Liposomes for delivery of antioxidants in cosmeceuticals: Challenges and development strategies

Anti-ageing peptides and proteins for topical applications: a review

Skin ageing is a cumulative result of oxidative stress, predominantly caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Respiration, pollutants, toxins, or ultraviolet A (UVA) irradiation produce ROS with 80% of skin damage attributed to UVA irradiation. Anti-ageing peptides and proteins are considered valuable compounds for removing ROS to prevent skin ageing and maintenance of skin health. In this review, skin ageing theory has been illustrated with a focus on the mechanism and relationship with anti-ageing peptides and proteins. The effects, classification, and transport pathways of anti-ageing peptides and proteins across skin are summarized and discussed. Over the last decade, several novel formulations and advanced strategies have been developed to overcome the challenges in the dermal delivery of proteins and peptides for skin ageing. This article also provides an in-depth review of the latest advancements in the dermal delivery of anti-ageing proteins and peptides. Based on these studies, this review prospected several semi-solid dosage forms to achieve topical applicability for anti-ageing peptides and proteins.

Transfersomes: a Revolutionary Nanosystem for Efficient Transdermal Drug Delivery

Transdermal delivery system has gained significance in drug delivery owing to its advantages over the conventional delivery systems. However, the barriers of stratum corneum along with skin irritation are its major limitations. Various physical and chemical techniques have been employed to alleviate these impediments. Among all these, transfersomes have shown potential for overcoming the associated limitations and successfully delivering therapeutic agents into systemic circulation. These amphipathic vesicles are composed of phospholipids and edge activators. Along with providing elasticity, edge activator also affects the vesicular size and entrapment efficiency of transfersomes. The mechanism behind the enhanced permeation of transfersomes through the skin involves their deformability and osmotic gradient across the application site. Permeation enhancers can further enhance their permeability. Biocompatibility; capacity for carrying hydrophilic, lipophilic as well as high molecular weight therapeutics; deformability; lesser toxicity; enhanced permeability; and scalability along with potential for surface modification, active targeting, and controlled release render them ideal designs for efficient drug delivery. The current review provides a brief account of the discovery, advantages, composition, synthesis, comparison with other cutaneous nano-drug delivery systems, applications, and recent developments in this area.

Nanoantioxidants: Pioneer Types, Advantages, Limitations, and Future Insights

Free radicals are generated as byproducts of normal metabolic processes as well as due to exposure to several environmental pollutants. They are highly reactive species, causing cellular damage and are associated with a plethora of oxidative stress-related diseases and disorders. Antioxidants can control autoxidation by interfering with free radical propagation or inhibiting free radical formation, reducing oxidative stress, improving immune function, and increasing health longevity. Antioxidant functionalized metal nanoparticles, transition metal oxides, and nanocomposites have been identified as potent nanoantioxidants. They can be formulated in monometallic, bimetallic, and multi-metallic combinations via chemical and green synthesis techniques. The intrinsic antioxidant properties of nanomaterials are dependent on their tunable configuration, physico-chemical properties, crystallinity, surface charge, particle size, surface-to-volume ratio, and surface coating. Nanoantioxidants have several advantages over conventional antioxidants, involving increased bioavailability, controlled release, and targeted delivery to the site of action. This review emphasizes the most pioneering types of nanoantioxidants such as nanoceria, silica nanoparticles, polydopamine nanoparticles, and nanocomposite-, polysaccharide-, and protein-based nanoantioxidants. This review overviews the antioxidant potential of biologically synthesized nanomaterials, which have emerged as significant alternatives due to their biocompatibility and high stability. The promising nanoencapsulation nanosystems such as solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and liposome nanoparticles are highlighted. The advantages, limitations, and future insights of nanoantioxidant applications are discussed.

Jabuticaba (Myrciaria jaboticaba) Peel as a Sustainable Source of Anthocyanins and Ellagitannins Delivered by Phospholipid Vesicles for Alleviating Oxidative Stress in Human Keratinocytes

The Brazilian berry scientifically known as jabuticaba is a fruit covered by a dark purple peel that is still rich in bioactives, especially polyphenols. Considering that, this work was aimed at obtaining an extract from the peel of jabuticaba fruits, identifying its main components, loading it in phospholipid vesicles specifically tailored for skin delivery and evaluating their biological efficacy. The extract was obtained by pressurized hot water extraction (PHWE), which is considered an easy and low dissipative method, and it was rich in polyphenolic compounds, especially flavonoids (ortho-diphenols and condensed tannins), anthocyanins (cyanidin 3-O-glucoside and delphinidin 3-O-glucoside) and gallic acid, which were responsible for the high antioxidant activity detected using different colorimetric methods (DPPH, FRAP, CUPRAC and metal chelation). To improve the stability and extract effectiveness, it was incorporated into ultradeformable phospholipid vesicles (transfersomes) that were modified by adding two different polymers (hydroxyethyl cellulose and sodium hyaluronate), thus obtaining HEcellulose-transfersomes and hyaluronan-transfersomes. Transfersomes without polymers were the smallest, as the addition of the polymer led to the formation of larger vesicles that were more stable in storage. The incorporation of the extract in the vesicles promoted their beneficial activities as they were capable, to a greater extent than the solution used as reference, of counteracting the toxic effect of hydrogen peroxide and even of speeding up the healing of a wound performed in a cell monolayer, especially when vesicles were enriched with polymers. Given that, polymer enriched vesicles may represent a good strategy to produce cosmetical and cosmeceutical products with beneficial properties for skin.

