Presynaptic GABAA receptors facilitate spontaneous glutamate release from presynaptic terminals on mechanically dissociated rat CA3 pyramidal neurons

Two distinct and activity-dependent mechanisms contribute to autoreceptor-mediated inhibition of GABAergic afferents to hilar mossy cells

We report that bath application of 3 mum carbachol (CCh), a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist, reduces evoked IPSC amplitude recorded from hilar mossy cells in the rat dentate gyrus through a presynaptic mechanism. While CCh has been shown to inhibit evoked IPSCs in other systems, this effect is intriguing in that it does not require inhibitory action of either presynaptic muscarinic receptors or presynaptic cannabinoid receptors. Previous work from our lab has shown that identical application of CCh produces an action potential-dependent increase in ambient GABA in this system; however, inhibition of evoked IPSCs produced by both 3 and 10 mum CCh is insensitive to the GABA(B) antagonist CGP52432. Therefore we hypothesized that CCh-mediated inhibition of evoked IPSCs might be produced by activity-dependent increases in ambient GABA and subsequent activation of presynaptic GABA(A) receptors. Consistent with that hypothesis, we report that CCh-mediated inhibition of evoked IPSCs appears to be well correlated with CCh-mediated facilitation of spontaneous IPSCs and that CCh does not affect GABA(B)-mediated IPSCs recorded in the presence of the GABA(A) receptor antagonist picrotoxin. Intriguingly, however, we found that bath application of the GAT-1 transport blocker NO-711 (1 mum) produces inhibition of evoked IPSCs that is reversed by CGP52432, and that lower doses of CCh produce inhibition with greater CGP52432 sensitivity. These observations, combined with subsequent work on multiple pulse depression, reveal that feedback inhibition of GABAergic afferents to hilar mossy cells is governed by a complex relationship between two distinct and activity-dependent mechanisms.

Compound K, a metabolite of ginsenosides, facilitates spontaneous GABA release onto CA3 pyramidal neurons

Ginsenoside Rb1, a major ingredient of ginseng saponins, can affect various brain functions, including learning and memory. When ingested orally, ginsenoside Rb1 is not found in plasma as well as urine, but its metabolite compound K (ComK) reaches the systemic circulation in animals and human. Nevertheless, the pharmacological actions of ComK are still poorly known. In the present study, we investigated the effect of ComK on GABAergic spontaneous miniature inhibitory post-synaptic currents (mIPSCs) in acutely isolated rat hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons using a conventional whole-cell patch-clamp technique. While ComK significantly increased mIPSC frequency in a concentration-dependent manner, it had no effect on the current amplitude, suggesting that ComK acts pre-synaptically to increase the probability of spontaneous GABA release. ComK still increased mIPSC frequency even in a Ca(2+) -free external solution, suggesting that the ComK-induced increase spontaneous GABA release is not related to Ca(2+) influx from the extracellular space. However, the ComK-induced increase mIPSC frequency was significantly decreased after the blockade of either sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) -ATPase or Ca(2+) release channels. These results strongly suggest that ComK enhances spontaneous GABA release by increasing intraterminal Ca(2+) concentration via Ca(2+) release from pre-synaptic Ca(2+) stores. The ComK-induced modulation of inhibitory transmission onto CA3 pyramidal neurons could have a broad impact on the excitability of CA3 pyramidal neurons and affect the physiological functions mediated by the hippocampus.

Presynaptic GABAA receptors enhance transmission and LTP induction at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses

Presynaptic GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A)Rs) occur at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses. Whether and how they modulate orthodromic signaling to postsynaptic targets is poorly understood. We found that an endogenous neurosteroid that is selective for high-affinity delta subunit-containing GABA(A)Rs depolarized rat mossy fiber boutons, enhanced action potential-dependent Ca(2+) transients and facilitated glutamatergic transmission to pyramidal neurons. Conversely, blocking GABA(A)Rs hyperpolarized mossy fiber boutons, increased their input resistance, decreased spike width and attenuated action potential-dependent presynaptic Ca(2+) transients, indicating that a subset of presynaptic GABA receptors are tonically active. Blocking GABA(A)Rs also interfered with the induction of long-term potentiation at mossy fiber-CA3 synapses. Presynaptic GABA(A)Rs therefore facilitate information flow to the hippocampus both directly and by enhancing LTP.

