The tumor microenvironment. Surg Oncol. 2012;21:172-177. [PMID: 21963199 DOI: 10.1016/j.suronc.2011.09.001]

Small extracellular vesicles containing miR-192/215 mediate hypoxia-induced cancer-associated fibroblast development in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

The mechanisms underlying the hypoxic cancer cell-mediated differentiation of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) have not been elucidated yet. The present study showed that the hypoxic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells promoted CAF-like differentiation through secreting TGF-β and small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) that contain enhanced levels of miR-192/215 family miRNAs. Caveolin-1 (CAV1), which is a target gene of miR-192/215, inhibited the TGF-β/SMAD signaling and promoted CAF-like differentiation of the fibroblasts. Restoring the levels of CAV1 inhibited the hypoxic sEV- and TGF-β-induced CAF-like differentiation. The enhanced levels of miR-192/215 encapsulated in the HNSCC tissue-derived sEVs (but not serum-derived sEVs) indicated hypoxic and aggressive cancer stroma. miR-215 in the tumor tissue-derived sEVs (but not circulating sEVs) was correlated with poor overall survival of patients with HNSCC. This study demonstrated that sEVs function as a "courier" to deliver miRNAs from the cancer cells to the fibroblasts, which promotes the remodeling of the hypoxic tumor microenvironment, and that cancer tissue-derived sEV could potentially serve as a source of biomarker.

CD43 (sialophorin) is involved in the induction of extracellular matrix remodeling and angiogenesis by lung cancer cells

Aberrant expression of CD43 in malignant tumors of nonhematopoietic origin such as those from lung, cervix, colon, and breast has been shown to correlate with poor prognosis, providing tumor cells with enhanced motility, anchorage-independent growth, and in vivo tumor size, while protecting the cells of NK lysis and apoptosis. To further characterize the role of CD43 in cell transformation, we tested whether interfering its expression modified the capacity of the A549 non-small cell lung cancer cells to secrete molecules contributing to malignancy. The proteomic analysis of the secretome of serum-starved A549 cells revealed that cells expressing normal levels of CD43 released significantly high levels of molecules involved in extracellular matrix organization, angiogenesis, platelet degranulation, collagen degradation, and inflammation, as compared to CD43 RNAi cells. This data reveals a novel and unexpected role for CD43 in lung cancer development, mainly in remodeling the tumor microenvironment.

[Overview of Multiplex Immunohistochemistry and Immunofluorescence Techniques in the Lung Cancer Immunotherapy]

肺癌是目前临床上最常见的恶性肿瘤，严重威胁着患者的生命健康及生活质量。程序性细胞死亡受体1（programmed cell death receptor 1, PD-1）及其配体（programmed cell death ligand 1, PD-L1）抑制剂为非小细胞肺癌（non-small cell lung cancer, NSCLC）患者提供了新的治疗策略。现有的生物标志物检测对准确选择免疫治疗受益的患者均有一定的价值，但都存在着局限性。多标记免疫组织化学/免疫荧光（multiplex immunohistochemistry/immunofluorescence, mIHC/IF）技术允许在单一组织切片上同时检测多个抗体，并对细胞组成、细胞功能和细胞-细胞相互作用进行全面研究。国内外已有大量研究使用mIHC/IF技术对肿瘤免疫微环境（tumor immune microenvironment, TIME）下特异性免疫细胞群进行了探索，发现其有助于肺癌患者临床预后判断及疗效预测。肺癌免疫治疗时代，这项技术在转化研究和临床实践中均具有良好的应用前景。本文就mIHC/IF检测方法在肺癌免疫治疗中的研究进展进行了总结和展望。

Immune Cluster and PPI Network Analyses Identified CXCR3 as a Key Node of Immunoregulation in Head and Neck Cancer