Environmental and Sustainability Analysis of a Supercritical Carbon Dioxide-Assisted Process for Pharmaceutical Applications

Drug delivery systems (DDS) are artificial devices employed to enhance drug bioavailability during administration to a human body. Among DDS, liposomes are spherical vesicles made of an aqueous core surrounded by phospholipids. Conventional production methods are characterized by several drawbacks; therefore, Supercritical assisted Liposome formation (SuperLip) has been developed to overcome these problems. Considering that the use of high pressures involves high energy cost, in this paper, sustainability indicators were calculated to quantitatively evaluate the emissions related to the attainment of liposomes containing daunorubicin (a model antibiotic drug) using the SuperLip process. The indicators were depicted using a spider diagram to raise the actual weaknesses of this technique; some variations were proposed in the process layout to solve the critical issues. According to the literature, many studies related to the pharmaceutical industry are expressed in terms of solid, liquid waste, and toxic emissions; however, liposomes have never explicitly been considered for an analysis of environmental sustainability.

Encapsulation of cinnamaldehyde: an insight on delivery systems and food applications

Cinnamaldehyde is an essential oil extracted from the leaves, bark, roots and flowers of cinnamon plants (genus Cinnamomum). Cinnamaldehyde has shown biological functions such as antioxidants, antimicrobials, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity and anti-cancer. However, poor solubility in water as well as molecular sensitivity to oxygen, light, and high temperature limit the direct application of cinnamaldehyde. Researchers are using different encapsulation techniques to maximize the potential biological functions of cinnamaldehyde. Different delivery systems such as liposomes, emulsions, biopolymer nanoparticles, complex coacervation, molecular inclusion, and spray drying have been developed for this purpose. The particle size and morphology, composition and physicochemical properties influence the performance of each delivery system. Consequently, the individual delivery system has its advantages and limitations for specific applications. Given the essential role of cinnamaldehyde in functional food and food preservation, appropriate approaches should be applied in the encapsulation and application of encapsulated cinnamaldehyde. This review systematically analyzes available encapsulation techniques for cinnamaldehyde in terms of their design, properties, advantages and limitations, and food application status. The information provided in this manuscript will assist in the development and widespread use of cinnamaldehyde-loaded particles in the food and beverage industries.

The emerging role of nanotechnology in skincare

The role of cosmetic products is rapidly evolving in our society, with their use increasingly seen as an essential contribution to personal wellness. This suggests the necessity of a detailed elucidation of the use of nanoparticles (NPs) in cosmetics. The aim of the present work is to offer a critical and comprehensive review discussing the impact of exploiting nanomaterials in advanced cosmetic formulations, emphasizing the beneficial effects of their extensive use in next-generation products despite a persisting prejudice around the application of nanotechnology in cosmetics. The discussion here includes an interpretation of the data underlying generic information reported on the product labels of formulations already available in the marketplace, information that often lacks details identifying specific components of the product, especially when nanomaterials are employed. The emphasis of this review is mainly focused on skincare because it is believed to be the cosmetics market sector in which the impact of nanotechnology is being seen most significantly. To date, nanotechnology has been demonstrated to improve the performance of cosmetics in a number of different ways: 1) increasing both the entrapment efficiency and dermal penetration of the active ingredient, 2) controlling drug release, 3) enhancing physical stability, 4) improving moisturizing power, and 5) providing better UV protection. Specific attention is paid to the effect of nanoparticles contained in semisolid formulations on skin penetration issues. In light of the emerging concerns about nanoparticle toxicity, an entire section has been devoted to listing detailed examples of nanocosmetic products for which safety has been investigated.

