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Lass-Hennemann J, Michael T. Endogenous cortisol levels influence exposure therapy in spider phobia. Behav Res Ther 2014; 60:39-45. [PMID: 25051297 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2014.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous research in patients with phobia showed that the administration of glucocorticoids reduces fear in phobic situations and enhances exposure therapy. Glucocorticoids underlie a daily cycle with a peak in the morning and low levels during the evening and night. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether exposure is more effective when conducted in the morning when endogenous cortisol levels are high. Sixty patients meeting DSM IV criteria for specific phobia (animal type) were randomly assigned to one-session exposure treatment either at 08.00 a.m. (high cortisol group) or at 06.00 p.m. (low cortisol group). Participants returned for a posttreatment assessment one week after therapy and a follow-up assessment three months after therapy. Both groups showed good outcome, but patients treated in the morning exhibited significantly less fear of spiders in the behavioral approach test (BAT) and a trend for lower scores on the Fear of Spiders Questionnaire (FSQ) than patients treated in the evening. This effect was present at posttreatment and follow-up. Our findings indicate that exposure therapy is more effective in the morning than in the evening. We suggest that this may be due to higher endogenous cortisol levels in the morning group that enhance extinction memory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tanja Michael
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Saarland University, Germany
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52
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Peters AC, Blechert J, Sämann PG, Eidner I, Czisch M, Spoormaker VI. One night of partial sleep deprivation affects habituation of hypothalamus and skin conductance responses. J Neurophysiol 2014; 112:1267-76. [PMID: 24920020 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00657.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep disturbances are prevalent in clinical anxiety, but it remains unclear whether they are cause and/or consequence of this condition. Fear conditioning constitutes a valid laboratory model for the acquisition of normal and pathological anxiety. To explore the relationship between disturbed sleep and anxiety in more detail, the present study evaluated the effect of partial sleep deprivation (SD) on fear conditioning in healthy individuals. The neural correlates of 1) nonassociative learning and physiological processing and 2) associative learning (differential fear conditioning) were addressed. Measurements entailed simultaneous functional MRI, EEG, skin conductance response (SCR), and pulse recordings. Regarding nonassociative learning, partial SD resulted in a generalized failure to habituate during fear conditioning, as evidenced by reduced habituation of SCR and hypothalamus responses to all stimuli. Furthermore, SCR and hypothalamus activity were correlated, supporting their functional relationship. Regarding associative learning, effects of partial SD on the acquisition of conditioned fear were weaker and did not reach statistical significance. The hypothalamus plays an integral role in the regulation of sleep and autonomic arousal. Thus sleep disturbances may play a causal role in the development of normal and possibly pathological fear by increasing the susceptibility of the sympathetic nervous system to stressful experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja C Peters
- Neuroimaging Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; and
| | - Jens Blechert
- Division of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy, and Health Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Philipp G Sämann
- Neuroimaging Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; and
| | - Ines Eidner
- Neuroimaging Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; and
| | - Michael Czisch
- Neuroimaging Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; and
| | - Victor I Spoormaker
- Neuroimaging Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany; and
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53
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Bos PA, Montoya ER, Terburg D, van Honk J. Cortisol administration increases hippocampal activation to infant crying in males depending on childhood neglect. Hum Brain Mapp 2014; 35:5116-26. [PMID: 24757127 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal studies show that exposure to parental neglect alters stress regulation and can lead to neural hyposensitivity or hypersensitivity in response to cortisol, most pronounced in the hippocampus. Cortisol, the end product of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, has also been related to parenting more directly, for example, in both sexes, cortisol levels increase when listening to infants crying, possibly to activate and facilitate effective care behavior. Severe trauma is known to negatively affect the HPA-axis in humans; however, it is unknown whether normal variation in parental care in the healthy population can alter sensitivity of the hippocampus to cortisol. Here, we investigate whether variation in experienced neglect changes neural sensitivity to cortisol when humans listen to infant crying, which is an unequivocal signal relevant for care behavior. In a placebo-controlled, within-subject neuroimaging study, we administered 40 mg cortisol to 21 healthy young males without children and used a validated task for measuring neural responses to infant crying. The Dutch version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire was used to index participants' early exposure to abuse and neglect. The data show that cortisol markedly increased hippocampal activation toward crying infants, and this effect varied significantly with parental neglect, even in our nonclinical subject sample. Without exposure to severe trauma or neglect, reduced self-experienced quality of parental care in the normal range already substantially increased hippocampal responsivity to cortisol. Altered hippocampal sensitivity to cortisol might be a cross-species marker for the risk of developing later life psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A Bos
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, J-Block, Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa
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54
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Merz CJ, Hamacher-Dang TC, Wolf OT. Exposure to stress attenuates fear retrieval in healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2014; 41:89-96. [PMID: 24495610 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The stress hormone cortisol reduces retrieval of emotional memories, which has been suggested to support the treatment of psychiatric disorders characterized by exaggerated fear-related memories. Indeed, studies in patients with anxiety disorders have indicated that the success of exposure therapy can be enhanced with accompanying cortisol administration. Fear renewal refers to the clinically relevant phenomenon that successfully extinguished fear can return after a context change. It remains to be investigated whether the effects of stress hormones on fear retrieval also generalize across different contexts. Healthy men were exposed to a fear renewal design with fear acquisition in context A and extinction in context B. Pictures of rooms served as contexts, coloured lights were introduced as conditioned stimuli (CS), and an electrical stimulation served as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). On the next day, participants were randomly assigned to a stress (Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test) or a control condition (n=20 each). We tested for fear retrieval in contexts A and B during peak cortisol concentrations after stress induction. Overall, a context×stress interaction occurred, revealing that stress attenuated skin conductance responses in the extinction context B. Stress also reduced UCS expectancy in context B. Additionally, stress abolished the renewal effect (differentiation between CS in context A) at the electrodermal level. These results demonstrate a decreased return of fear after acute exposure to stress. Stress interferes with the retrieval of the original fear memory which in turn affects extinction responding. Thus, acute stress reduces rather than promotes the return of fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian J Merz
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany.