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is significantly associated with clinical outcomes and therapeutic efficacy. However, the landscape of the head and neck cancer (HNC) microenvironment is not fully understood. Therefore, we divided HNCs into three classes according to differences in the TME to determine effective personalized treatments. We explored the immune landscape of head and neck cancer by analysing the gene expression profile of 501 cases from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data portal and validated our findings in 270 cases from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. The levels of immune components in the tumor microenvironment were evaluated via single-sample gene set enrichment (ssGSEA) analysis. The HNCs were clustered into an Immunity-H group, Immunity-M group and Immunity-L group according to 40 immune components in the tumor microenvironment. DNA damage and HLA genes play an important role in immune regulation. The patients in the Immunity-H group had a favourable survival compared with patients in the Immunity-M group and the Immunity-L group. The patients in the Immunity-H group and Immunity-M group could benefit from radiotherapy. In addition, the Immunity-L group showed the lowest immunophenoscore and had poor response to anti-PD-1 treatment. CXCR3 was demonstrated to be downregulated in the Immunity-L group, which was related to shorter OS in the TCGA and GEO databases, suggesting CXCR3 as a potential therapeutic target. Taken together, our findings proposed three new microenvironment-related phenotypes of HNCs and suggested that CXCR3 played a major role in immune regulation and could be a novel therapeutic target, providing a reference for clinical decisions and research directions in the future.

Quiescent and Activated Fibroblasts in Lateral Ventricular Meningioma With a Dura-like Membrane

BACKGROUND

Lateral ventricular meningioma (LVM) is a rare entity, accounting for 0.5%-5% of all intracranial meningiomas. This type of meningioma arises from meningothelial inclusion bodies in the tela choroidea and/or mesenchymal stroma of the choroid plexus. Although not yet fully characterized, a membranous structure is frequently observed around LVMs. This study analyzed quiescent and activated fibroblast phenotypes in LVMs with focus on the relationship between tumor growth and development of the membranous structure.

METHODS

This retrospective study analyzed 9 LVM cases for which gross total removal was achieved. Expression of the ependymal cell marker (Forkhead Box J1 [FoxJ1]) was histopathologically evaluated. The distribution of quiescent and activated fibroblasts was also analyzed using anti-fibroblast-specific protein-1 (FSP1)/S100A4 antibody and anti-α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) antibody, respectively. The control group was 5 cases with primary convexity meningioma for which Simpson grade I removal was achieved.

RESULTS

Small LVMs (≤30 mm) were covered by a FoxJ1-positive(+) ependymal cell monolayer; no αSMA(+) cells were detected in the tumor; and a thick membrane capsule was not observed. None of the convexity meningiomas showed FoxJ1(+) cells. Large LVMs (>30 mm) had thick membrane capsules without an ependymal cell monolayer, which resembled dura mater. The FSP1/S100A4(+) and αSM(+) cells were clearly concentrated in the peripheral area just below the thick dura mater-like membrane capsules.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found an association between activated fibroblasts and dura mater-like membrane capsules in LVMs. The characteristics of membranous structure in LVMs may differ depending on tumor size.

Progress in Research on Tumor Metastasis Inhibitors

Tumor metastasis is a significant cause of malignant cancer-related death. Therefore, inhibiting tumor metastasis is an effective means of treating malignant tumors. Increasing our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that govern tumor metastasis can reveal new anti-cancer targets. This article will discuss the breakthroughs in this area and the corresponding recent developments in anti-cancer drug discovery.

Cyclic Multiplexed-Immunofluorescence (cmIF), a Highly Multiplexed Method for Single-Cell Analysis