Diverse antiepileptic drugs increase the ratio of background synaptic inhibition to excitation and decrease neuronal excitability in neurones of the rat entorhinal cortex in vitro

Although most anti-epileptic drugs are considered to have a primary molecular target, it is clear that their actions are unlikely to be limited to effects on a single aspect of inhibitory synaptic transmission, excitatory transmission or voltage-gated ion channels. Systemically administered drugs can obviously simultaneously access all possible targets, so we have attempted to determine the overall effect of diverse agents on the balance between GABAergic inhibition, glutamatergic excitation and cellular excitability in neurones of the rat entorhinal cortex in vitro. We used an approach developed for estimating global background synaptic excitation and inhibition from fluctuations in membrane potential obtained by intracellular recordings. We have previously validated this approach in entorhinal cortical neurones [Greenhill and Jones (2007a) Neuroscience 147:884–892]. Using this approach, we found that, despite their differing pharmacology, the drugs tested (phenytoin, lamotrigine, valproate, gabapentin, felbamate, tiagabine) were unified in their ability to increase the ratio of background GABAergic inhibition to glutamatergic excitation. This could occur as a result of decreased excitation concurrent with increased inhibition (phenytoin, lamotrigine, valproate), a decrease in excitation alone (gabapentin, felbamate), or even with a differential increase in both (tiagabine). Additionally, we found that the effects on global synaptic conductances agreed well with whole cell patch recordings of spontaneous glutamate and GABA release (our previous studies and further data presented here). The consistency with which the synaptic inhibition:excitation ratio was increased by the antiepileptic drugs tested was matched by an ability of all drugs to concurrently reduce intrinsic neuronal excitability. Thus, it seems possible that specific molecular targets among antiepileptic drugs are less important than the ability to increase the inhibition:excitation ratio and reduce overall neuronal and network excitability.

Presynaptic glycine receptors on hippocampal mossy fibers

Presynaptic glycine receptors (GlyRs) have been implicated in the regulation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission. Here, we characterized presynaptic GlyR-mediated currents by patch-clamp recording from mossy fiber boutons (MFBs) in rat hippocampal slices. In MFBs, focal puff-application of glycine-evoked chloride currents that were blocked by the GlyR antagonist strychnine. Their amplitudes declined substantially during postnatal development, from a mean conductance per MFB of approximately 600 pS in young to approximately 130 pS in adult animals. Single-channel analysis revealed multiple conductance states between approximately 20 and approximately 120 pS, consistent with expression of both homo- and hetero-oligomeric GlyRs. Accordingly, estimated GlyRs densities varied between 8-17 per young, and 1-3 per adult, MFB. Our results demonstrate that functional presynaptic GlyRs are present on hippocampal mossy fiber terminals and suggest a role of these receptors in the regulation of glutamate release during the development of the mossy fiber--CA3 synapse.

Propofol facilitates glutamatergic transmission to neurons of the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus

BACKGROUND

There is much evidence that the sedative component of anesthesia is mediated by gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA(A)) receptors on hypothalamic neurons responsible for arousal, notably in the tuberomammillary nucleus. These GABA(A) receptors are targeted by gamma-aminobutyric acid-mediated (GABAergic) neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO): When these neurons become active, they inhibit the arousal-producing nuclei and induce sleep. According to recent studies, propofol induces sedation by enhancing VLPO-induced synaptic inhibition, making the target cells more responsive to GABA(A). The authors explored the possibility that propofol also promotes sedation less directly by facilitating excitatory inputs to the VLPO GABAergic neurons.

METHODS

Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents were recorded from VLPO cells-principally mechanically isolated, but also in slices from rats.

RESULTS

In isolated VLPO GABAergic neurons, propofol increased the frequency of glutamatergic spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents without affecting their mean amplitude. The action of propofol was mimicked by muscimol and prevented by gabazine, respectively a specific agonist and antagonist at GABA(A) receptors. It was also suppressed by bumetanide, a blocker of Na-K-Cl cotransporter-mediated inward Cl transport. In slices, propofol also increased the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents and, at low doses, accelerated firing of VLPO cells.