| | - Tanja C Hamacher-Dang
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany
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55
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Benson S, Kattoor J, Kullmann JS, Hofmann S, Engler H, Forsting M, Gizewski ER, Elsenbruch S. Towards understanding sex differences in visceral pain: Enhanced reactivation of classically-conditioned fear in healthy women. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2014; 109:113-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 12/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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56
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Cornelisse S, van Ast VA, Joëls M, Kindt M. Delayed effects of cortisol enhance fear memory of trace conditioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2014; 40:257-68. [PMID: 24485497 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Corticosteroids induce rapid non-genomic effects followed by slower genomic effects that are thought to modulate cognitive function in opposite and complementary ways. It is presently unknown how these time-dependent effects of cortisol affect fear memory of delay and trace conditioning. This distinction is of special interest because the neural substrates underlying these types of conditioning may be differently affected by time-dependent cortisol effects. Delay conditioning is predominantly amygdala-dependent, while trace conditioning additionally requires the hippocampus. Here, we manipulated the timing of cortisol action during acquisition of delay and trace fear conditioning, by randomly assigning 63 men to one of three possible groups: (1) receiving 10mg hydrocortisone 240 min (slow cort) or (2) 60 min (rapid cort) before delay and trace acquisition, or (3) placebo at both times, in a double-blind design. The next day, we tested memory for trace and delay conditioning. Fear potentiated startle responses, skin conductance responses and unconditioned stimulus expectancy scores were measured throughout the experiment. The fear potentiated startle data show that cortisol intake 240 min before actual fear acquisition (slow cort) uniquely strengthened subsequent trace conditioned memory. No effects of cortisol delivery 60 min prior to fear acquisition were found on any measure of fear memory. Our findings emphasize that slow, presumably genomic, but not more rapid effects of corticosteroids enhance hippocampal-dependent fear memories. On a broader level, our findings underline that basic experimental research and clinically relevant pharmacological treatments employing corticosteroids should acknowledge the timing of corticosteroid administration relative to the learning phase, or therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Cornelisse
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Priority Program Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Vanessa A van Ast
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Kapittelweg 29, 6525, EN The Netherlands.
| | - Marian Joëls
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Priority Program Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Merel Kindt
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Priority Program Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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57
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Goldstein JM, Handa RJ, Tobet SA. Disruption of fetal hormonal programming (prenatal stress) implicates shared risk for sex differences in depression and cardiovascular disease. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:140-58. [PMID: 24355523 PMCID: PMC3917309 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Comorbidity of major depressive disorder (MDD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) represents the fourth leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and women have a two times greater risk than men. Thus understanding the pathophysiology has widespread implications for attenuation and prevention of disease burden. We suggest that sex-dependent MDD-CVD comorbidity may result from alterations in fetal programming consequent to the prenatal maternal environments that produce excess glucocorticoids, which then drive sex-dependent developmental alterations of the fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis circuitry impacting mood, stress regulation, autonomic nervous system (ANS), and the vasculature in adulthood. Evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that disruptions of pathways associated with gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) in neuronal and vascular development and growth factors have critical roles in key developmental periods and adult responses to injury in heart and brain. Understanding the potential fetal origins of these sex differences will contribute to development of novel sex-dependent therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Goldstein
- Departments of Psychiatry and Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH), Connors Center for Women's Health & Gender Biology, 1620 Tremont St. BC-3-34, Boston, MA 02120, USA; BWH, Departments of Psychiatry and Medicine, 1620 Tremont St. BC-3-34, Boston, MA 02120, USA.
| | - R J Handa
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, 425 N. Fifth Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - S A Tobet
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, 1617 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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58
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Merz CJ, Wolf OT, Schweckendiek J, Klucken T, Vaitl D, Stark R. Stress differentially affects fear conditioning in men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:2529-41. [PMID: 23790683 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Stress and fear conditioning processes are both important vulnerability factors in the development of psychiatric disorders. In behavioral studies considerable sex differences in fear learning have been observed after increases of the stress hormone cortisol. But neuroimaging experiments, which give insights into the neurobiological correlates of stress × sex interactions in fear conditioning, are lacking so far. In the current functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we tested whether a psychosocial stressor (Trier Social Stress Test) compared to a control condition influenced subsequent fear conditioning in 48 men and 48 women taking oral contraceptives (OCs). One of two pictures of a geometrical figure was always paired (conditioned stimulus, CS+) or never paired (CS-) with an electrical stimulation (unconditioned stimulus). BOLD responses as well as skin conductance responses were assessed. Sex-independently, stress enhanced the CS+/CS- differentiation in the hippocampus in early acquisition but attenuated conditioned responses in the medial frontal cortex in late acquisition. In early acquisition, stress reduced the CS+/CS- differentiation in the nucleus accumbens in men, but enhanced it in OC women. In late acquisition, the same pattern (reduction in men, enhancement in OC women) was found in the amygdala as well as in the anterior cingulate. Thus, psychosocial stress impaired the neuronal correlates of fear learning and expression in men, but facilitated them in OC women. A sex-specific modulation of fear conditioning after stress might contribute to the divergent prevalence of men and women in developing psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Josef Merz
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Germany; Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10H, 35394 Giessen, Germany.
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59
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Pabst S, Brand M, Wolf OT. Stress effects on framed decisions: there are differences for gains and losses. Front Behav Neurosci 2013; 7:142. [PMID: 24130523 PMCID: PMC3793125 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that acute stress can lead to riskier decision making. Yet, the underlying mechanisms of the stress effects on decisions under risk remain poorly understood. To gain a better understanding of decision-making processes and potential strategy application under stress, we investigated decision making in pure gain and loss domains with unequal expected values (EVs) across alternatives. We conducted an experimental study with a 2 × 2 design (stress vs. no stress and gain domain vs. loss domain). The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was utilized to induce acute stress. Controls performed the placebo-TSST (p-TSST). To validate the stress response we measured salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase concentrations. We used a modified version of the Game of Dice Task (GDT) to assess decision-making performance in a gain and a loss domain. Results showed that non-stressed participants made less risky decisions in the gain domain compared to those of the loss domain. This behavior is in accordance with previous studies and indicates the stability of the framing effect in even more complex tasks with changing EVs across alternatives. Stress did not alter risk taking behavior in the gain domain. Yet, in the loss domain stressed participants made less risky decisions compared to controls. Additionally, the data support earlier findings of longer reaction times in loss compared to gain domains due to higher cognitive effort for loss-framed decisions. It is discussed that stress may lead to reduced amygdala activation, which has been found to reduce riskier decisions in a loss domain. With respect to earlier results of riskier decisions in tasks that unite both gain and loss domains, it is discussed whether stress leads to a stronger evaluation of high gains and a neglect of losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Pabst
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum Bochum, Germany
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60
