals. Here, we develop the first neuronal network model for the nerve nets of jellyfish. Specifically, we focus on the moon jelly Aurelia aurita and the control of its energy-efficient swimming motion. The proposed single neuron model disentangles the contributions of different currents to a spike. The network model identifies factors ensuring non-pathological activity and suggests an optimization for the transmission of signals. After modeling the jellyfish's muscle system and its bell in a hydrodynamic environment, we explore the swimming elicited by neural activity. We find that different delays between nerve net activations lead to well-controlled, differently directed movements. Our model bridges the scales from single neurons to behavior, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of jellyfish neural control of locomotion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Pallasdies
- Neural Network Dynamics and Computation, Institute of GeneticsUniversity of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Sven Goedeke
- Neural Network Dynamics and Computation, Institute of GeneticsUniversity of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Wilhelm Braun
- Neural Network Dynamics and Computation, Institute of GeneticsUniversity of BonnBonnGermany
| | | |
Collapse
|
77
|
Abstract
The freshwater polyp Hydra provides a potent model system for investigating the conditions that promote wound healing, reactivation of a developmental process and, ultimately, regeneration of an amputated body part. Hydra polyps can also be dissociated to the single cell level and can regenerate a complete body axis from aggregates, behaving as natural organoids. In recent years, the ability to exploit Hydra has been expanded with the advent of new live-imaging approaches, genetic manipulations that include stable transgenesis, gene silencing and genome editing, and the accumulation of high-throughput omics data. In this Primer, we provide an overview of Hydra as a model system for studying regeneration, highlighting recent results that question the classical self-enhancement and long-range inhibition model supposed to drive Hydra regeneration. We underscore the need for integrative explanations incorporating biochemical as well as mechanical signalling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias C Vogg
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Institute of Genetics and Genomics in Geneva (iGE3), Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Brigitte Galliot
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Institute of Genetics and Genomics in Geneva (iGE3), Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, 30 Quai Ernest Ansermet, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Charisios D Tsiairis
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Maulbeerstrasse 66, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
78
|
Goel T, Wang R, Martin S, Lanphear E, Collins EMS. Linalool acts as a fast and reversible anesthetic in Hydra. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224221. [PMID: 31648269 PMCID: PMC6812832 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to make transgenic Hydra lines has allowed for quantitative in vivo studies of Hydra regeneration and physiology. These studies commonly include excision, grafting and transplantation experiments along with high-resolution imaging of live animals, which can be challenging due to the animal’s response to touch and light stimuli. While various anesthetics have been used in Hydra studies, they tend to be toxic over the course of a few hours or their long-term effects on animal health are unknown. Here, we show that the monoterpenoid alcohol linalool is a useful anesthetic for Hydra. Linalool is easy to use, non-toxic, fast acting, and reversible. It has no detectable long-term effects on cell viability or cell proliferation. We demonstrate that the same animal can be immobilized in linalool multiple times at intervals of several hours for repeated imaging over 2–3 days. This uniquely allows for in vivo imaging of dynamic processes such as head regeneration. We directly compare linalool to currently used anesthetics and show its superior performance. Linalool will be a useful tool for tissue manipulation and imaging in Hydra research in both research and teaching contexts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tapan Goel
- Department of Physics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA, United States of America
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Biology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA, United States of America
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Sara Martin
- Department of Biology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Lanphear
- Department of Biology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA, United States of America
| | - Eva-Maria S. Collins
- Department of Physics, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
79
|
Abstract
The freshwater cnidarian Hydra has been studied for centuries for its unique regenerative capacities. Whole-body single-cell transcriptomics now reveal cellular lineages and gene regulatory networks that build the Hydra polyp. For the first time, transcription factor signatures allow direct comparison of the polyp body plan between Hydra and sea anemone.