CONCLUSION

Propofol induces sedation, at least in part, by increasing firing of GABAergic neurons in the VLPO, indirectly by activation of GABA(A) receptors on glutamatergic afferents: Because these axons/terminals have a relatively high internal Cl concentration, they are depolarized by GABAergic agents such as propofol, which thus enhance glutamate release.

Cation-chloride cotransporters and neuronal function

Recent years have witnessed a steep increase in studies on the diverse roles of neuronal cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs). The versatility of CCC gene transcription, posttranslational modification, and trafficking are on par with what is known about ion channels. The cell-specific and subcellular expression patterns of different CCC isoforms have a key role in modifying a neuron's electrophysiological phenotype during development, synaptic plasticity, and disease. While having a major role in controlling responses mediated by GABA(A) and glycine receptors, CCCs also show close interactions with glutamatergic signaling. A cross-talk among CCCs and trophic factors is important in short-term and long-term modification of neuronal properties. CCCs appear to be multifunctional proteins that are also involved in shaping neuronal structure at various stages of development, from stem cells to synaptogenesis. The rapidly expanding work on CCCs promotes our understanding of fundamental mechanisms that control brain development and functions under normal and pathophysiological conditions.

Ethanol enhances glutamate transmission by retrograde dopamine signaling in a postsynaptic neuron/synaptic bouton preparation from the ventral tegmental area

It is well documented that somatodendritically released dopamine is important in the excitability and synaptic transmission of midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Recently we showed that in midbrain slices, acute ethanol exposure facilitates glutamatergic transmission onto dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The VTA is a brain region critical to the rewarding effects of abused drugs, including ethanol. We hypothesized that ethanol facilitation might result from an increase in somatodendritically released dopamine, which acts retrogradely on dopamine D(1) receptors on glutamate-releasing axons and consequently leads to an increase in glutamate release onto dopaminergic neurons. To further test this hypothesis and to examine whether ethanol facilitation can occur at the single-cell level, VTA neurons were freshly isolated from rat brains using an enzyme-free procedure. These isolated neurons retain functional synaptic terminals, including those that release glutamate. Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) mediated by glutamate alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptors were recorded from these freshly isolated putative dopaminergic neurons. We found that acute application of clinically relevant concentrations of ethanol (10-80 mM) significantly facilitated the frequency of sEPSCs but not their mean amplitude. Ethanol facilitation was mimicked by the D(1) agonist SKF 38393 and by the dopamine uptake blocker GBR 12935 but was blocked by the D(1) antagonist SKF 83566, and by depleting dopamine stores with reserpine, as well as by chelating postsynaptic calcium with BAPTA. Furthermore, the sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin eliminated the facilitation of sEPSCs induced by ethanol but not by SKF 38393. These results constitute the first evidence from single isolated cells of ethanol facilitation of glutamate transmission to dopaminergic neurons in the VTA. In addition, we show that ethanol facilitation has a postsynaptic origin and a presynaptic locus. Furthermore, ethanol stimulation of a single dopaminergic neuron is capable of eliciting the release of somatodendritic dopamine, which is sufficient to influence glutamatergic transmission at individual synapses.

Presynaptic glycine receptors facilitate spontaneous glutamate release onto hilar neurons in the rat hippocampus

Although glycine receptors are found in most areas of the brain, including the hippocampus, their functional significance remains largely unknown. In the present study, we have investigated the role of presynaptic glycine receptors on excitatory nerve terminals in spontaneous glutamatergic transmission. Spontaneous EPSCs (sEPSCs) were recorded in mechanically dissociated rat dentate hilar neurons attached with native presynaptic nerve terminals using a conventional whole-cell patch recording technique under voltage-clamp conditions. Exogenously applied glycine or taurine significantly increased the frequency of sEPSCs in a concentration-dependent manner. This facilitatory effect of glycine was blocked by 1 microM strychnine, a specific glycine receptor antagonist, but was not affected by 30 microM picrotoxin. In addition, Zn(2+) (10 microM) potentiated the glycine action on sEPSC frequency. Pharmacological data suggested that the activation of presynaptic glycine receptors directly depolarizes glutamatergic terminals resulting in the facilitation of spontaneous glutamate release. Bumetanide (10 microM), a specific Na-K-2C co-transporter blocker, gradually attenuated the glycine-induced sEPSC facilitation, suggesting that the depolarizing action of presynaptic glycine receptors was due to a higher intraterminal Cl(-) concentration. The present results suggest that presynaptic glycine receptors on excitatory nerve terminals might play an important role in the excitability of the dentate gyrus-hilus-CA3 network in physiological and/or pathological conditions.