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Haaker J, Lonsdorf TB, Thanellou A, Kalisch R. Multimodal assessment of long-term memory recall and reinstatement in a combined cue and context fear conditioning and extinction paradigm in humans. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76179. [PMID: 24116095 PMCID: PMC3792118 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning to predict danger via associative learning processes is critical for adaptive behaviour. After successful extinction, persisting fear memories often emerge as returning fear. Investigation of return of fear phenomena, e.g. reinstatement, have only recently began and to date, many critical questions with respect to reinstatement in human populations remain unresolved. Few studies have separated experimental phases in time even though increasing evidence shows that allowing for passage of time (and consolidation) between experimental phases has a major impact on the results. In addition, studies have relied on a single psychophysiological dimension only (SCRs/SCL or FPS) which hampers comparability between different studies that showed both differential or generalized return of fear following a reinstatement manipulation. In 93 participants, we used a multimodal approach (fear-potentiated startle, skin conductance responses, fear ratings to asses fear conditioning (day 1), extinction (day 2) as well as delayed memory recall and reinstatement (day 8) in a paradigm that probed contextual and cued fear intra-individually. Our findings show persistence of conditioning and extinction memory over time and demonstrate that reinstated fear responses were qualitatively different between dependent variables (subjective fear ratings, FPS, SCRs) as well as between cued and contextual CSs. While only the arousal-related measurement (SCRs) showed increasing reactions following reinstatement to the cued CSs, no evidence of reinstatement was observed for the subjective ratings and fear-related measurement (FPS). In contrast, for contextual CSs, reinstatement was evident as differential and generalized reinstatement in fear ratings as well as generally elevated physiological fear (FPS) and arousal (SCRs) related measurements to all contextual CSs (generalized non-differential reinstatement). Returning fear after reinstatement likely depends on a variety of variables (experimental design, dependent measurements) and more systematic investigations with respect to critical determinants of reinstatement in humans are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Haaker
- Institute for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), Hamburg, Germany
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61
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Antov MI, Wölk C, Stockhorst U. Differential impact of the first and second wave of a stress response on subsequent fear conditioning in healthy men. Biol Psychol 2013; 94:456-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Revised: 08/24/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Daskalakis NP, Yehuda R, Diamond DM. Animal models in translational studies of PTSD. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:1895-911. [PMID: 23845512 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is of vital importance for developing biomarkers and more effective pharmacotherapy for this disorder. The design of bidirectional translational studies addressing all facets of PTSD is needed. Animal models of PTSD are needed not only to capture the complexity of PTSD behavioral characteristics, but also to address experimentally the influence of variety of factors which might determine an individual's vulnerability or resilience to trauma, e.g., genetic predisposition, early-life experience and social support. The current review covers recent translational approaches to bridge the gap between human and animal PTSD research and to create a framework for discovery of biomarkers and novel therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos P Daskalakis
- Traumatic Stress Studies Division & Laboratory of Molecular Neuropsychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA; Mental Health Care Center, PTSD Clinical Research Program & Laboratory of Clinical Neuroendocrinology and Neurochemistry, James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, USA
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63
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Merz CJ, Hermann A, Stark R, Wolf OT. Cortisol modifies extinction learning of recently acquired fear in men. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2013; 9:1426-34. [PMID: 23945999 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nst137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure therapy builds on the mechanism of fear extinction leading to decreased fear responses. How the stress hormone cortisol affects brain regions involved in fear extinction in humans is unknown. For this reason, we tested 32 men randomly assigned to receive either 30 mg hydrocortisone or placebo 45 min before fear extinction. In fear acquisition, a picture of a geometrical figure was either partially paired (conditioned stimulus; CS+) or not paired (CS-) with an electrical stimulation (unconditioned stimulus; UCS). In fear extinction, each CS was presented again, but no UCS occurred. Cortisol increased conditioned skin conductance responses in early and late extinction. In early extinction, higher activation towards the CS- than to the CS+ was found in the amygdala, hippocampus and posterior parahippocampal gyrus. This pattern might be associated with the establishment of a new memory trace. In late extinction, the placebo compared with the cortisol group displayed enhanced CS+/CS- differentiation in the amygdala, medial frontal cortex and nucleus accumbens. A change from early deactivation to late activation of the extinction circuit as seen in the placebo group seems to be needed to enhance extinction and to reduce fear. Cortisol appears to interfere with this process thereby impairing extinction of recently acquired conditioned fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Josef Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, and Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, and Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Andrea Hermann
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, and Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, and Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Rudolf Stark
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, and Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, and Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Oliver Tobias Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum, Universitätsstr. 150, 44780 Bochum, Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, and Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany
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64
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Schweckendiek J, Klucken T, Merz CJ, Kagerer S, Walter B, Vaitl D, Stark R. Learning to like disgust: neuronal correlates of counterconditioning. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:346. [PMID: 23847514 PMCID: PMC3703531 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Converging lines of research suggest that exaggerated disgust responses play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of certain anxiety disorders. One strategy that might effectively alter disgust responses is counterconditioning. In this study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine if the neuronal bases of disgust responses are altered through a counterconditioning procedure. One disgust picture (conditioned stimulus: CS+disg) announced a monetary reward, while a second disgust picture (CS-disg) was never paired with the reward. Two neutral control pictures (CS+con/CS-con) were conditioned in the same manner. Analyses of evaluative conditioning showed that both CS+ were rated significantly more positive after conditioning as compared to the corresponding CS−. Thereby, the CS+disg and the CS+con received an equal increase in valence ratings. Regarding the fMRI data, ANOVA results showed main effects of the conditioning procedure (i.e., CS+ vs. CS−) in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. Further, main effects of the picture category (disgust vs. control) were found in the bilateral insula and the orbitofrontal cortex. No interaction effects were detected. In conclusion, the results imply that learning and anticipation of reward was not significantly influenced by the disgust content of the CS pictures. This suggests that the affect induced by the disgust pictures and the affect created by the anticipation of reward may not influence the processing of each other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Schweckendiek
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen Giessen, Germany
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65
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Influence of stress on fear memory processes in an aversive differential conditioning paradigm in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:1186-97. [PMID: 23333200 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
It is widely assumed that learning and memory processes play an important role in the pathogenesis, expression, maintenance and therapy of anxiety disorders, such as phobias or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Memory retrieval is involved in symptom expression and maintenance of these disorders, while memory extinction is believed to be the underlying mechanism of behavioral exposure therapy of anxiety disorders. There is abundant evidence that stress and stress hormones can reduce memory retrieval of emotional information, whereas they enhance memory consolidation of extinction training. In this study we aimed at investigating if stress affects these memory processes in a fear conditioning paradigm in healthy human subjects. On day 1, fear memory was acquired through a standard differential fear conditioning procedure. On day 2 (24h after fear acquisition), participants either underwent a stressful cold pressor test (CPT) or a control condition, 20 min before memory retrieval testing and extinction training. Possible prolonged effects of the stress manipulation were investigated on day 3 (48 h after fear acquisition), when memory retrieval and extinction were tested again. On day 2, men in the stress group showed a robust cortisol response to stress and showed lower unconditioned stimulus (US) expectancy ratings than men in the control group. This reduction in fear memory retrieval was maintained on day 3. In women, who showed a significantly smaller cortisol response to stress than men, no stress effects on fear memory retrieval were observed. No group differences were observed with respect to extinction. In conclusion, the present study provides evidence that stress can reduce memory retrieval of conditioned fear in men. Our findings may contribute to the understanding of the effects of stress and glucocorticoids on fear symptoms in anxiety disorders and suggest that such effects may be sex-specific.