Liposomes for oral delivery of protein and peptide-based therapeutics: challenges, formulation strategies, and advances

Throughout the past decade, there has been a rapid growth in the development of protein/peptide-based therapeutics. These therapeutics have found widespread applications in the treatment of cancer, infectious diseases, and other metabolic disorders owing to their several desirable attributes, such as reduced toxicity, diverse biological activities, high specificity, and potency. Most protein/peptide-based drugs are still administered parenterally, and there is an unprecedented demand in the pharmaceutical industry to develop oral delivery routes to increase patient acceptability and convenience. Recent advancements in nanomedicine discoveries have led to the development of several nano and micro-particle-based oral delivery platforms for protein/peptide-based therapeutics and among these, liposomes have emerged as a prominent candidate. Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of one or more phospholipid bilayers enclosing a core aqueous phase. Their unique amphiphilic nature enables encapsulation of a diverse range of bioactives/drugs including both hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds for delivery. Against this backdrop, this review provides an overview of the current approaches and challenges associated with the routes and methods of oral administration of protein/peptide-based therapeutics by using liposomes as a potential vehicle. First, the conventional and innovative liposome formation approaches have been discussed along with their applications. Next, the challenges associated with current approaches for oral delivery of protein and peptide-derived therapeutics have been thoroughly addressed. Lastly, we have critically reviewed the potential of liposomes utilization as vehicles for oral delivery of proteins emphasizing the current status and future directions in this area.

Ethosomes as Nanocarriers for the Development of Skin Delivery Formulations

The use of nanotechnology has been extensively explored for developing efficient drug delivery systems towards topical and transdermal applications. Ethosomes constitute a vesicular nanocarrier containing a relatively high concentration of ethanol (20-45%). Ethanol is a well-known permeation enhancer, which confers ethosomes unique features, including high elasticity and deformability, allowing them to penetrate deeply across the skin and enhance drug permeation and deposition. The improved composition of ethosomes offer, thereby, significant advantages in the delivery of therapeutic agents over particularly the conventional liposomes regarding different pathologies, including acne, psoriasis, alopecia, skin infections, hormonal deficiencies, among others. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the ethosomal system and an assessment of its potential as an efficient nanocarrier towards the skin delivery of active ingredients. Special attention is given to the composition of ethosomes and the mechanism of skin permeation, as well as their potential applications in different pathologies, particularly skin pathologies (acne, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, skin cancer and skin infections). Some examples of ethosome-based formulations for the management of skin disorders are also highlighted. Besides the need for further studies, particularly in humans, ethosomal-based formulations hold great promise in the skin delivery of active ingredients, which increasingly asserts oneself as a viable alternative to the oral route.

Design, Preparation, and Characterization of Effective Dermal and Transdermal Lipid Nanoparticles: A Review

Limited permeability through the stratum corneum (SC) is a major obstacle for numerous skin care products. One promising approach is to use lipid nanoparticles as they not only facilitate penetration across skin but also avoid the drawbacks of conventional skin formulations. This review focuses on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs), and nanoemulsions (NEs) developed for topical and transdermal delivery of active compounds. A special emphasis in this review is placed on composition, preparation, modifications, structure and characterization, mechanism of penetration, and recent application of these nanoparticles. The presented data demonstrate the potential of these nanoparticles for dermal and transdermal delivery.

Preparation and In Vivo Evaluation of Rosmarinic Acid-Loaded Transethosomes After Percutaneous Application on a Psoriasis Animal Model

The topical use of rosmarinic acid (RA) in skin inflammatory pathologies is restricted due to its poor water solubility, poor permeability, and chemical instability. In this study, RA-loaded transethosomes-in-Carbopol® formulations have been developed to evaluate its anti-inflammatory activity on imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in mice. In vitro release profiles demonstrated sustained behavior due to the retentive action of gel and the entrapment of RA into the vesicles. However, the low viscosity of the combined formulation increased the drug release rate. Animal evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity demonstrated that transethosomes-in-gel containing dexamethasone (Dex-TE-Gel), as positive control, showed effect in all the pro-inflammatory parameters evaluated, evidencing that these drug-loaded nanocarriers have been effectively reached the site of action. In addition, transethosomes-in-gel containing RA (RA-TE-Gel) formulations produced a great reduction in the punch edema (P < 0.001) and in TNF-α and IL-6 (P < 0.05). However, non-significant differences were obtained for IL-1β, IL17, and MPO. Despite the protecting effect of Carbopol® and transethosomes on oxidation index and antioxidant activity of RA over the 7 days of treatment, however, a degradation process of this antioxidant to caffeic acid may be the cause of these in vivo results. We have also checked that the pH existing into the intercellular space of damaged cells (pH 6.8) may be affecting. Therefore, our results suggest that RA-TE-Gel could act as an effective RA formulation for skin delivery; further studies will help to understand the loss of activity at the cellular level.