Nerve Terminal GABAA Receptors Activate Ca2+/Calmodulin-dependent Signaling to Inhibit Voltage-gated Ca2+ Influx and Glutamate Release

gamma-Aminobutyric acid type A (GABA(A)) receptors, a family of Cl(-)-permeable ion channels, mediate fast synaptic inhibition as postsynaptically enriched receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid at GABAergic synapses. Here we describe an alternative type of inhibition mediated by GABA(A) receptors present on neocortical glutamatergic nerve terminals and examine the underlying signaling mechanism(s). By monitoring the activity of the presynaptic CaM kinase II/synapsin I signaling pathway in isolated nerve terminals, we demonstrate that GABA(A) receptor activation correlated with an increase in basal intraterminal [Ca(2+)](i). Interestingly, this activation of GABA(A) receptors resulted in a reduction of subsequent depolarization-evoked Ca(2+) influx, which thereby led to an inhibition of glutamate release. To investigate how the observed GABA(A) receptor-mediated modulation operates, we determined the sensitivity of this process to the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter 1 antagonist bumetanide, as well as substitution of Ca(2+) with Ba(2+), or Ca(2+)/calmodulin inhibition by W7. All of these treatments abolished the modulation by GABA(A) receptors. Application of selective antagonists of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels (VGCCs) revealed that the GABA(A) receptor-mediated modulation of glutamate release required the specific activity of L- and R-type VGCCs. Crucially, the inhibition of release by these receptors was abolished in terminals isolated from R-type VGCC knock-out mice. Together, our results indicate that a functional coupling between nerve terminal GABA(A) receptors and L- or R-type VGCCs is mediated by Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent signaling. This mechanism provides a GABA-mediated control of glutamatergic synaptic activity by a direct inhibition of glutamate release.

TEA-induced long-term potentiation at hippocampal mossy fiber-CA3 synapses: characteristics of its induction and expression

Potassium ion channel blockade by tetraethylammonium (TEA) reportedly induces long-term potentiation (LTP) at hippocampal mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 synapses, but the characteristics of induction, expression, and modulation of the LTP remain unclear. In the present study, these features of TEA-induced LTP at MF-CA3 synapses were electrophysiologically examined using rat hippocampal slices. Synaptic responses recorded from MF-CA3 synapses were enhanced long-term by TEA application even under the blockade of NMDA receptors with D-AP5, whereas selective pharmacological blockade of T-type voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCCs) strongly inhibited TEA-induced LTP. Decrease of the paired-pulse facilitation ratio after LTP induction by TEA suggests the involvement of increased neurotransmitter release probability from MF terminals as LTP expression. The facilitative modulation of MF-CA3 LTP by GABA(A) receptor activation reported previously was reversed when bumetanide, a blocker of Na(+)-K(+)-Cl(-) co-transporters (NKCCs), was applied, suggesting that the region-specific modulation of TEA-induced LTP by GABAergic inputs at MF-CA3 synapses is due to the dominance of NKCC action at MF terminals.

Development of presynaptic inhibition onto retinal bipolar cell axon terminals is subclass-specific

Synaptic integration is modulated by inhibition onto the dendrites of postsynaptic cells. However, presynaptic inhibition at axonal terminals also plays a critical role in the regulation of neurotransmission. In contrast to the development of inhibitory synapses onto dendrites, GABAergic/glycinergic synaptogenesis onto axon terminals has not been widely studied. Because retinal bipolar cells receive subclass-specific patterns of GABAergic and glycinergic presynaptic inhibition, they are a good model for studying the development of inhibition at axon terminals. Here, using whole cell recording methods and transgenic mice in which subclasses of retinal bipolar cells are labeled, we determined the temporal sequence and patterning of functional GABAergic and glycinergic input onto the major subclasses of bipolar cells. We found that the maturation of GABAergic and glycinergic synapses onto the axons of rod bipolar cells (RBCs), on-cone bipolar cells (ON-CBCs) and off-cone bipolar cells (OFF-CBCs) were temporally distinct: spontaneous chloride-mediated currents are present in RBCs earlier in development compared with ON- and OFF-CBC, and RBCs receive GABAergic and glycinergic input simultaneously, whereas in OFF-CBCs, glycinergic transmission emerges before GABAergic transmission. Because on-CBCs show little inhibitory activity, GABAergic and glycinergic events could not be pharmacologically distinguished for these bipolar cells. The balance of GABAergic and glycinergic input that is unique to RBCs and OFF-CBCs is established shortly after the onset of synapse formation and precedes visual experience. Our data suggest that presynaptic modulation of glutamate transmission from bipolar cells matures rapidly and is differentially coordinated for GABAergic and glycinergic synapses onto distinct bipolar cell subclasses.