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Moriguchi Y, Touroutoglou A, Dickerson BC, Barrett LF. Sex differences in the neural correlates of affective experience. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2013; 9:591-600. [PMID: 23596188 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nst030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
People believe that women are more emotionally intense than men, but the scientific evidence is equivocal. In this study, we tested the novel hypothesis that men and women differ in the neural correlates of affective experience, rather than in the intensity of neural activity, with women being more internally (interoceptively) focused and men being more externally (visually) focused. Adult men (n = 17) and women (n = 17) completed a functional magnetic resonance imaging study while viewing affectively potent images and rating their moment-to-moment feelings of subjective arousal. We found that men and women do not differ overall in their intensity of moment-to-moment affective experiences when viewing evocative images, but instead, as predicted, women showed a greater association between the momentary arousal ratings and neural responses in the anterior insula cortex, which represents bodily sensations, whereas men showed stronger correlations between their momentary arousal ratings and neural responses in the visual cortex. Men also showed enhanced functional connectivity between the dorsal anterior insula cortex and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, which constitutes the circuitry involved with regulating shifts of attention to the world. These results demonstrate that the same affective experience is realized differently in different people, such that women's feelings are relatively more self-focused, whereas men's feelings are relatively more world-focused.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiya Moriguchi
- Department of Psychophysiology at National Institute of Mental Health, and Integrative Brain Imaging Center, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-0031, Japan.
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Zoladz PR, Diamond DM. Current status on behavioral and biological markers of PTSD: a search for clarity in a conflicting literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:860-95. [PMID: 23567521 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Revised: 03/23/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Extensive research has identified stereotypic behavioral and biological abnormalities in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), such as heightened autonomic activity, an exaggerated startle response, reduced basal cortisol levels and cognitive impairments. We have reviewed primary research in this area, noting that factors involved in the susceptibility and expression of PTSD symptoms are more complex and heterogeneous than is commonly stated, with extensive findings which are inconsistent with the stereotypic behavioral and biological profile of the PTSD patient. A thorough assessment of the literature indicates that interactions among myriad susceptibility factors, including social support, early life stress, sex, age, peri- and post-traumatic dissociation, cognitive appraisal of trauma, neuroendocrine abnormalities and gene polymorphisms, in conjunction with the inconsistent expression of the disorder across studies, confounds attempts to characterize PTSD as a monolithic disorder. Overall, our assessment of the literature addresses the great challenge in developing a behavioral and biomarker-based diagnosis of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip R Zoladz
- Department of Psychology, Sociology, & Criminal Justice, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main St., Ada, OH, 45810, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Cortisol plays a multifaceted role in major depression disorder (MDD). Diurnal rhythms are disturbed, there is increased resistance to the feedback action of glucocorticoids, excess cortisol may induce MDD, basal levels may be higher and the post-awakening cortisol surge accentuated in those at risk for MDD. Does this suggest new avenues for studying MDD or its clinical management? METHOD The relevant literature was reviewed. RESULTS Cortisol contributes to genetic variants for the risk for MDD and the way that environmental events amplify risk. The corticoids' influence begins prenatally, but continues into adulthood. The impact of cortisol at each phase depends not only on its interaction with other factors, such as psychological traits and genetic variants, but also on events that have, or have not, occurred previously. CONCLUSIONS This review suggests that the time is now right for serious consideration of the role of cortisol in a clinical context. Estimates of cortisol levels and the shape of the diurnal rhythm might well guide the understanding of subtypes of MDD and yield additional indicators for optimal treatment. Patients with disturbed cortisol rhythms might benefit from restitution of those rhythms; they may be distinct from those with more generally elevated levels, who might benefit from cortisol blockade. Higher levels of cortisol are a risk for subsequent depression. Should manipulation of cortisol or its receptors be considered as a preventive measure for some of those at very high risk of future MDD, or to reduce other cortisol-related consequences such as long-term cognitive decline?
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Affiliation(s)
- J Herbert
- Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, UK.
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The biological and psychological basis of neuroticism: Current status and future directions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:59-72. [PMID: 23068306 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Revised: 09/05/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Merz CJ, Stark R, Vaitl D, Tabbert K, Wolf OT. Stress hormones are associated with the neuronal correlates of instructed fear conditioning. Biol Psychol 2013; 92:82-9. [PMID: 22406758 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Revised: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- Alois Gessl
- Department of Internal Medicine III, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Henckens MJAG, Pu Z, Hermans EJ, van Wingen GA, Joëls M, Fernández G. Dynamically changing effects of corticosteroids on human hippocampal and prefrontal processing. Hum Brain Mapp 2012; 33:2885-97. [PMID: 21938758 PMCID: PMC6869954 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.21409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Revised: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress has a powerful impact on memory. Corticosteroids, released in response to stress, are thought to mediate, at least in part, these effects by affecting neuronal plasticity in brain regions involved in memory formation, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Animal studies have delineated aspects of the underlying physiological mechanisms, revealing rapid, nongenomic effects facilitating synaptic plasticity, followed several hours later by a gene-mediated suppression of this plasticity. Here, we tested the hypothesis that corticosteroids would also rapidly upregulate and slowly downregulate brain regions critical for episodic memory formation in humans. To target rapid and slow effects of corticosteroids on neural processing associated with memory formation, we investigated 18 young, healthy men who received 20 mg hydrocortisone either 30 or 180 min before a memory encoding task in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, counter-balanced, crossover design. We used functional MRI to measure neural responses during these memory encoding sessions, which were separated by a month. Results revealed that corticosteroids' slow effects reduced both prefrontal and hippocampal responses, while no significant rapid actions of corticosteroids were observed. Thereby, this study provides initial evidence for dynamically changing corticosteroid effects on brain regions involved in memory formation in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes J A G Henckens
- Department of Memory and Emotion, Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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van Ast VA, Vervliet B, Kindt M. Contextual control over expression of fear is affected by cortisol. Front Behav Neurosci 2012; 6:67. [PMID: 23087629 PMCID: PMC3468896 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2012.00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/25/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