Biopolymer-liposome hybrid systems for controlled delivery of bioactive compounds: Recent advances

Conventional liposomes still face many challenges associated with the poor physical and chemical stability, considerable loss of encapsulated cargo, lack of stimulus responsiveness, and rapid elimination from blood circulation. Integration of versatile functional biopolymers has emerged as an attractive strategy to overcome the limitation of usage of liposomes. This review comprehensively summarizes the most recent studies (2015-2020) and their challenges aiming at the exploration of biopolymer-liposome hybrid systems, including surface-modified liposomes, biopolymer-incorporated liposomes, guest-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome, liposome-in-hydrogel, liposome-in-film, and liposome-in-nanofiber. The physicochemical principles and key technical information underlying the combined strategies for the fabrication of polymeric liposomes, the advantages and limitations of each of the systems, and the stabilization mechanisms are discussed through various case studies. Special emphasis is directed toward the synergistic efficiencies of biopolymers and phospholipid bilayers on encapsulation, protection, and controlled delivery of bioactives (e.g., vitamins, carotenoids, phenolics, peptides, and other health-related compounds) for the biomedical, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and functional food applications. The major challenges, opportunities, and possible further developments for future studies are also highlighted.

Polymer-Lipid Pharmaceutical Nanocarriers: Innovations by New Formulations and Production Technologies

Some issues in pharmaceutical therapies such as instability, poor membrane permeability, and bioavailability of drugs can be solved by the design of suitable delivery systems based on the combination of two pillar classes of ingredients: polymers and lipids. At the same time, modern technologies are required to overcome production limitations (low productivity, high energy consumption, expensive setup, long process times) to pass at the industrial level. In this paper, a summary of applications of polymeric and lipid materials combined as nanostructures (hybrid nanocarriers) is reported. Then, recent techniques adopted in the production of hybrid nanoparticles are discussed, highlighting limitations still present that hold back the industrial implementation.

The Formation of Chitosan-Coated Rhamnolipid Liposomes Containing Curcumin: Stability and In Vitro Digestion

There is growing interest in developing biomaterial-coated liposome delivery systems to improve the stability and bioavailability of curcumin, which is a hydrophobic nutraceutical claimed to have several health benefits. The curcumin-loaded rhamnolipid liposomes (Cur-RL-Lips) were fabricated from rhamnolipid and phospholipids, and then chitosan (CS) covered the surface of Cur-RL-Lips by electrostatic interaction to form CS-coated Cur-RL-Lips. The influence of CS concentration on the physical stability and digestion of the liposomes was investigated. The CS-coated Cur-RL-Lips with RL:CS = 1:1 have a relatively small size (412.9 nm) and positive charge (19.7 mV). The CS-coated Cur-RL-Lips remained stable from pH 2 to 5 at room temperature and can effectively slow the degradation of curcumin at 80 °C; however, they were highly unstable to salt addition. In addition, compared with Cur-RL-Lips, the bioavailability of curcumin in CS-coated Cur-RL-Lips was relatively high due to its high transformation in gastrointestinal tract. These results may facilitate the design of a more efficacious liposomal delivery system that enhances the stability and bioavailability of curcumin in nutraceutical-loaded functional foods and beverages.

Proniosomal Gel for Topical Delivery of Rutin: Preparation, Physicochemical Characterization and In Vitro Toxicological Profile Using 3D Reconstructed Human Epidermis Tissue and 2D Cells

Rutin (Rut) is a natural flavonol, well-known for its broad-spectrum of therapeutic effects, including antioxidant and antitumoral activities; still, it has a reduced clinical outcome due to its limited solubility in aqueous solutions. To overcome this drawback, this study proposes a novel formulation for rutin as a proniosomal gel for cutaneous applications. The gel was prepared by coacervation phase-separation method and complies with the standard requirements in terms of particle size (140.5 ± 2.56 nm), zeta potential (−27.33 ± 0.09 mV), encapsulation capacity (> 50%), pH (7.002 ± 0.18) and rheological properties. The results showed high biocompatibility of the gel on the 3D reconstructed human epidermis model characterized by increased viability of the cells and a lack of irritant and phototoxic potential. The evaluations on 2D cells confirm the preferential cytotoxic effect of Rut on melanoma cells (IC₅₀ value = 8.601 µM, nuclear fragmentation) compared to normal keratinocytes. Our data suggest that the proniosomal gel is a promising drug carrier for Rut in the management and prevention of skin disorders.

Microalgae Encapsulation Systems for Food, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetics Applications

Microalgae are microorganisms with a singular biochemical composition, including several biologically active compounds with proven pharmacological activities, such as anticancer, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, among others. These properties make microalgae an interesting natural resource to be used as a functional ingredient, as well as in the prevention and treatment of diseases, or cosmetic formulations. Nevertheless, natural bioactives often possess inherent chemical instability and/or poor solubility, which are usually associated with low bioavailability. As such, their industrial potential as a health-promoting substance might be severely compromised. In this context, encapsulation systems are considered as a promising and emerging strategy to overcome these shortcomings due to the presence of a surrounding protective layer. Diverse systems have already been reported in the literature for natural bioactives, where some of them have been successfully applied to microalgae compounds. Therefore, this review focuses on exploring encapsulation systems for microalgae biomass, their extracts, or purified bioactives for food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic purposes. Moreover, this work also covers the most common encapsulation techniques and types of coating materials used, along with the main findings regarding the beneficial effects of these systems.