Immunotherapy harnesses the power of the adaptive immune system and has revolutionized the field of oncotherapy, as novel therapeutic strategies have been introduced into clinical use. The development of immune checkpoint inhibitors has led to durable control of disease in a subset of advanced cancer patients, such as those with melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer. However, predicting patient responses to therapy remains a major challenge, due to the remarkable genomic, epigenetic, and microenvironmental heterogeneity present in each tumor. Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer in women, where hormone receptor-positive (HR+; estrogen receptor and/or progesterone receptor) BC comprises the majority (>50%) and has better prognosis, while a minority (<20%) are triple negative BC (TNBC), which has an aggressive phenotype. There is a clinical need to identify predictors of late recurrence in HR+ BC and predictors of immunotherapy outcomes in advanced TNBC. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) have recently been shown to predict late recurrence in HR+, counter to the findings that TILs confer good prognosis in TNBC and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 positive (HER2+) subtypes. Furthermore, the spatial arrangement of TILs also appears to have prognostic value, with dense clusters of immune cells predicting poor prognosis in HR+ and good prognosis in TNBC. Whether TIL clusters in different breast cancer subtypes represent the same or different landscapes of TILs is unknown and may have treatment implications for a significant portion of breast cancer patients. Current histopathological staining technology is not sufficient for characterizing the ensembles of TILs and their spatial patterns, in addition to tumor and microenvironmental heterogeneity. However, recent advances in cyclic immunofluorescence enable differentiation of the subsets based on TILs, tumor heterogeneity, and microenvironment composition between good and poor responders. A computational framework for understanding the importance of the spatial relationships between TILs and tumor cells in cancer tissues, which will allow for quantitative interpretation of cyclic immunostaining, is also under development. This chapter will explore the workflow for a newly developed cyclic multiplexed-immunofluorescence (cmIF) assay, which has been optimized for formalin-fixed. paraffin-embedded tissues and developed to process digital images for quantitative single-cell based spatial analysis of tumor heterogeneity and microenvironment, including immune cell composition.

Hypoxia and Oxygen-Sensing Signaling in Gene Regulation and Cancer Progression

Oxygen homeostasis regulation is the most fundamental cellular process for adjusting physiological oxygen variations, and its irregularity leads to various human diseases, including cancer. Hypoxia is closely associated with cancer development, and hypoxia/oxygen-sensing signaling plays critical roles in the modulation of cancer progression. The key molecules of the hypoxia/oxygen-sensing signaling include the transcriptional regulator hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) which widely controls oxygen responsive genes, the central members of the 2-oxoglutarate (2-OG)-dependent dioxygenases, such as prolyl hydroxylase (PHD or EglN), and an E3 ubiquitin ligase component for HIF degeneration called von Hippel–Lindau (encoding protein pVHL). In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about the canonical hypoxia signaling, HIF transcription factors, and pVHL. In addition, the role of 2-OG-dependent enzymes, such as DNA/RNA-modifying enzymes, JmjC domain-containing enzymes, and prolyl hydroxylases, in gene regulation of cancer progression, is specifically reviewed. We also discuss the therapeutic advancement of targeting hypoxia and oxygen sensing pathways in cancer.

Peritumoral immune infiltrates in primary tumours are not associated with the presence of axillary lymph node metastasis in breast cancer: a retrospective cohort study

Background

The axillary lymph nodes (ALNs) in breast cancer patients are the body regions to where tumoral cells most often first disseminate. The tumour immune response is important for breast cancer patient outcome, and some studies have evaluated its involvement in ALN metastasis development. Most studies have focused on the intratumoral immune response, but very few have evaluated the peritumoral immune response. The aim of the present article is to evaluate the immune infiltrates of the peritumoral area and their association with the presence of ALN metastases.

Methods

The concentration of 11 immune markers in the peritumoral areas was studied in 149 patients diagnosed with invasive breast carcinoma of no special type (half of whom had ALN metastasis at diagnosis) using tissue microarrays, immunohistochemistry and digital image analysis procedures. The differences in the concentration of the immune response of peritumoral areas between patients diagnosed with and without metastasis in their ALNs were evaluated. A multivariate logistic regression model was developed to identify the clinical-pathological variables and the peritumoral immune markers independently associated with having or not having ALN metastases at diagnosis.