At the core of anxiety disorders is the inability to use contextual information to modulate behavioral responses to potentially threatening events. Models of the pathogenesis of anxiety disorders incorporate stress and concomitant stress hormones as important vulnerability factors, while others emphasize sex as an important factor. However, translational basic research has not yet investigated the effects of stress hormones and sex on the ability to use contextual information to modulate responses to threat. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was threefold: first, we aimed at developing an experimental paradigm specifically capable of capturing contextual modulation of the expression of fear. Second, we tested whether cortisol would alter the contextualization of fear expression. Third, we aimed at assessing whether alterations in contextualization due to cortisol were different for men and women. Healthy participants (n = 42) received placebo or hydrocortisone (20 mg) prior to undergoing a newly developed differential contextual fear-conditioning paradigm. The results indicated that people rapidly acquire differential contextual modulation of the expression of fear, as measured by fear potentiated startle (FPS) and skin conductance responses (SCR). In addition, cortisol impaired the contextualization of fear expression leading to increased fear generalization on FPS data in women. The opposite pattern was found in men. Finally, as assessed by SCR, cortisol impaired differential conditioning in men. The results are in line with models suggesting heightened vulnerability in women for developing anxiety disorders after stressful events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa A van Ast
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Merz CJ, Tabbert K, Schweckendiek J, Klucken T, Vaitl D, Stark R, Wolf OT. Oral contraceptive usage alters the effects of cortisol on implicit fear learning. Horm Behav 2012; 62:531-8. [PMID: 22986336 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 09/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
An important feature of the human defense system comprises fear learning, which stress hormones can crucially modulate. However, stress hormones might influence men and women differently, in part because of interactions with sex hormones. In women, distinct stages of the menstrual cycle or the intake of oral contraceptives (OC) affect sex hormone levels. In this study, we used a differential fear conditioning paradigm with electrical stimulation as unconditioned stimulus (UCS) following one neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS+), but not another (CS-).To investigate implicit fear learning, participants were distracted from detecting the contingencies between CS and UCS. To address interaction effects of sex and stress hormones, 32 men, 30 women in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle (FO), 30 women in the luteal phase (LU), and 30 OC women received either 30 mg cortisol or a placebo. In the contrast CS+ minus CS-, an interaction between cortisol administration and sex hormone status emerged in the anterior parahippocampal gyrus and the hippocampus. Cortisol reduced fear learning in men, FO, and LU women, but enhanced it in OC women. Additionally, cortisol attenuated differential amygdala activation in the entire group. These results demonstrate that OC usage substantially modifies cortisol effects on emotional learning in women, particularly in memory-related medial temporal lobe regions. Further, a high dose of cortisol reduces amygdala differentiation pointing to a lowered learning ability of the defense system under high cortisol concentrations, irrespective of current sex hormone availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Josef Merz
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany.
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Henckens MJAG, van Wingen GA, Joëls M, Fernández G. Time-dependent effects of cortisol on selective attention and emotional interference: a functional MRI study. Front Integr Neurosci 2012; 6:66. [PMID: 22973203 PMCID: PMC3428804 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2012.00066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2012] [Accepted: 08/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute stress is known to induce a state of hypervigilance, allowing optimal detection of threats. Although one may benefit from sensitive sensory processing, it comes at the cost of unselective attention and increased distraction by irrelevant information. Corticosteroids, released in response to stress, have been shown to profoundly influence brain function in a time-dependent manner, causing rapid non-genomic and slow genomic effects. Here, we investigated how these time-dependent effects influence the neural mechanisms underlying selective attention and the inhibition of emotional distracters in humans. Implementing a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design, 65 young healthy men received 10 mg hydrocortisone either 60 min (rapid effects) or 270 min (slow effects), or placebo prior to an emotional distraction task, consisting of color-naming of either neutral or aversive words. Overall, participants responded slower to aversive compared to neutral words, indicating emotional interference with selective attention. Importantly, the rapid effects of corticosteroids increased emotional interference, which was associated with reduced amygdala inhibition to aversive words. Moreover, they induced enhanced amygdala connectivity with frontoparietal brain regions, which may reflect increased influence of the amygdala on an executive network. The slow effects of corticosteroids acted on the neural correlates of sustained attention. They decreased overall activity in the cuneus, possibly indicating reduced bottom-up attentional processing, and disrupted amygdala connectivity to the insula, potentially reducing emotional interference. Altogether, these data suggest a time-specific corticosteroid modulation of attentive processing. Whereas high circulating corticosteroid levels acutely increase emotional interference, possibly facilitating the detection of threats, a history of elevation might promote sustained attention and thereby contribute to stress-recovery of cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes J. A. G. Henckens
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University NijmegenNijmegen, Netherlands
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute, University Medical Center UtrechtUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Guido A. van Wingen
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University NijmegenNijmegen, Netherlands
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marian Joëls
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute, University Medical Center UtrechtUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Guillén Fernández
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University NijmegenNijmegen, Netherlands
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical CentreNijmegen, Netherlands
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REFERENCES. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00672.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Lebron-Milad K, Abbs B, Milad MR, Linnman C, Rougemount-Bücking A, Zeidan MA, Holt DJ, Goldstein JM. Sex differences in the neurobiology of fear conditioning and extinction: a preliminary fMRI study of shared sex differences with stress-arousal circuitry. BIOLOGY OF MOOD & ANXIETY DISORDERS 2012; 2:7. [PMID: 22738021 PMCID: PMC3416700 DOI: 10.1186/2045-5380-2-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The amygdala, hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and brain-stem subregions are implicated in fear conditioning and extinction, and are brain regions known to be sexually dimorphic. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate sex differences in brain activity in these regions during fear conditioning and extinction. METHODS Subjects were 12 healthy men comparable to 12 healthy women who underwent a 2-day experiment in a 3 T MR scanner. Fear conditioning and extinction learning occurred on day 1 and extinction recall occurred on day 2. The conditioned stimuli were visual cues and the unconditioned stimulus was a mild electric shock. Skin conductance responses (SCR) were recorded throughout the experiment as an index of the conditioned response. fMRI data (blood-oxygen-level-dependent [BOLD] signal changes) were analyzed using SPM8. RESULTS Findings showed no significant sex differences in SCR during any experimental phases. However, during fear conditioning, there were significantly greater BOLD-signal changes in the right amygdala, right rostral anterior cingulate (rACC) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in women compared with men. In contrast, men showed significantly greater signal changes in bilateral rACC during extinction recall. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate sex differences in brain activation within the fear circuitry of healthy subjects despite similar peripheral autonomic responses. Furthermore, we found that regions where sex differences were previously reported in response to stress, also exhibited sex differences during fear conditioning and extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelimer Lebron-Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General Hospital, 149 13th St, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA.