Presynaptic lonotropic receptors

The release of transmitters through vesicle exocytosis from nerve terminals is not constant but is subject to modulation by various mechanisms, including prior activity at the synapse and the presence of neurotransmitters or neuromodulators in the synapse. Instantaneous responses of postsynaptic cells to released transmitters are mediated by ionotropic receptors. In contrast to metabotropic receptors, ionotropic receptors mediate the actions of agonists in a transient manner within milliseconds to seconds. Nevertheless, transmitters can control vesicle exocytosis not only via slowly acting metabotropic, but also via fast acting ionotropic receptors located at the presynaptic nerve terminals. In fact, members of the following subfamilies of ionotropic receptors have been found to control transmitter release: ATP P2X, nicotinic acetylcholine, GABA(A), ionotropic glutamate, glycine, 5-HT(3), andvanilloid receptors. As these receptors display greatly diverging structural and functional features, a variety of different mechanisms are involved in the regulation of transmitter release via presynaptic ionotropic receptors. This text gives an overview of presynaptic ionotropic receptors and briefly summarizes the events involved in transmitter release to finally delineate the most important signaling mechanisms that mediate the effects of presynaptic ionotropic receptor activation. Finally, a few examples are presented to exemplify the physiological and pharmacological relevance of presynaptic ionotropic receptors.

Serotoninergic modulation of GABAergic synaptic transmission in developing rat CA3 pyramidal neurons

Serotoninergic modulation of GABAergic mIPSCs was investigated in immature (postnatal 12-16-days old) rat CA3 pyramidal neurons using a conventional whole-cell patch clamp technique. Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) (10 micromol/L) transiently and explosively increased mIPSC frequency with a small increase in the current amplitude. However, 5-HT did not affect the GABA-induced postsynaptic currents, indicating that 5-HT acts presynaptically to facilitate the probability of spontaneous GABA release. The 5-HT action on GABAergic mIPSC frequency was completely blocked by 100 nmol/L MDL72222, a selective 5-HT(3) receptor antagonist, and mimicked by mCPBG, a selective 5-HT(3) receptor agonist. The 5-HT action on GABAergic mIPSC frequency was completely occluded either in the presence of 200 mumol/L Cd2+ or in the Na+-free external solution, suggesting that the 5-HT(3) receptor-mediated facilitation of mIPSC frequency requires a Ca2+ influx passing through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels from the extracellular space, and that presynaptic 5-HT(3) receptors are less permeable to Ca2+. The 5-HT action on mIPSC frequency in the absence or presence of extracellular Na+ gradually increased with postnatal development. Such a developmental change in the 5-HT(3) receptor-mediated facilitation of GABAergic transmission would play important roles in the regulation of excitability as well as development in CA3 pyramidal neurons.

CD4+CD25- effector T-cells inhibit hippocampal long-term potentiation in vitro

During neuroinflammation T-cells invade the CNS, and may lead to the development and progression of several pathologies, of which multiple sclerosis is the most common. In these pathologies neuroinflammation is often associated with cognitive dysfunction. Using mouse hippocampal slices, we show here that CD4(+)CD25(-) T-cells inhibit long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by high-frequency stimulation. The T-cell-mediated inhibition of LTP can be prevented by blockade of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)(A) receptors. These findings provide additional insight into the multiple functions of T-cells in CNS pathologies.