Novel Surface-Modified Bilosomes as Functional and Biocompatible Nanocarriers of Hybrid Compounds

In the present contribution, we demonstrate a new approach for functionalization of colloidal nanomaterial consisting of phosphatidylcholine/cholesterol-based vesicular systems modified by FDA-approved biocompatible components, i.e., sodium cholate hydrate acting as a biosurfactant and Pluronic P123—a symmetric triblock copolymer comprising poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and poly(propylene oxide) (PPO) blocks Eight novel bilosome formulations were prepared using the thin-film hydration method followed by sonication and extrusion in combination with homogenization technique. The optimization studies involving the influence of the preparation technique on the nanocarrier size (dynamic light scattering), charge (electrophoretic light scattering), morphology (transmission electron microscopy) and kinetic stability (backscattering profiles) revealed the most promising candidate for the co-loading of model active compounds of various solubility; namely, hydrophilic methylene blue and hydrophobic curcumin. The studies of the hybrid cargo encapsulation efficiency (UV-Vis spectroscopy) exhibited significant potential of the formulated bilosomes in further biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, including drug delivery, anticancer treatment or diagnostics.

Towards Green Nanoscience: From extraction to nanoformulation

The use of nanotechnology has revolutionized many biotechnological sectors, from bioengineering to medicine, passing through food and cosmetic fields. However, their clinic and industrial application has been into the spotlight due to their safety risk and related side effects. As a result, Green Nanoscience/Nanotechnology emerged as a strategy to prevent any associated nanotoxicity, via implementation of sustainable processes across the whole lifecycle of nanoformulation. Notwithstanding its success across inorganic nanoparticles, the green concept for organic nanoparticle elaboration is still at its infancy. This, coupled with the organic nanoparticles being the most commonly used in biomedicine, highlights the need to implement specific green principles for their elaboration. In this review, we will discuss the possible green routes for the proper design of organic nanoparticles under the umbrella of Green Nanoscience: from the extraction of nanomaterials and active compounds to their final nanoformulation.

Advancements in applications of nanotechnology in global food industry

Nanotechnology has several applications in food industry and it significantly helps in characterization, fabrication, and manipulation of nanostructures. The nanostructures improve the solubility of food ingredients in vivo, along with enhancement in their bioavailability and controlled release at the target site. These nanostructures also serve as anticaking agents, nano-additives, delivery systems for nutraceuticals, etc. Present study highlights different forms of nanoengineered structures applied in food nanotechnology to tune the characteristics of conventional food ingredients and their applications. Literature survey highlighted the application of various types of nanostructures in the food industry. The study focusses on recent advancements in preparation methods of nanostructures as food additives and packaging stuffs along with pros and cons of their application in food industry. The shortcomings associated to nanotechnology in food science have illustrated along with its tentative future perespective. The impact of eco-toxicity due to application of nanostructures has also been discussed based on recent observations. This can suppressed by the application of bioedible polymers instead of synthetic polymers.

In Vitro Evaluation of a Fluorescent Microemulsion as an Oral Delivery Carrier and its Potential Application in Tracking Bioactive Compounds Label-Free

In this work, a microemulsion emitting fluorescence was fabricated as a potential oral delivery system for bioactive compounds. In simulated oral administration, the microemulsion was characterized for its microstructure by ¹hydrogen-nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR). Results showed that microemulsions not only have good resistance to oral and gastric phases, but also lay a solid foundation for the release of bioactive compounds in the intestine. Fluorescence stability tests showed that microemulsions exhibit a remarkable fluorescence intensity in the digestive environment, indicating feasibility as a label-free delivery carrier. Moreover, in vitro release tests of bioactive compounds confirmed that an α-linolenic acid (ALA)-loaded microemulsion mainly released in the intestine, thereby achieving the aim of controlling the release of bioactive compounds. These results suggest that the synthesized fluorescent microemulsion, combining the favorable features of nontoxicity, antidigestive stability, remarkable fluorescence intensity, and controllable release, can be regarded as a promising label-free delivery carrier for oral administration.

Near-infrared photoresponsive drug delivery nanosystems for cancer photo-chemotherapy

Drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on nanomaterials have shown a promise for cancer chemotherapy; however, it remains a great challenge to localize on-demand release of anticancer drugs in tumor tissues to improve therapeutic effects and minimize the side effects. In this regard, photoresponsive DDSs that employ light as an external stimulus can offer a precise spatiotemporal control of drug release at desired sites of interest. Most photoresponsive DDSs are only responsive to ultraviolet-visible light that shows phototoxicity and/or shallow tissue penetration depth, and thereby their applications are greatly restricted. To address these issues, near-infrared (NIR) photoresponsive DDSs have been developed. In this review, the development of NIR photoresponsive DDSs in last several years for cancer photo-chemotherapy are summarized. They can achieve on-demand release of drugs into tumors of living animals through photothermal, photodynamic, and photoconversion mechanisms, affording obviously amplified therapeutic effects in synergy with phototherapy. Finally, the existing challenges and further perspectives on the development of NIR photoresponsive DDSs and their clinical translation are discussed.