Collapse
|
80
|
Yamindago A, Lee N, Woo S, Yum S. Transcriptomic profiling of Hydra magnipapillata after exposure to naproxen. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 71:103215. [PMID: 31301532 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2019.103215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The extensive use in humans and animals of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) increases their possible impact on aquatic organisms. In the present study, we investigated acute toxicity, morphological responses, and potential physiological and metabolic impacts of naproxen exposure on Hydra magnipapillata. The median lethal concentrations (LC50) of naproxen in H. magnipapillata were 51.999 mg/L, 44.935 mg/L, and 42.500 mg/L after exposure for 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively. Morphological observation of the exposed Hydra showed that 40 mg/L naproxen stimulated the contraction of body column and tentacles after 24 h. A KEGG pathway analysis of the genes differentially expressed in the Hydra after exposure to naproxen for 6, 24, or 48 h demonstrated various cellular and metabolic effects, including protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum, Wnt signaling, and tryptophan metabolism. These results suggest that exposure to naproxen affects the genetic material, inflammatory processes, and metabolic processes of aquatic organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ade Yamindago
- Ecological Risk Research Division, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), Geoje, 53201, Republic of Korea; The Faculty of Applied Ocean Science, University of Science and Technology (UST), Geoje, 53201, Republic of Korea; Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, 65145, Indonesia
| | - Nayun Lee
- Ecological Risk Research Division, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), Geoje, 53201, Republic of Korea
| | - Seonock Woo
- Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), Busan, 49111, Republic of Korea
| | - Seungshic Yum
- Ecological Risk Research Division, Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST), Geoje, 53201, Republic of Korea; The Faculty of Applied Ocean Science, University of Science and Technology (UST), Geoje, 53201, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
81
|
Electric-Induced Reversal of Morphogenesis in Hydra. Biophys J 2019; 117:1514-1523. [PMID: 31570230 PMCID: PMC6817546 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Morphogenesis involves the dynamic interplay of biochemical, mechanical, and electrical processes. Here, we ask to what extent can the course of morphogenesis be modulated and controlled by an external electric field? We show that at a critical amplitude, an external electric field can halt morphogenesis in Hydra regeneration. Moreover, above this critical amplitude, the electric field can lead to reversal dynamics: a fully developed Hydra folds back into its incipient spheroid morphology. The potential to renew morphogenesis is reexposed when the field is reduced back to amplitudes below criticality. These dynamics are accompanied by modulations of the Wnt3 activity, a central component of the head organizer in Hydra. The controlled backward-forward cycle of morphogenesis can be repeated several times, showing that the reversal trajectory maintains the integrity of the tissue and its regeneration capability. Each cycle of morphogenesis leads to a newly emerged body plan in the redeveloped folded tissue, which is not necessarily similar to the one before the reversal process. Reversal of morphogenesis is shown to be triggered by enhanced electrical excitations in the Hydra tissue, leading to intensified calcium activity. Folding back of the body-plan morphology together with the decay of a central biosignaling system, indicate that electrical processes are tightly integrated with biochemical and mechanical-structural processes in morphogenesis and play an instructive role to a level that can direct developmental trajectories. Reversal of morphogenesis by external fields calls for extending its framework beyond program-like, forward-driven, hierarchical processes based on reaction diffusion and positional information.
Collapse
|
82
|
He S, Grasis JA, Nicotra ML, Juliano CE, Schnitzler CE. Cnidofest 2018: the future is bright for cnidarian research. EvoDevo 2019; 10:20. [PMID: 31508195 PMCID: PMC6724248 DOI: 10.1186/s13227-019-0134-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The 2018 Cnidarian Model Systems Meeting (Cnidofest) was held September 6-9th at the University of Florida Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience in St. Augustine, FL. Cnidofest 2018, which built upon the momentum of Hydroidfest 2016, brought together research communities working on a broad spectrum of cnidarian organisms from North America and around the world. Meeting talks covered diverse aspects of cnidarian biology, with sessions focused on genomics, development, neurobiology, immunology, symbiosis, ecology, and evolution. In addition to interesting biology, Cnidofest also emphasized the advancement of modern research techniques. Invited technology speakers showcased the power of microfluidics and single-cell transcriptomics and demonstrated their application in cnidarian models. In this report, we provide an overview of the exciting research that was presented at the meeting and discuss opportunities for future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuonan He
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO 64110 USA