Activation of presynaptic GABA(A) receptors induces glutamate release from parallel fiber synapses

The parallel fibers relay information coming into the cerebellar cortex from the mossy fibers, and they form synapses with molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) and Purkinje cells. Here we show that activation of ionotropic GABA receptors (GABA(A)Rs) induces glutamate release from parallel fibers onto both MLIs and Purkinje cells. These GABA-induced EPSCs have kinetics and amplitudes identical to random spontaneous currents (sEPSCs), but, unlike sEPSCs, they occur in bursts of between one and five successive events. The variation in amplitude of events within bursts is significantly less than the variation of all sEPSC amplitudes, suggesting that the bursts result from repetitive activation of single presynaptic fibers. Electron microscopy of immunogold-labeled alpha-1 subunits revealed GABA(A)Rs on parallel fiber terminals. We suggest that the activation of these receptors underlies the increased amplitude of parallel fiber-evoked Purkinje cell EPSCs seen with application of exogenous GABA or after the release of GABA from local interneurons. These results occur only when molecular layer GABA(A)Rs are activated, and the effects are abolished when the receptors are blocked by the GABA(A)R antagonist gabazine (5 microM). From these data, we conclude that GABA(A)Rs located on parallel fibers depolarize parallel fiber terminals beyond the threshold for Na+ channel activation and thereby induce glutamate release onto MLIs and Purkinje cells.

Multiple effects of bisphenol A, an endocrine disrupter, on GABAA receptors in acutely dissociated rat CA3 pyramidal neurons

Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine disrupter, is contained in cans, polycarbonate bottles and some dental sealants. While the toxicological effects of BPA on the endocrine system have been extensively studied, its action on the central nervous system is poorly understood. Herein, we report the effects of BPA on GABA-induced currents (I(GABA)), using a conventional whole-cell patch clamp technique from acutely isolated rat CA3 pyramidal neurons. By itself, BPA concentration-dependently elicited the membrane current, which was significantly blocked by bicuculline, a selective GABA(A) receptor antagonist. BPA potentiated the peak I(GABA) induced by lower concentrations of GABA (<10 microM) in a concentration-dependent manner. The extent of BPA-induced potentiation of I(GABA) was significantly reduced by either diazepam or ethanol, allosteric modulators of GABA(A) receptors. BPA, however, inhibited the peak I(GABA) induced by higher concentrations of GABA (>30 microM), and accelerated the desensitization rate of I(GABA). BPA also greatly inhibited the steady state I(GABA) induced by higher concentrations of GABA (>30 microM) in a noncompetitive manner. In addition, BPA affected synaptic GABA(A) receptors as it decreased the amplitude of GABAergic miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents in a concentration-dependent manner. Considering its complex modulatory effects on GABA(A) receptors, BPA might have potential toxicological effects on the central nervous system.

Glucose and hippocampal neuronal excitability: role of ATP-sensitive potassium channels

Hyperglycemia-related neuronal excitability and epileptic seizures are not uncommon in clinical practice. However, their underlying mechanism remains elusive. ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channels are found in many excitable cells, including cardiac myocytes, pancreatic beta cells, and neurons. These channels provide a link between the electrical activity of cell membranes and cellular metabolism. We investigated the effects of higher extracellular glucose on hippocampal K(ATP) channel activities and neuronal excitability. The cell-attached patch-clamp configuration on cultured hippocampal cells and a novel multielectrode recording system on hippocampal slices were employed. In addition, a simulation modeling hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons (Pinsky-Rinzel model) was analyzed to investigate the role of K(ATP) channels in the firing of simulated action potentials. We found that incremental extracellular glucose could attenuate the activities of hippocampal K(ATP) channels. The effect was concentration dependent and involved mainly in open probabilities, not single-channel conductance. Additionally, higher levels of extracellular glucose could enhance neuropropagation; this could be attenuated by diazoxide, a K(ATP) channel agonist. In simulations, high levels of intracellular ATP, used to mimic increased extracellular glucose or reduced conductance of K(ATP) channels, enhanced the firing of action potentials in model neurons. The stochastic increases in intracellular ATP levels also demonstrated an irregular and clustered neuronal firing pattern. This phenomenon of K(ATP) channel attenuation could be one of the underlying mechanisms of glucose-related neuronal hyperexcitability and propagation.