Results

No statistically significant differences were found in the concentrations of the 11 immune markers between patients diagnosed with or without ALN metastases. Patients with metastases in their ALNs had a higher histological grade, more lymphovascular and perineural invasion and larger-diameter tumours. The multivariate analysis, after validation by bootstrap simulation, revealed that only tumour diameter (OR = 1.04; 95% CI [1.00–1.07]; p = 0.026), lymphovascular invasion (OR = 25.42; 95% CI [9.57–67.55]; p < 0.001) and histological grades 2 (OR = 3.84; 95% CI [1.11–13.28]; p = 0.033) and 3 (OR = 5.18; 95% CI [1.40–19.17]; p = 0.014) were associated with the presence of ALN metastases at diagnosis. This study is one of the first to study the association of the peritumoral immune response with ALN metastasis. We did not find any association of peritumoral immune infiltrates with the presence of ALN metastasis. Nevertheless, this does not rule out the possibility that other peritumoral immune populations are associated with ALN metastasis. This matter needs to be examined in greater depth, broadening the types of peritumoral immune cells studied, and including new peritumoral areas, such as the germinal centres of the peritumoral tertiary lymphoid structures found in extensively infiltrated neoplastic lesions.

Idarubicin-Loaded ONCOZENE Drug-Eluting Bead Chemoembolization in a Rabbit Liver Tumor Model: Investigating Safety, Therapeutic Efficacy, and Effects on Tumor Microenvironment

PURPOSE

To investigate toxicity, efficacy, and microenvironmental effects of idarubicin-loaded 40-μm and 100-μm drug-eluting embolic (DEE) transarterial chemoembolization in a rabbit liver tumor model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twelve male New Zealand White rabbits with orthotopically implanted VX2 liver tumors were assigned to DEE chemoembolization with 40-μm (n = 5) or 100-μm (n = 4) ONCOZENE microspheres or no treatment (control; n = 3). At 24-72 hours postprocedurally, multiparametric magnetic resonance (MR) imaging including dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE), diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI), and biosensor imaging of redundant deviation in shifts (BIRDS) was performed to assess extracellular pH (pHe), followed by immediate euthanasia. Laboratory parameters and histopathologic ex vivo analysis included fluorescence confocal microscopy and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

DCE MR imaging demonstrated a similar degree of devascularization of embolized tumors for both microsphere sizes (mean arterial enhancement, 8% ± 12 vs 36% ± 51 in controls; P = .07). Similarly, DWI showed postprocedural increases in diffusion across the entire lesion (apparent diffusion coefficient, 1.89 × 10^-3 mm²/s ± 0.18 vs 2.34 × 10^-3 mm²/s ± 0.18 in liver; P = .002). BIRDS demonstrated profound tumor acidosis at baseline (mean pHe, 6.79 ± 0.08 in tumor vs 7.13 ± 0.08 in liver; P = .02) and after chemoembolization (6.8 ± 0.06 in tumor vs 7.1 ± 0.04 in liver; P = .007). Laboratory and ex vivo analyses showed central tumor core penetration and greater increase in liver enzymes for 40-μm vs 100-μm microspheres. Inhibition of cell proliferation, intratumoral hypoxia, and limited idarubicin elution were equally observed with both sphere sizes.

CONCLUSIONS

Noninvasive multiparametric MR imaging visualized chemoembolic effects in tumor and tumor microenvironment following DEE chemoembolization. Devascularization, increased hypoxia, coagulative necrosis, tumor acidosis, and limited idarubicin elution suggest ischemia as the predominant therapeutic mechanism. Substantial size-dependent differences indicate greater toxicity with the smaller microsphere diameter.

Tumoral and stromal expression of MMP-2, MMP-9, MMP-14, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, and VEGF-A in cervical cancer patient survival: a competing risk analysis

BACKGROUND

Expression of matrix metalloproteases 2, 9 and 14 (MMP-2, MMP-9, MMP-14), tissue inhibitors of metalloprotease 1 and 2 (TIMP-1, TIMP-2) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) is involved in tumor invasion and metastasis via extracellular matrix degradation and angiogenesis. This study aimed to assess whether the expression of MMP-2, MMP-9, MMP-14, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 in tumors and in the adjacent stroma is associated with cervical cancer prognosis.