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Klucken T, Wehrum S, Schweckendiek J, Merz CJ, Hennig J, Vaitl D, Stark R. The 5-HTTLPR polymorphism is associated with altered hemodynamic responses during appetitive conditioning. Hum Brain Mapp 2012; 34:2549-60. [PMID: 22505321 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.22085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2011] [Revised: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current models suggest that a variation in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) is associated with altered amygdala reactivity not only towards negative but also towards positive stimuli, which has been neglected in the past. This association may possibly convey an elevated vulnerability for psychopathology like abuse, craving, and relapses. Since appetitive conditioning is a crucial mechanism in the pathogenesis of these psychiatric disorders, the identification of specific factors contributing to interindividual variation is important. METHODS In the present study (N = 86), an appetitive conditioning paradigm was conducted, in which a neutral stimulus (CS+) was associated with appetitive stimuli, while a second stimulus (CS-) predicted their absence. Subjects were genotyped according to the 5-HTTLPR genotype. RESULTS As the main result, we report a significant association between the 5-HTTLPR genotype and hemodynamic responses. Individuals with the s-allele displayed elevated conditioned bilateral amygdala activity in contrast to l/l-allele carriers. Further, increased hemodynamic responses in s-allele carriers were also found in the extended emotional network including the orbitofrontal cortex, the thalamus, and the ventral striatum. CONCLUSION The present findings indicate an association of the 5-HTTLPR and altered conditioned responses in appetitive conditioning. Further, the findings contribute to the ongoing debate on 5-HTTLPR dependent hemodynamic response patterns by emphasizing that s-allele carriers are not exclusively biased towards fearful, but also towards positive stimuli. In conclusion, our results imply that s-allele carriers might be better described as hyper-reactive towards salient stimuli, which may convey vulnerability for the development of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Klucken
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
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Lebron-Milad K, Abbs B, Milad MR, Linnman C, Rougemount-Bücking A, Zeidan MA, Holt DJ, Goldstein JM. Sex differences in the neurobiology of fear conditioning and extinction: a preliminary fMRI study of shared sex differences with stress-arousal circuitry. BIOLOGY OF MOOD & ANXIETY DISORDERS 2012. [PMID: 22738021 DOI: 10.1186/2045–5380–2–7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The amygdala, hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and brain-stem subregions are implicated in fear conditioning and extinction, and are brain regions known to be sexually dimorphic. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate sex differences in brain activity in these regions during fear conditioning and extinction. METHODS Subjects were 12 healthy men comparable to 12 healthy women who underwent a 2-day experiment in a 3 T MR scanner. Fear conditioning and extinction learning occurred on day 1 and extinction recall occurred on day 2. The conditioned stimuli were visual cues and the unconditioned stimulus was a mild electric shock. Skin conductance responses (SCR) were recorded throughout the experiment as an index of the conditioned response. fMRI data (blood-oxygen-level-dependent [BOLD] signal changes) were analyzed using SPM8. RESULTS Findings showed no significant sex differences in SCR during any experimental phases. However, during fear conditioning, there were significantly greater BOLD-signal changes in the right amygdala, right rostral anterior cingulate (rACC) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in women compared with men. In contrast, men showed significantly greater signal changes in bilateral rACC during extinction recall. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate sex differences in brain activation within the fear circuitry of healthy subjects despite similar peripheral autonomic responses. Furthermore, we found that regions where sex differences were previously reported in response to stress, also exhibited sex differences during fear conditioning and extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelimer Lebron-Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General Hospital, 149 13th St, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA.
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Barke A, Stahl J, Kröner-Herwig B. Identifying a subset of fear-evoking pictures from the IAPS on the basis of dimensional and categorical ratings for a German sample. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2012; 43:565-72. [PMID: 21839700 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2010] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 07/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) is a set of colour photographs depicting a wide range of subject matters. The pictures, which are widely used in research on emotions, are commonly described in terms of the dimensions of valence, arousal and dominance. Little is known, however, about discrete emotions that the pictures evoke. Our aim was to collect dimensional and categorical ratings from a German sample for a subset of IAPS pictures and to identify a set of fear-evoking pictures. METHODS 191 participants (95 female, 96 male, mean age 23.6 years) rated 298 IAPS pictures regarding valence, arousal and the evoked emotion. RESULTS 64 fear-evoking pictures were identified. Sex differences for categorical and dimensional ratings were found for a considerable number of pictures, as well as differences from the US norms. CONCLUSIONS These differences underscore the necessity of using country-specific and sex-specific norms when selecting stimuli. A detailed table with categorical and dimensional ratings for each picture is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Barke
- Georg Elias Müller Institute for Psychology, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Goßlerstr. 14, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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In the Blink of an Eye: Investigating the Role of Awareness in Fear Responding by Measuring the Latency of Startle Potentiation. Brain Sci 2012; 2:61-84. [PMID: 24962686 PMCID: PMC4061786 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci2010061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Revised: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The latency of startle reflex potentiation may shed light on the aware and unaware processes underlying associative learning, especially associative fear learning. We review research suggesting that single-cue delay classical conditioning is independent of awareness of the contingency between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US). Moreover, we discuss research that argues that conditioning independent of awareness has not been proven. Subsequently, three studies from our lab are presented that have investigated the role of awareness in classical conditioning, by measuring the minimum latency from CS onset to observed changes in reflexive behavior. In sum, research using this method shows that startle is potentiated 30 to 100 ms after CS onset following delay conditioning. Following trace fear conditioning, startle is potentiated 1500 ms after CS presentation. These results indicate that the process underlying delay conditioned responding is independent of awareness, and that trace fear conditioned responding is dependent on awareness. Finally, this method of investigating the role of awareness is discussed and future research possibilities are proposed.