Regional differences in GABAergic modulation for TEA-induced synaptic plasticity in rat hippocampal CA1, CA3 and dentate gyrus

Tetraethylammonium (TEA), a K(+)-channel blocker, reportedly induces long-term potentiation (LTP) of hippocampal CA1 synaptic responses, but at CA3 and the dentate gyrus (DG), the characteristics of TEA-induced plasticity and modulation by inhibitory interneurons remain unclear. This study recorded field EPSPs from CA1, CA3 and DG to examine the involvement of GABAergic modulation in TEA-induced synaptic plasticity for each region. In Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses and associational fiber (AF)-CA3 synapses, bath application of TEA-induced LTP in the presence and absence of picrotoxin (PTX), a GABA(A) receptor blocker, whereas TEA-induced LTP at mossy fiber (MF)-CA3 synapses was detected only in the absence of GABA(A) receptor blockers. MF-CA3 LTP showed sensitivity to Ni(2+), but not to nifedipine. In DG, synaptic plasticity was modulated by GABAergic inputs, but characteristics differed between the afferent lateral perforant path (LPP) and medial perforant path (MPP). LPP-DG synapses showed TEA-induced LTP during PTX application, whereas at MPP-DG synapses, TEA-induced long-term depression (LTD) was seen in the absence of PTX. This series of results demonstrates that TEA-induced DG and CA3 plasticity displays afferent specificity and is exposed to GABAergic modulation in an opposite manner.

Presynaptic GABAA receptors facilitate GABAergic transmission to dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area of young rats

Gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptor (GABA(A)R)-mediated postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) were recorded from dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area of young rats in acute brain slices and from mechanically dissociated neurons. Low concentrations (0.1-0.3 microm) of muscimol, a selective GABA(A)R agonist, increased the amplitude, and reduced the paired pulse ratio of evoked IPSCs. Moreover, muscimol increased the frequency but not the amplitude of spontaneous IPSCs (sIPSCs). These data point to a presynaptic locus of muscimol action. It is interesting that 1 microm muscimol caused an inhibition of sIPSCs, which was reversed to potentiation by the GABA(B) receptor antagonist CGP52432. Isoguvacine, a selective GABA(A)R agonist that belongs to a different class, mimicked the effects of muscimol on sIPSCs: it increased them at low ( Collapse

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MESH Headings

• Animals
• Cadmium/pharmacology
• Dopamine/metabolism
• GABA Agonists/pharmacology
• In Vitro Techniques
• Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials/drug effects
• Muscimol/pharmacology
• Neurons/metabolism
• Neurons/physiology
• Presynaptic Terminals/metabolism
• Protein Isoforms/physiology
• Rats
• Rats, Sprague-Dawley
• Receptors, GABA-A/physiology
• Synaptic Transmission/physiology
• Tetrodotoxin/pharmacology
• Ventral Tegmental Area/cytology
• Ventral Tegmental Area/metabolism
• Ventral Tegmental Area/physiology
• gamma-Aminobutyric Acid/physiology

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Grants

• R01 AA011989 NIAAA NIH HHS
• AT 001182 NCCIH NIH HHS
• R21 AT001182 NCCIH NIH HHS
• AA015925 NIAAA NIH HHS
• AA11989 NIAAA NIH HHS
• R21 AA015925 NIAAA NIH HHS

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Affiliation(s)

Cheng Xiao Department of Anesthesiology, Pharmacology and Physiology, New Jersey Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, 185 South Orange Avenue, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
Chunyi Zhou
Keyong Li
Jiang-Hong Ye

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GABAergic interneurons facilitate mossy fiber excitability in the developing hippocampus

Profound activity-dependent synaptic facilitation at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses is a unique and functionally important property. Although presynaptic ionotropic receptors, such as kainate receptors, contribute partially to the facilitation in the hippocampus, the precise mechanisms of presynaptic regulation by endogenous neurotransmitters remain unclear. In this study, we report that axonal GABA(A) receptors on mossy fibers are involved in the activity-dependent facilitation during development. In immature mouse hippocampal slices, short-train stimulation (five pulses at 25 Hz) caused frequency-dependent facilitation of not only postsynaptic responses but also presynaptic fiber volleys that represent presynaptic activities. This fiber volley facilitation was inhibited by selective GABA(A) receptor antagonists, or by enkephalin that selectively suppresses excitability of interneurons. Furthermore, we directly demonstrated that this facilitation resulted from depolarization of mossy fibers in imaging experiments using a voltage-sensitive dye. This increased mossy fiber excitability caused by depolarizing action of GABA gradually decreased with development and eventually disappeared at around postnatal day 30. These results suggested that GABA released from interneurons acted on axonal GABA(A) receptors on mossy fibers and contributed at least partially to the activity- and age-dependent facilitation in the hippocampus.