| | - Juris A. Grasis
- School of Natural Sciences, University of California, Merced, CA 95343 USA
| | - Matthew L. Nicotra
- Department of Surgery, Thomas E. Starzl Transplantation Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261 USA
- Pittsburgh Center for Evolutionary Biology and Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA USA
| | - Celina E. Juliano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Christine E. Schnitzler
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience, University of Florida, St. Augustine, FL 32080 USA
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
| |
Collapse
|
83
|
Siebert S, Farrell JA, Cazet JF, Abeykoon Y, Primack AS, Schnitzler CE, Juliano CE. Stem cell differentiation trajectories in Hydra resolved at single-cell resolution. Science 2019; 365:eaav9314. [PMID: 31346039 PMCID: PMC7104783 DOI: 10.1126/science.aav9314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The adult Hydra polyp continually renews all of its cells using three separate stem cell populations, but the genetic pathways enabling this homeostatic tissue maintenance are not well understood. We sequenced 24,985 Hydra single-cell transcriptomes and identified the molecular signatures of a broad spectrum of cell states, from stem cells to terminally differentiated cells. We constructed differentiation trajectories for each cell lineage and identified gene modules and putative regulators expressed along these trajectories, thus creating a comprehensive molecular map of all developmental lineages in the adult animal. In addition, we built a gene expression map of the Hydra nervous system. Our work constitutes a resource for addressing questions regarding the evolution of metazoan developmental processes and nervous system function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Siebert
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Jeffrey A Farrell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jack F Cazet
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Yashodara Abeykoon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Abby S Primack
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Christine E Schnitzler
- Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience and Department of Biology, University of Florida, St. Augustine, FL, USA
| | - Celina E Juliano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
84
|
Calarco JA, Samuel ADT. Imaging whole nervous systems: insights into behavior from worms to fish. Nat Methods 2019; 16:14-15. [PMID: 30573822 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-018-0276-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John A Calarco
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Aravinthan D T Samuel
- Center for Brain Science and Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
85
|
Abstract
Mapping whole-brain activity during behavior represents one of the biggest and most exciting challenges of systems neuroscience. New research has taken advantage of the unique biology of an ancient organism to bring us a step closer to that goal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ni Ji
- The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Steven W Flavell
- The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
86
|
Transgenesis in Hydra to characterize gene function and visualize cell behavior. Nat Protoc 2019; 14:2069-2090. [DOI: 10.1038/s41596-019-0173-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
87
|
Szymanski JR, Yuste R. Mapping the Whole-Body Muscle Activity of Hydra vulgaris. Curr Biol 2019; 29:1807-1817.e3. [PMID: 31130460 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Hydra is a cnidarian polyp with an anatomically simple neuromuscular system that can offer evolutionary insights on the functional design of animal body plans. Using calcium imaging to map the activity of the entire epitheliomuscular system of behaving Hydra, we find seven basic spatiotemporal patterns of muscle activity. Patterns include global and local activation events with widely varying kinetics of initiation and wave-like propagation. The orthogonally oriented endodermal and ectodermal muscle fibers are jointly activated during longitudinal contractions. Individual epitheliomuscular cells can participate in multiple patterns, even with very different kinetics. This cellular multifunctionality could enable the structurally simple epitheliomuscular tissue of basal metazoans to implement a diverse behavioral output.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John R Szymanski
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA.
| | - Rafael Yuste
- Neurotechnology Center, Department Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA; Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
| |
Collapse
|
88
|
Arendt D, Bertucci PY, Achim K, Musser JM. Evolution of neuronal types and families. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2019; 56:144-152. [PMID: 30826503 PMCID: PMC6556553 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2019.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Solving nervous system evolution requires cross-species comparison of neuronal types. Neuronal types are commonly defined by their specific structure and function. We provide an operational definition of cell types that allows evolutionary comparison. The identity of neuronal types is best reflected by specifying transcription factors. Families of related neuronal types are conserved across large evolutionary distances.