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Klucken T, Alexander N, Schweckendiek J, Merz CJ, Kagerer S, Osinsky R, Walter B, Vaitl D, Hennig J, Stark R. Individual differences in neural correlates of fear conditioning as a function of 5-HTTLPR and stressful life events. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2012; 8:318-25. [PMID: 22258800 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nss005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fear learning is a crucial process in the pathogeneses of psychiatric disorders, which highlights the need to identify specific factors contributing to interindividual variation. We hypothesized variation in the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) and stressful life events (SLEs) to be associated with neural correlates of fear conditioning in a sample of healthy male adults (n = 47). Subjects were exposed to a differential fear conditioning paradigm after being preselected regarding 5-HTTLPR genotype and SLEs. Individual differences in brain activity as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), skin conductance responses and preference ratings were assessed. We report significant variation in neural correlates of fear conditioning as a function of 5-HTTLPR genotype. Specifically, the conditioned stimulus (CS(+)) elicited elevated activity within the fear-network (amygdala, insula, thalamus, occipital cortex) in subjects carrying two copies of the 5-HTTLPR S' allele. Moreover, our results revealed preliminary evidence for a significant gene-by-environment interaction, such as homozygous carriers of the 5-HTTLPR S' allele with a history of SLEs demonstrated elevated reactivity to the CS(+) in the occipital cortex and the insula. Our findings contribute to the current debate on 5-HTTLPR x SLEs interaction by investigating crucial alterations on an intermediate phenotype level which may convey an elevated vulnerability for the development of psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Klucken
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Strasse 10 H, Giessen, Germany
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Klucken T, Schweckendiek J, Koppe G, Merz C, Kagerer S, Walter B, Sammer G, Vaitl D, Stark R. Neural correlates of disgust- and fear-conditioned responses. Neuroscience 2012; 201:209-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2011] [Revised: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Henckens MJAG, van Wingen GA, Joëls M, Fernández G. Corticosteroid induced decoupling of the amygdala in men. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 22:2336-45. [PMID: 22079927 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhr313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The amygdala is a key regulator of vigilance and heightens attention toward threat. Its activity is boosted upon threat exposure and contributes to a neuroendocrine stress response via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Corticosteroids are known to control brain activity as well as HPA activity by providing negative feedback to the brain. However, it is unknown how corticosteroids affect the neural circuitry connected to the amygdala. Implementing a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design, we here investigated the effects of 10-mg hydrocortisone on amygdala-centered functional connectivity patterns in men using resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging. Results showed generally decreased functional connectivity of the amygdala by corticosteroids. Hydrocortisone reduced "positive" functional coupling of the amygdala to brain regions involved in the initiation and maintenance of the stress response; the locus coeruleus, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. Furthermore, hydrocortisone reduced "negative" functional coupling of the amygdala to the middle frontal and temporal gyrus; brain regions known to be involved in executive control. A control analysis did not show significant corticosteroid modulation of visual cortex coupling, indicating that the amygdala decoupling was not reflecting a general reduction of network connectivity. These results suggest that corticosteroids may reduce amygdala's impact on brain processing in the aftermath of stress in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes J A G Henckens
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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85
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Krugers HJ, Zhou M, Joëls M, Kindt M. Regulation of excitatory synapses and fearful memories by stress hormones. Front Behav Neurosci 2011; 5:62. [PMID: 22013419 PMCID: PMC3190121 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Memories for emotionally arousing and fearful events are generally well retained. From the evolutionary point of view this is a highly adaptive behavioral response aimed to remember relevant information. However, fearful memories can also be inappropriately and vividly (re)expressed, such as in posttraumatic stress disorder. The memory formation of emotionally arousing events is largely modulated by hormones, peptides, and neurotransmitters which are released during and after exposure to these conditions. One of the core reactions in response to a stressful situation is the rapid activation of the autonomic nervous system, which results in the release of norepinephrine in the brain. In addition, stressful events stimulate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis which slowly increases the release of glucocorticoid hormones from the adrenal glands. Here we will review how glucocorticoids and norepinephrine regulate the formation of fearful memories in rodents and humans and how these hormones can facilitate the storage of information by regulating excitatory synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harm J. Krugers
- Center for Neuroscience, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ming Zhou
- Center for Neuroscience, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marian Joëls
- Center for Neuroscience, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Center UtrechtUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Merel Kindt
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
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86
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Merz CJ, Tabbert K, Schweckendiek J, Klucken T, Vaitl D, Stark R, Wolf OT. Neuronal correlates of extinction learning are modulated by sex hormones. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2011; 7:819-30. [PMID: 21990419 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsr063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In emotional learning tasks, sex differences, stress effects and an interaction of these two moderators have often been observed. The sex hormones estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) vary over the menstrual cycle. We tested groups with different sex hormone status: 39 men, 30 women in the luteal phase (LU, high E2+P4) and 29 women taking oral contraceptives (OC, low E2+P4). They received either 30 mg cortisol or placebo prior to instructed differential fear conditioning consisting of neutral conditioned stimuli (CS) and an electrical stimulation (unconditioned stimulus; UCS). One figure (CS+) was paired with the UCS, the other figure (CS-) never. During extinction, no electrical stimulation was administered. Regarding fear acquisition, results showed higher skin conductance and higher brain responses to the CS+ compared to the CS- in several structures that were not modulated by cortisol or sex hormones. However, OC women exhibited higher CS+/CS- differentiations than men and LU women in the amygdala, thalamus, anterior cingulate and ventromedial prefrontal cortex during extinction. The suppression of endogenous sex hormones by OC seems to alter neuronal correlates of extinction. The observation that extinction is influenced by the current sex hormone availability is relevant for future studies and might also be clinically important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian J Merz
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10H, 35394 Giessen, Germany.
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87
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Wolf OT, Bauser DS, Daum I. Eyeblink conditional discrimination learning in healthy young men is impaired after stress exposure. Psychophysiology 2011; 49:164-71. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01294.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 08/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver T. Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology; Ruhr University Bochum; Bochum; Germany
| | - Denise Soria Bauser
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience; Department of Neuropsychology; Ruhr University Bochum; Bochum; Germany
| | - Irene Daum
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience; Department of Neuropsychology; Ruhr University Bochum; Bochum; Germany
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88
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Miller MW, McKinney AE, Kanter FS, Korte KJ, Lovallo WR. Hydrocortisone suppression of the fear-potentiated startle response and posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011; 36:970-80. [PMID: 21269779 PMCID: PMC3100380 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effects of oral administration of 20mg hydrocortisone on baseline and fear-potentiated startle in 63 male veterans with or without PTSD. The procedure was based on a two-session, within-subject design in which acoustic startle eyeblink responses were recorded during intervals of threat or no threat of electric shock. Results showed that the magnitude of the difference between startle responses recorded during anticipation of imminent shock compared to "safe" periods was reduced after hydrocortisone administration relative to placebo. This effect did not vary as a function of PTSD group nor were there were any significant group differences in other indices startle amplitude. Findings suggest that the acute elevations in systemic cortisol produced by hydrocortisone administration may have fear-inhibiting effects. This finding may have implications for understanding the role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis function in vulnerability and resilience to traumatic stress.