GABAergic spill-over transmission onto hippocampal mossy fiber boutons

Presynaptic ionotropic GABA(A) receptors have been suggested to contribute to the regulation of cortical glutamatergic synaptic transmission. Here, we analyzed presynaptic GABA(A) receptor-mediated currents (34 degrees C) recorded from mossy fiber boutons (MFBs) in rat hippocampal slices. In MFBs from young and adult animals, GABA puff application activated currents that were blocked by GABA(A) receptor antagonists. The conductance density of 0.65 mS x cm2 was comparable to that of other presynaptic terminals. The single-channel conductance was 36 pS (symmetrical chloride), yielding an estimated GABA(A) receptor density of 20-200 receptors per MFB. Presynaptic GABA(A) receptors likely contain alpha2-subunits as indicated by their zolpidem sensitivity. In accordance with the low apparent GABA affinity (EC50 = 60 microM) of the receptors and a tight control of ambient GABA concentration by GABA transporters, no tonic background activation of presynaptic GABA(A) receptors was observed. Instead, extracellular high-frequency stimulation led to transient presynaptic currents, which were blocked by GABA(A) receptor antagonists but were enhanced by block of GAT 1 (GABA transporter 1), indicating that these currents were generated by GABA spill-over and subsequent presynaptic GABA(A) receptor activation. Presynaptic spill-over currents were depressed by pharmacological cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor activation, suggesting that GABA was released predominantly by a CB1 receptor-expressing interneuron subpopulation. Because GABA(A) receptors in axons are considered to act depolarizing, high activity of CB1 receptor-expressing interneurons will exert substantial impact on presynaptic membrane potential, thus modulating action potential-evoked transmitter release at the mossy fiber-CA3 synapse.

Activation by zonisamide, a newer antiepileptic drug, of large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel in differentiated hippocampal neuron-derived H19-7 cells

Zonisamide (ZNS; 3-sulfamoylmethyl-1,2-benzisoxazole), as one of the newer antiepileptic drugs, has been demonstrated its broad-spectrum clinical efficacy on various neuropsychiatric disorders. However, little is known regarding the mechanism of ZNS actions on ion currents in neurons. We thus investigated its effect on ion currents in differentiated hippocampal 19-7 cells. In whole-cell configuration of patch-clamp technology, the ZNS (30 microM) reversibly increased the amplitude of K+ outward currents, and paxilline (1 microM) was effective in suppressing the ZNS-induced increase of K+ outward currents. In inside-out configuration, ZNS (30 microM) applied to the intracellular face of the membrane did not alter single-channel conductance; however, it did enhance the activity of large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK(Ca)) channels primarily by decreasing mean closed time. In addition, the EC50 value for ZNS-stimulated BK(Ca) channels was 34 microM. This drug caused a left shift in the activation curve of BK(Ca) channels, with no change in the gating charge of these channels. Moreover, ZNS at a concentration greater than 100 microM also reduced the amplitude of A-type K+ current in these cells. A simulation modeling based on hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons (Pinsky-Rinzel model) was also analyzed to investigate the inhibitory effect of ZNS on the firing of simulated action potentials. Taken together, this study suggests that, in hippocampal neurons during the exposure to ZNS, the ZNS-mediated effects on BK(Ca) channels and A-type K+ current could be potential mechanisms through which it affects neuronal excitability.

Estimate of the chloride concentration in a central glutamatergic terminal: a gramicidin perforated-patch study on the calyx of Held

The function of presynaptic terminals is regulated by intracellular Cl-, the levels of which modify vesicular endocytosis and transmitter refilling and mediate the effects of presynaptic ligand-gated Cl- channels. Nevertheless, the concentration of Cl- in a central nerve terminal is unknown, and it is unclear whether terminals can regulate Cl- independently of the soma. Using perforated-patch recording in a mammalian synapse, we found that terminals accumulate Cl- up to 21 mm, between four and five times higher than in their parent cell bodies. Changing [Cl-] did not alter vesicular glutamate content in intact terminals, unlike in vitro experiments. Thus, glutamatergic terminals maintain an elevated Cl- concentration without compromising synaptic transmission.