Synergistic transdermal delivery of nanoethosomes embedded in hyaluronic acid nanogels for enhancing photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a new therapeutic strategy for hypertrophic scars (HS), but it is limited by low drug utilization. Transdermal delivery based on nanoethosomes (ES) has attracted considerable attention as a potential clinical strategy in PDT treating HS. However, free ES are unsatisfactory due to their instability and non-targeting, which causes non-effective delivery and low drug utilization. Herein, 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-loaded ES (ES-ALA) embedded in hyaluronic acid (HA) meshes (HA/ES-ALA), a novel synergistic transdermal delivery nanogel, are developed for enhancing PDT of HS. HA/ES-ALA has a unique structure and property to protect unilaminar ES-ALA with HA meshes and actively target hypertrophic scar fibroblasts (HSFs) with HA receptors. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrate that HA/ES-ALA has a remarkable transdermal delivery ability with penetrating channels and a membrane-fusion mechanism. Meanwhile, the synergistic delivery mechanism is visually characterized as three stages: synergistic penetration, targeting aggregation and transmembrane delivery. With the synergistic effect, HA/ES-ALA can realize a targeted transdermal delivery, and significantly improve ALA utilization and enhance PDT efficacy. The results demonstrate an effective transdermal delivery route to enhance therapy for HS as well as other skin diseases.

Innovative strategies to treat skin wounds with mangiferin: fabrication of transfersomes modified with glycols and mucin

Aim: The moisturizing properties of glycerol, the penetration enhancing capability of propylene glycol and the bioadhesive properties of mucin were combined to improve the carrier capabilities of transfersomes and the efficacy of mangiferin in the treatment of skin lesions. Materials & methods: Mangiferin was incorporated in transfersomes and glycoltransfersomes, which were also modified with mucin. The physico-chemical features were assessed, along with the efficacy against oxidative stress and skin wounds in vitro and in vivo. Results: Glycoltransfersomes promoted the deposition of mangiferin in epidermis and dermis, protected fibroblasts from oxidative stress and stimulated their proliferation. The wound healing and anti-inflammatory efficacy of glycoltransfersomes were confirmed in vivo. Conclusion: Results confirmed the potential of glycoltransfersomes in preventing/treating of skin lesions.

Fabrication, characterization and biological evaluation of silymarin nanoparticles against carbon tetrachloride-induced oxidative stress and genotoxicity in rats

This study aimed to synthesize silymarin nanoparticles (SILNPs) using chitosan nanoparticles as a delivery system and to evaluate their protective effects against CCl₄ in rats. Eight groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated for three weeks included the control group, CCl₄-treated group (100 mg/kg b.w twice a week); SIL-treated group (50 mg/lg b.w); the groups treated daily with low dose (LD) or high dose (HD) of SILNPs (25, 50 mg/kg b.w) and the groups treated with CCl₄ plus SIL, SILNPs (LD) or SILNPs (HD). Blood and tissue samples were collected for different assays. The synthesized SILNPs showed a smooth rounded shape with average particle size of 100 ± 2.8 nm. SILNPs contain the same compounds found in raw SIL and the in vitro release of SILNPs continues till 24 h. The in vivo study revealed that SIL and SILNPs at the low or high dose induced a significant improvement in the hematological parameters, liver and kidney function, lipid profile, serum cytokines, gene expression DNA fragmentation and histology of liver and kidney tissue resulted from CCl₄. It could be concluded that SILNPs can be applied in oral delivery formulations with a potential application value for liver disease therapy.

Recent Advances in the Structural Design of Photosensitive Agent Formulations Using "Soft" Colloidal Nanocarriers

The growing demand for effective delivery of photosensitive active compounds has resulted in the development of colloid chemistry and nanotechnology. Recently, many kinds of novel formulations with outstanding pharmaceutical potential have been investigated with an expansion in the design of a wide variety of "soft" nanostructures such as simple or multiple (double) nanoemulsions and lipid formulations. The latter can then be distinguished into vesicular, including liposomes and "smart" vesicles such as transferosomes, niosomes and ethosomes, and non-vesicular nanosystems with solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers. Encapsulation of photosensitive agents such as drugs, dyes, photosensitizers or antioxidants can be specifically formulated by the self-assembly of phospholipids or other amphiphilic compounds. They are intended to match unique pharmaceutic and cosmetic requirements and to improve their delivery to the target site via the most common, i.e., transdermal, intravenous or oral administration routes. Numerous surface modifications and functionalization of the nanostructures allow increasing their effectiveness and, consequently, may contribute to the treatment of many diseases, primarily cancer. An increasing article number is evidencing significant advances in applications of the different classes of the photosensitive agents incorporated in the "soft" colloidal nanocarriers that deserved to be highlighted in the present review.