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89
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Putman P, Roelofs K. Effects of single cortisol administrations on human affect reviewed: Coping with stress through adaptive regulation of automatic cognitive processing. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011; 36:439-48. [PMID: 21194844 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2010] [Revised: 11/29/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The human stress hormone cortisol may facilitate effective coping after psychological stress. In apparent agreement, administration of cortisol has been demonstrated to reduce fear in response to stressors. For anxious patients with phobias or posttraumatic stress disorder this has been ascribed to hypothetical inhibition of retrieval of traumatic memories. However, such stress-protective effects may also work via adaptive regulation of early cognitive processing of threatening information from the environment. This paper selectively reviews the available literature on effects of single cortisol administrations on affect and early cognitive processing of affectively significant information. The concluded working hypothesis is that immediate effects of high concentration of cortisol may facilitate stress-coping via inhibition of automatic processing of goal-irrelevant threatening information and through increased automatic approach-avoidance responses in early emotional processing. Limitations in the existing literature and suggestions for future directions are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Putman
- Department of Psychology, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
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90
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Abstract
Behavioral exposure therapy of anxiety disorders is believed to rely on fear extinction. Because preclinical studies have shown that glucocorticoids can promote extinction processes, we aimed at investigating whether the administration of these hormones might be useful in enhancing exposure therapy. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 40 patients with specific phobia for heights were treated with three sessions of exposure therapy using virtual reality exposure to heights. Cortisol (20 mg) or placebo was administered orally 1 h before each of the treatment sessions. Subjects returned for a posttreatment assessment 3-5 d after the last treatment session and for a follow-up assessment after 1 mo. Adding cortisol to exposure therapy resulted in a significantly greater reduction in fear of heights as measured with the acrophobia questionnaire (AQ) both at posttreatment and at follow-up, compared with placebo. Furthermore, subjects receiving cortisol showed a significantly greater reduction in acute anxiety during virtual exposure to a phobic situation at posttreatment and a significantly smaller exposure-induced increase in skin conductance level at follow-up. The present findings indicate that the administration of cortisol can enhance extinction-based psychotherapy.
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91
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Grillon C, Heller R, Hirschhorn E, Kling MA, Pine DS, Schulkin J, Vythilingam M. Acute hydrocortisone treatment increases anxiety but not fear in healthy volunteers: a fear-potentiated startle study. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 69:549-55. [PMID: 21277566 PMCID: PMC3116445 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2010] [Revised: 12/02/2010] [Accepted: 12/04/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The debilitating effects of chronic glucocorticoids excess are well-known, but comparatively little is understood about the role of acute cortisol. Indirect evidence in rodents suggests that acute cortisone could selectively increase some forms of long-duration aversive states, such as "anxiety," but not relatively similar, briefer aversive states, such as "fear." However, no prior experimental studies in humans consider the unique effects of cortisol on anxiety and fear, using well-validated methods for eliciting these two similar but dissociable aversive states. The current study examines these effects, as instantiated with short- and long-duration threats. METHODS Healthy volunteers (n = 18) received placebo or a low (20 mg) or a high (60 mg) dose of hydrocortisone in a double-blind crossover design. Subjects were exposed repeatedly to three 150-sec duration conditions: no shock; predictable shocks, in which shocks were signaled by a short-duration threat cue; and unpredictable shocks. Aversive states were indexed by acoustic startle. Fear was operationally defined as the increase in startle reactivity during the threat cue in the predictable condition (fear-potentiated startle). Anxiety was operationally defined as the increase in baseline startle from the no shock to the two threat conditions (anxiety-potentiated startle). RESULTS Hydrocortisone affected neither baseline nor short-duration, fear-potentiated startle but increased long-duration anxiety-potentiated startle. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that hydrocortisone administration in humans selectively increases anxiety but not fear. Possible mechanisms implicated are discussed in light of prior data in rodents. Specifically, hydrocortisone might increase anxiety via sensitization of corticotrophin-releasing hormones in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Grillon
- Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2670, USA.
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92
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Starcke K, Polzer C, Wolf OT, Brand M. Does stress alter everyday moral decision-making? Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011; 36:210-9. [PMID: 20692104 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2010] [Revised: 07/12/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies in the field of neuropsychological decision-making as well as moral psychology emphasize the role of emotions in decision-making. The current study examines whether stress affects moral decision-making. We induced stress in 20 participants with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and also examined 20 participants in a control condition (Placebo TSST). The level of stress was assessed with questionnaires and endocrine markers (salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase). All participants performed a moral decision-making task in which everyday moral dilemmas were described. Dilemmas varied in emotional intensity and each offered a rather egoistic and a rather altruistic option. Results show that groups did not differ significantly in everyday moral decision-making. However, cortisol responses and egoistic decision-making in emotional dilemmas were positively correlated. Our results indicate that stress per se does not cause more egoistic decision-making in the current setting but suggest an association between the individual's cortisol stress response and egoistic decision-making in high-emotional situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Starcke
- Department of General Psychology: Cognition, University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany.
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93
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Tabbert K, Merz CJ, Klucken T, Schweckendiek J, Vaitl D, Wolf OT, Stark R. Cortisol enhances neural differentiation during fear acquisition and extinction in contingency aware young women. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2010; 94:392-401. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2010.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2010] [Accepted: 08/17/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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94
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Milad MR, Zeidan MA, Contero A, Pitman RK, Klibanski A, Rauch SL, Goldstein JM. The influence of gonadal hormones on conditioned fear extinction in healthy humans. Neuroscience 2010; 168:652-8. [PMID: 20412837 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Recent rodent studies suggest that gonadal hormones influence extinction of conditioned fear. Here we investigated sex differences in, and the influence of estradiol and progesterone on, fear extinction in healthy humans. Men and women underwent a two-day paradigm in which fear conditioning and extinction learning took place on day 1 and extinction recall was tested on day 2. Visual cues were used as the conditioned stimuli and a mild electric shock was used as the unconditioned stimulus. Skin conductance was recorded throughout the experiment and used to measure conditioned responses (CRs). Blood samples were obtained from all women to measure estradiol and progesterone levels. We found that higher estradiol during extinction learning enhanced subsequent extinction recall but had no effects on fear acquisition or extinction learning itself. Sex differences were only observed during acquisition, with men exhibiting significantly higher CRs. After dividing women into low- and high-estradiol groups, men showed comparable extinction recall to high-estradiol women, and both of these groups showed higher extinction recall than low-estradiol women. Therefore, sex differences in extinction memory emerged only after taking into account women's estradiol levels. Lower estradiol may impair extinction consolidation in women. These findings could have practical applications in the treatment of anxiety disorders through cognitive and behavioral therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA.
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95
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Memory formation under stress: Quantity and quality. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 34:584-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Revised: 11/13/2009] [Accepted: 11/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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