Major questions in the evolution of neurons and nervous systems remain unsolved, such as the origin of the first neuron, the possible convergent evolution of neuronal phenotypes, and the transition from a relatively simple decentralized nerve net to the complex, centralized nervous systems found in modern bilaterian animals. In recent years, comparative single-cell transcriptomics has opened up new research avenues addressing these issues. Here, we review recent conceptual progress toward an evolutionary definition of cell types, and how it facilitates the identification and large-scale comparison of neuronal types and neuron type families from single-cell data — with the family of GABAergic neurons in distinct parts of the vertebrate forebrain as prime example. We also highlight strategies to infer cell type-specific innovation, so-called apomeres, from single-cell data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Detlev Arendt
- Developmental Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69012, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Paola Yanina Bertucci
- Developmental Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69012, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kaia Achim
- Developmental Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69012, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jacob M Musser
- Developmental Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69012, Heidelberg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
89
|
Paninski L, Cunningham JP. Neural data science: accelerating the experiment-analysis-theory cycle in large-scale neuroscience. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2019; 50:232-241. [PMID: 29738986 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Modern large-scale multineuronal recording methodologies, including multielectrode arrays, calcium imaging, and optogenetic techniques, produce single-neuron resolution data of a magnitude and precision that were the realm of science fiction twenty years ago. The major bottlenecks in systems and circuit neuroscience no longer lie in simply collecting data from large neural populations, but also in understanding this data: developing novel scientific questions, with corresponding analysis techniques and experimental designs to fully harness these new capabilities and meaningfully interrogate these questions. Advances in methods for signal processing, network analysis, dimensionality reduction, and optimal control-developed in lockstep with advances in experimental neurotechnology-promise major breakthroughs in multiple fundamental neuroscience problems. These trends are clear in a broad array of subfields of modern neuroscience; this review focuses on recent advances in methods for analyzing neural time-series data with single-neuronal precision.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Paninski
- Department of Statistics, Grossman Center for the Statistics of Mind, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Columbia University, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Grossman Center for the Statistics of Mind, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Columbia University, United States.
| | - J P Cunningham
- Department of Statistics, Grossman Center for the Statistics of Mind, Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Columbia University, United States
| |
Collapse
|
90
|
Rentzsch F, Juliano C, Galliot B. Modern genomic tools reveal the structural and cellular diversity of cnidarian nervous systems. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2019; 56:87-96. [PMID: 30654234 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2018.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cnidarians shared a common ancestor with bilaterians more than 600 million years ago. This sister group relationship gives them an informative phylogenetic position for understanding the fascinating morphological and molecular cell type diversity of bilaterian nervous systems. Moreover, cnidarians display novel features such as endodermal neurogenesis and independently evolved centralizations, which provide a platform for understanding the evolution of nervous system innovations. In recent years, the application of modern genomic tools has significantly advanced our understanding of cnidarian nervous system structure and function. For example, transgenic reporter lines and gene knockdown experiments in several cnidarian species reveal a significant degree of conservation in the neurogenesis gene regulatory program, while single cell RNA sequencing projects are providing a much deeper understanding of cnidarian neural cell type diversity. At the level of neural function, the physiological properties of ion channels have been described and calcium imaging of the nervous system in whole animals has allowed for the identification of neural circuits underlying specific behaviours. Cnidarians have arrived in the modern era of molecular neurobiology and are primed to provide exciting new insights into the early evolution of nervous systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Rentzsch
- Sars Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, Norway; Department for Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Norway.
| | - Celina Juliano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California Davis, CA 95616, United States.
| | - Brigitte Galliot
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Institute of Genetics and Genomics in Geneva (iGE3), University of Geneva, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
91
|
Rojas Pérez Y, Etchenique R. Optical manipulation of animal behavior using a ruthenium-based phototrigger. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2019; 18:208-212. [PMID: 30421767 DOI: 10.1039/c8pp00467f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A visible-light activatable caged compound based on a ruthenium-polypyridine complex was used to elicit the feeding response of the freshwater cnidarian Hydra vulgaris. The phototrigger delivers l-arginine in a clean reaction under irradiation with blue or green light. The synthesis, characterization and application mode of this caged arginine are described. A combination of fiber-optics setup and a high absorbance medium allows the precise control of uncaging in the submillimetric range, needed to address the zone where activation takes place.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yeraldith Rojas Pérez
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Analítica y Química Física, INQUIMAE, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2, Buenos Aires (C1428EGA), Argentina.