Lipid-based formulations in cosmeceuticals and biopharmaceuticals

The fatty acids containing plant oils have been used as components of cosmetic formulations, and the best cosmetic function has been established for unsaturated fatty acids present in triglycerides. Many oils, fats, waxes, and phospholipids are employed as excipients in cosmetics and personal care products. Antioxidants such as carotenoids, retinoids, and tocopherols are used for their antioxidant properties because of their importance in therapeutic care. For skin care, the most important are oils with high contents of linoleic and α-linolenic acid which reduce the formation of eczemas or atopic dermatitis. These essential fatty acids incorporate into the cell membranes and regenerate the damaged lipid barrier of epidermis and restrict water loss. The unsaturated fatty acids show prominent healing effects on skin inflammation and are used in various cosmetic products. Mineral oils and waxes are also used in several products due to their property of skin tolerance, protection, cleansing, and viscosity. As cosmeceutical formulation, the nanoformulations are effective against irritated and inflamed skin and effective for therapy of atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. The lipid nanoparticles offer advantages of chemical stability and good skin compatibility that can be used for protection against radiation and aging.

Simil-Microfluidic Nanotechnology in Manufacturing of Liposomes as Hydrophobic Antioxidants Skin Release Systems

Novel nanotechnologies represent the most attractive and innovative tools to date exploited by cosmetic companies to improve the effectiveness of their formulations. In this context, nanoliposomes have had a great impact in topical preparations and dermocosmetics, allowing the transcutaneous penetration and absorption of several active ingredients and improving the stability of sensitive molecules. Despite the recent boom of this class of delivery systems, their industrial production is still limited by the lack of easily scalable production techniques. In this work, nanoliposomes for the topical administration of vitamin D3, K2, E, and curcumin, molecules with high antioxidant and skin curative properties but unstable and poorly absorbable, were produced through a novel simil-microfluidic technique. The developed high-yield semi continuous method is proposed as an alternative to face the problems linked with low productive conventional methods in order to produce antioxidant formulations with improved features. The novel technique has allowed to obtain a massive production of stable antioxidant vesicles of an 84–145 nm size range, negatively charged, and characterized by high loads and encapsulation efficiencies. The obtained products as well as the developed high-performance technology make the achieved formulations very interesting for potential topical applications in the cosmetics/cosmeceutical field.

Effects of Microwave-Assisted Opuntia Humifusa Extract in Inhibiting the Impacts of Particulate Matter on Human Keratinocyte Skin Cell

Particulate matter (PM) is one of the most important factors causing serious skin diseases, due to its generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) over the course of long-term exposure. As a source of natural antioxidants, Opuntia humifusa (O. humifusa) is a potential candidate for the design of advanced formulations to prevent PM’s harmful effects. Unfortunately, its high viscosity does not allow it to be utilized in these formulations. In this present study, a new approach to the extract of O. humifusa using high-power microwave treatment, namely microwave-assisted O. humifusa extract (MA-OHE), was investigated. The results indicated that MA-OHE not only is a reasonable viscosity extract, but also enhances O. humifusa’s antioxidant properties. Additionally, this study also found that MA-OHE exhibited outstanding antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in eliminating PM’s effects, due to suppression of AhR degradation, ROS production, and COX-2 and MMP-9 expression in HaCaT keratinocytes. It is believed that MA-OHE is a potential cosmeceutical ingredient that could be utilized to prevent PM-induced skin oxidative stress and inflammation.

Liposome co-encapsulation as a strategy for the delivery of curcumin and resveratrol

Curcumin and resveratrol are natural compounds whose strong antioxidant activities are highly beneficial in the human diet. Unfortunately, their physicochemical properties result in poor stability in their chemical and antioxidant activities, which limits their utilization in food and pharmaceutical applications. In this study, liposomal nanoencapsulation was developed as a strategy to overcome these limitations and improve the antioxidant effects of these compounds. The physicochemical characteristics of co-encapsulated liposomes were evaluated and compared to formulations containing each compound individually. Liposomes co-encapsulating curcumin and resveratrol presented a lower particle size, lower polydispersity index and greater encapsulation efficiency. The formulation of liposomes co-loading curcumin and resveratrol at 5 : 1, exhibited the lowest particle size (77.50 nm), lowest polydispersity index (0.193), highest encapsulation efficiency (reaching 80.42 ± 2.12%), and strongest 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging, lipid peroxidation inhibition capacity and reducing power. Additionally, liposomes loading both curcumin and resveratrol displayed a higher ability during preparation, storage, heating and surfactant shock than those loaded with individual polyphenol. Infrared spectroscopic and fluorescence techniques demonstrated that the curcumin mainly located in the hydrophobic acyl-chain region of liposomes, while the resveratrol orientated to the polar head groups. These orientations could have synergistic effects on the stabilization of liposomes. Our findings should guide the rational design of a co-delivery liposomal system regarding the location and orientation of bioactive compounds inside the lipid bilayer.