| | - Roberto Etchenique
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Analítica y Química Física, INQUIMAE, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2, Buenos Aires (C1428EGA), Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
92
|
Gardella C, Marre O, Mora T. Modeling the Correlated Activity of Neural Populations: A Review. Neural Comput 2018; 31:233-269. [PMID: 30576613 DOI: 10.1162/neco_a_01154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The principles of neural encoding and computations are inherently collective and usually involve large populations of interacting neurons with highly correlated activities. While theories of neural function have long recognized the importance of collective effects in populations of neurons, only in the past two decades has it become possible to record from many cells simultaneously using advanced experimental techniques with single-spike resolution and to relate these correlations to function and behavior. This review focuses on the modeling and inference approaches that have been recently developed to describe the correlated spiking activity of populations of neurons. We cover a variety of models describing correlations between pairs of neurons, as well as between larger groups, synchronous or delayed in time, with or without the explicit influence of the stimulus, and including or not latent variables. We discuss the advantages and drawbacks or each method, as well as the computational challenges related to their application to recordings of ever larger populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Gardella
- Laboratoire de physique statistique, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris-Diderot, and École normale supérieure, 75005 Paris, France, and Institut de la Vision, INSERM, CNRS, and Sorbonne Université, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Olivier Marre
- Institut de la Vision, INSERM, CNRS, and Sorbonne Université, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Thierry Mora
- Laboratoire de physique statistique, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université Paris-Diderot, and École normale supérieure, 75005 Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
93
|
de Boer WDAM, Hirtz JJ, Capretti A, Gregorkiewicz T, Izquierdo-Serra M, Han S, Dupre C, Shymkiv Y, Yuste R. Neuronal photoactivation through second-harmonic near-infrared absorption by gold nanoparticles. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2018; 7:100. [PMID: 30534369 PMCID: PMC6279767 DOI: 10.1038/s41377-018-0103-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Optical activation of neurons requires genetic manipulation or the use of chemical photoactivators with undesirable side effects. As a solution to these disadvantages, here, we demonstrate optically evoked neuronal activity in mouse cortical neurons in acute slices and in vivo by nonlinear excitation of gold nanoparticles. In addition, we use this approach to stimulate individual epitheliomuscular cells and evoke body contractions in Hydra vulgaris. To achieve this, we use a low-power pulsed near-infrared excitation at the double-wavelength of the plasmon resonance of gold nanoparticles, which enables optical sectioning and allows for high spatial precision and large penetration depth. The effect is explained by second-harmonic Mie scattering, demonstrating light absorption by a second-order nonlinear process, which enables photothermal stimulation of the cells. Our approach also minimizes photodamage, demonstrating a major advancement towards precise and harmless photoactivation for neuroscience and human therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wieteke D. A. M. de Boer
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA
| | - Jan J. Hirtz
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA
| | - Antonio Capretti
- Van der Waals–Zeeman Institute, University of Amsterdam, 1098 XH Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Tom Gregorkiewicz
- Van der Waals–Zeeman Institute, University of Amsterdam, 1098 XH Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Mercè Izquierdo-Serra
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA
- Present Address: Laboratori de Fisiologia Molecular, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Shuting Han
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA
| | - Christophe Dupre
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA
| | - Yuriy Shymkiv
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA
| | - Rafael Yuste
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA
| |
Collapse
|
94
|
Karagyozov D, Mihovilovic Skanata M, Lesar A, Gershow M. Recording Neural Activity in Unrestrained Animals with Three-Dimensional Tracking Two-Photon Microscopy. Cell Rep 2018; 25:1371-1383.e10. [PMID: 30380425 PMCID: PMC6287944 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 08/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Optical recordings of neural activity in behaving animals can reveal the neural correlates of decision making, but brain motion, which often accompanies behavior, compromises these measurements. Two-photon point-scanning microscopy is especially sensitive to motion artifacts, and two-photon recording of activity has required rigid coupling between the brain and microscope. We developed a two-photon tracking microscope with extremely low-latency (360 μs) feedback implemented in hardware. This microscope can maintain continuous focus on neurons moving with velocities of 3 mm/s and accelerations of 1 m/s2 both in-plane and axially. We recorded calcium dynamics of motor neurons and inter-neurons in unrestrained freely behaving fruit fly larvae, correlating neural activity with stimulus presentations and behavioral outputs, and we measured light-induced depolarization of a visual interneuron in a moving animal using a genetically encoded voltage indicator. Our technique can be extended to stabilize recordings in a variety of moving substrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amanda Lesar
- Department of Physics, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Marc Gershow
- Department of Physics, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Neuroscience Institute, New York University, New York, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
95
|
Badhiwala KN, Gonzales DL, Vercosa DG, Avants BW, Robinson JT. Microfluidics for electrophysiology, imaging, and behavioral analysis of Hydra. LAB ON A CHIP 2018; 18:2523-2539. [PMID: 29987278 DOI: 10.1039/c8lc00475g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The nervous system of the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris exhibits remarkable regenerative abilities. When cut in two, the bisected tissue reorganizes into fully behaving animals in approximately 48 hours. Furthermore, new animals can reform from aggregates of dissociated cells. Understanding how behaviors are coordinated by this highly plastic nervous system could reveal basic principles of neural circuit dynamics underlying behaviors. However, Hydra's deformable and contractile body makes it difficult to manipulate the local environment while recording neural activity. Here, we present the first microfluidic technologies capable of simultaneous electrical, chemical, and optical interrogation of these soft, deformable organisms. Specifically, we demonstrate devices that can immobilize Hydra for hours-long simultaneous electrical and optical recording, and chemical stimulation of behaviors revealing neural activity during muscle contraction. We further demonstrate quantitative locomotive and behavioral tracking made possible by confining the animal to quasi-two-dimensional micro-arenas. Together, these proof-of-concept devices show that microfluidics provide a platform for scalable, quantitative cnidarian neurobiology. The experiments enabled by this technology may help reveal how highly plastic networks of neurons provide robust control of animal behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krishna N Badhiwala
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, Texas 77005, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
96
|
Klimovich AV, Bosch TCG. Rethinking the Role of the Nervous System: Lessons From the Hydra Holobiont. Bioessays 2018; 40:e1800060. [PMID: 29989180 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201800060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Here we evaluate our current understanding of the function of the nervous system in Hydra, a non-bilaterian animal which is among the first metazoans that contain neurons. We highlight growing evidence that the nervous system, with its rich repertoire of neuropeptides, is involved in controlling resident beneficial microbes. We also review observations that indicate that microbes affect the animal's behavior by directly interfering with neuronal receptors. These findings provide new insight into the original role of the nervous system, and suggest that it emerged to orchestrate multiple functions including host-microbiome interactions. The excitement of future research in the Hydra model now relies on uncovering the common rules and principles that govern the interaction between neurons and microbes and the extent to which such laws might apply to other and more complex organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas C G Bosch
- Zoological Institute, Christian-Albrechts University, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
97
|
Braun E, Keren K. HydraRegeneration: Closing the Loop with Mechanical Processes in Morphogenesis. Bioessays 2018; 40:e1700204. [DOI: 10.1002/bies.201700204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2017] [Revised: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erez Braun
- Department of Physics & Network Biology Research LaboratoriesTechnion – Israel Institute of TechnologyHaifaIsrael
| | - Kinneret Keren
- Department of Physics & Network Biology Research LaboratoriesTechnion – Israel Institute of TechnologyHaifaIsrael
| |
Collapse
|
98
|
Migliori B, Datta MS, Dupre C, Apak MC, Asano S, Gao R, Boyden ES, Hermanson O, Yuste R, Tomer R. Light sheet theta microscopy for rapid high-resolution imaging of large biological samples. BMC Biol 2018; 16:57. [PMID: 29843722 PMCID: PMC5975440 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-018-0521-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Advances in tissue clearing and molecular labeling methods are enabling unprecedented optical access to large intact biological systems. These developments fuel the need for high-speed microscopy approaches to image large samples quantitatively and at high resolution. While light sheet microscopy (LSM), with its high planar imaging speed and low photo-bleaching, can be effective, scaling up to larger imaging volumes has been hindered by the use of orthogonal light sheet illumination. RESULTS To address this fundamental limitation, we have developed light sheet theta microscopy (LSTM), which uniformly illuminates samples from the same side as the detection objective, thereby eliminating limits on lateral dimensions without sacrificing the imaging resolution, depth, and speed. We present a detailed characterization of LSTM, and demonstrate its complementary advantages over LSM for rapid high-resolution quantitative imaging of large intact samples with high uniform quality. CONCLUSIONS The reported LSTM approach is a significant step for the rapid high-resolution quantitative mapping of the structure and function of very large biological systems, such as a clarified thick coronal slab of human brain and uniformly expanded tissues, and also for rapid volumetric calcium imaging of highly motile animals, such as Hydra, undergoing non-isomorphic body shape changes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Migliori
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm,, Sweden
| | - Malika S Datta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Christophe Dupre
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- NeuroTechnology Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mehmet C Apak
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shoh Asano