Curcuminoids encapsulated liposome nanoparticles as a blue light emitting diode induced photodynamic therapeutic system for cancer treatment

Unlike normal cells, cancer cells mutate to thrive in exaggerated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This potentially makes them more susceptible to small molecule-induced oxidative stress. The intracellular ROS increase in cancer cells is a potential area under investigation for the development of cancer therapeutics targeting cancer cells. Visible photons of 430-490 nm wavelengths from a blue-light emitting diode (BLED) encompass the visible region of the spectrum known to induce ROS in cancer cells. Curcuminoids (CUR) naturally occurring photosensitizers sensitized by the blue wavelength of the visible light, well known for its potent anti-inflammatory and anticancer activity. Poor solubility and bioavailability, of the compound of the small molecule CUR restrict the therapeutic potential and limits CUR to be used as a photosensitizer. Here, our research group reports the use of small molecules CUR, encapsulated in liposome nanocarriers (LIP-CUR) coupled with blue light-emitting diode (BLED) induced photodynamic therapy (BLED-PDT). In A549 cancer cells in vitro, LIP-CUR coupled with BLED initiated BLED-PDT and triggered ¹O₂, ultimately resulting in caspase-3 activated apoptotic cell death. The combination of a non-cytotoxic dose of small molecule CUR co-treated with BLED to trigger BLED-PDT could be translated and be developed as a novel strategy for the treatment of cancer.

Ablative fractional laser-assisted treatments for keratinocyte carcinomas and its precursors-Clinical review and future perspectives

Keratinocyte carcinomas (KC) are the most common malignant human neoplasms. Although surgery and destructive approaches are first-line treatments, topical therapies are commonly used. Due to limited uptake of topical agents across the skin barrier, clearance rates are often sub-optimal. In pre-clinical investigations, ablative fractional laser (AFL)-assisted drug delivery has demonstrated improved uptake of topical drugs commonly used to treat KC. In 22 clinical trials, the effect of AFL-assisted treatments has been investigated for actinic keratosis (AK; n = 14), Bowen's disease (BD; n = 5), squamous cell carcinoma (n = 1), and basal cell carcinoma (n = 7). The most substantial evidence currently exists for AFL-assisted photodynamic therapy for the treatment of AK and BD. AFL improved 12-months follow-up clearance rates of photodynamic therapy from 45.0-51.0% to 78.5-84.8% for AK and from 50.0-55.3% to 87.0-87.5% for BD. AFL-assisted pharmacological therapy is a promising tool for optimizing topical treatments of KC and its precursor lesions. Future developments include AFL-assisted immune activation, changing drug administration route of systemic therapies, and utilizing drug chemo-combinations.

Silymarin-albumin nanoplex: Preparation and its potential application as an antioxidant in nervous system in vitro and in vivo

In this study, we formulated silymarin-HSA nanoplex and assayed its ability to reduce LPS-induced toxicity in vitro and in vivo. Silymarin molecules were encapsulated into HSA nanoplex and the loading efficiency and characterization of fabricated nanoplex were performed by using HPLC, TEM, SEM, DLS, FTIR analysis, and theoretical studies. Afterwards, their protective effect against LPS (20 µg/ml) -induced toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells was investigated by MTT, ROS, and apoptosis assays. For in vivo experiments, rats were pre-treated with either silymarin or silymarin -HSA nanoplex (200 mg/kg) orally for 3 days and at third day received LPS by IP at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg, 150 min before scarification followed by SOD and CAT activity assay. The formulation of silymarin-HSA nanoplex showed a spherical shape with an average diameter between 50 nm and 150 nm, hydrodynamic radius of 188.3 nm, zeta potential of -26.6 mV, and a drug loading of 97.3%. In LPS-treated cells, pretreatments with silymarin-HSA noncomplex recovered the cell viability and decreased the ROS level and corresponding apoptosis more significantly than free silymarin. In rats, it was also depicted that, silymarin-HSA noncomplex can increase the SOD and CAT activity in brain tissue at LPS-triggered oxidative stress model more significantly than the free counterpart. Therefore, nanoformulation of silymarin improved its capability to reduce LPS-induced oxidative stress by restoring cell viability and elevation of SOD and CAT activity in vitro and in vivo, respectively. In conclusion, formulation of silymarin may hold a great promise in the development of antioxidant agents.