- MIT Media Lab and McGovern Institute, Departments of Biological Engineering and Brain and Cognitive Sciences, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Pfizer Internal Medicine Research Unit, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Ruixuan Gao
- MIT Media Lab and McGovern Institute, Departments of Biological Engineering and Brain and Cognitive Sciences, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Edward S Boyden
- MIT Media Lab and McGovern Institute, Departments of Biological Engineering and Brain and Cognitive Sciences, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Ola Hermanson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm,, Sweden
| | - Rafael Yuste
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- NeuroTechnology Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
- Data Science Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Raju Tomer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- NeuroTechnology Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- Data Science Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
99
|
Han S, Taralova E, Dupre C, Yuste R. Comprehensive machine learning analysis of Hydra behavior reveals a stable basal behavioral repertoire. eLife 2018; 7:e32605. [PMID: 29589829 PMCID: PMC5922975 DOI: 10.7554/elife.32605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal behavior has been studied for centuries, but few efficient methods are available to automatically identify and classify it. Quantitative behavioral studies have been hindered by the subjective and imprecise nature of human observation, and the slow speed of annotating behavioral data. Here, we developed an automatic behavior analysis pipeline for the cnidarian Hydra vulgaris using machine learning. We imaged freely behaving Hydra, extracted motion and shape features from the videos, and constructed a dictionary of visual features to classify pre-defined behaviors. We also identified unannotated behaviors with unsupervised methods. Using this analysis pipeline, we quantified 6 basic behaviors and found surprisingly similar behavior statistics across animals within the same species, regardless of experimental conditions. Our analysis indicates that the fundamental behavioral repertoire of Hydra is stable. This robustness could reflect a homeostatic neural control of "housekeeping" behaviors which could have been already present in the earliest nervous systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuting Han
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological SciencesColumbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Ekaterina Taralova
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological SciencesColumbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Christophe Dupre
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological SciencesColumbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Rafael Yuste
- NeuroTechnology Center, Department of Biological SciencesColumbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
100
|
Takeda N, Kon Y, Quiroga Artigas G, Lapébie P, Barreau C, Koizumi O, Kishimoto T, Tachibana K, Houliston E, Deguchi R. Identification of jellyfish neuropeptides that act directly as oocyte maturation-inducing hormones. Development 2018; 145:dev.156786. [PMID: 29358214 DOI: 10.1242/dev.156786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Oocyte meiotic maturation is crucial for sexually reproducing animals, and its core cytoplasmic regulators are highly conserved between species. By contrast, the few known maturation-inducing hormones (MIHs) that act on oocytes to initiate this process are highly variable in their molecular nature. Using the hydrozoan jellyfish species Clytia and Cladonema, which undergo oocyte maturation in response to dark-light and light-dark transitions, respectively, we deduced amidated tetrapeptide sequences from gonad transcriptome data and found that synthetic peptides could induce maturation of isolated oocytes at nanomolar concentrations. Antibody preabsorption experiments conclusively demonstrated that these W/RPRPamide-related neuropeptides account for endogenous MIH activity produced by isolated gonads. We show that the MIH peptides are synthesised by neural-type cells in the gonad, are released following dark-light/light-dark transitions, and probably act on the oocyte surface. They are produced by male as well as female jellyfish and can trigger both sperm and egg release, suggesting a role in spawning coordination. We propose an evolutionary link between hydrozoan MIHs and the neuropeptide hormones that regulate reproduction upstream of MIHs in bilaterian species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noriyo Takeda
- Research Center for Marine Biology, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Asamushi, Aomori 039-3501, Japan.,Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Bioscience, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Yota Kon
- Department of Biology, Miyagi University of Education, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-0845, Japan
| | - Gonzalo Quiroga Artigas
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-mer (LBDV), 06230 Villefranche-sur-mer, France
| | - Pascal Lapébie
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-mer (LBDV), 06230 Villefranche-sur-mer, France
| | - Carine Barreau
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-mer (LBDV), 06230 Villefranche-sur-mer, France
| | - Osamu Koizumi
- Department of Environmental Science, Fukuoka Women's University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 813-8529, Japan
| | - Takeo Kishimoto
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Bioscience, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Kazunori Tachibana
- Laboratory of Cell and Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Bioscience, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Evelyn Houliston
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, CNRS, Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-mer (LBDV), 06230 Villefranche-sur-mer, France
| | - Ryusaku Deguchi
- Department of Biology, Miyagi University of Education, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-0845, Japan
| |
Collapse
|