METHODS

This study analyzed a retrospective cohort of 64 patients. Protein expression was previously obtained by immunohistochemistry from biopsies containing both tumor and stroma. The expression and percentage of stained cells were categorized as high or low according to the cutoff points by using ROC curves. The follow-up data was collected from diagnosis to the last clinical visit. Clinical status categorized as alive without disease, alive with disease, death due to other causes, and death from the disease. The relative risk of death from the disease was evaluated according to the proteins expression using a cause-specific Cox regression model with a 95% confidence interval (95%CI). For the significant associations (p < 0.05), survival curves of patients with low and high expression were plotted for the competing risk survival curve analyses.

RESULTS

High expression levels of stromal MMP-2 (RR; 95%CI: 3.91; 1.17-13.02) and stromal TIMP-2 (RR, 95%CI: 8.67; 1.15-65.27) were associated with a greater relative risk of death from the disease and with lower survival (p = 0.03; p = 0.04) than lower expression levels. Low expression levels of stromal MMP-9 (RR, 95%CI: 0.19; 0.05-0.65) and tumoral MMP-9 (HR, 95%CI: 0.19; 0.04-0.90) were protective factors against death from the disease and were associated with poorer survival.

CONCLUSIONS

High expression levels of MMP-2 and TIMP-2 in the stroma were significantly associated with poor survival in cervical cancer patients. High expression of MMP-9 was associated with a favorable cervical cancer prognosis.

Jet-Lagged Nanoparticles Enhanced Immunotherapy Efficiency through Synergistic Reconstruction of Tumor Microenvironment and Normalized Tumor Vasculature

Lactic acid (LA), an anaerobic glycolysis metabolite normally oversecreted by tumor cells, can inhibit the activity of T cells and stimulate the rapid proliferation and migration of tumor endothelial cells (TECs), thereby limiting the synergistic treatment efficiency of tumor immunotherapy and vascular normalization. Herein, Jet-lagged nanoparticles, apatinib (APA)-loaded TEC-targeting nanodrug (APA/MCP) and lonidamine (LND)-loaded tumor cell-targeting nanodrug (LND/MCA), are constructed to combine vascular normalization therapy and tumor cell metabolic treatment. APA/MCP can block VEGF/VEGFR2 to inhibit TEC proliferation and LND/MCA can inhibit LA efflux to remodel tumor acid metabolism. After treatment, Jet-lagged nanoparticles remarkably reduce the level of LA in tumor microenvironment (TME) through limiting LA efflux. Besides, the pericyte cell coverage ratio of tumor vasculature increased to 69%, which is significantly improved compared to the APA/MCP group (47%). Moreover, the results of in vivo pharmacodynamic studies show that after the above synergistic reconstruction of TME and normalized tumor vasculature, the therapeutic effect of programmed death 1 (PD-1) drug is improved 3-folds to that of the PD-1 group. Above all, the strategy in this paper may propose an innovative vision to facilitate the tumor immunotherapy through high-precision spatiotemporal delivery strategy of nanodrugs.

Modeling the Tumor Microenvironment and Pathogenic Signaling in Bone Sarcoma

Investigations of cancer biology and screening of potential therapeutics for efficacy and safety begin in the preclinical laboratory setting. A staple of most basic research in cancer involves the use of tissue culture plates, on which immortalized cell lines are grown in monolayers. However, this practice has been in use for over six decades and does not account for vital elements of the tumor microenvironment that are thought to aid in initiation, propagation, and ultimately, metastasis of cancer. Furthermore, information gleaned from these techniques does not always translate to animal models or, more crucially, clinical trials in cancer patients. Osteosarcoma (OS) and Ewing sarcoma (ES) are the most common primary tumors of bone, but outcomes for patients with metastatic or recurrent disease have stagnated in recent decades. The unique elements of the bone tumor microenvironment have been shown to play critical roles in the pathogenesis of these tumors and thus should be incorporated in the preclinical models of these diseases. In recent years, the field of tissue engineering has leveraged techniques used in designing scaffolds for regenerative medicine to engineer preclinical tumor models that incorporate spatiotemporal control of physical and biological elements. We herein review the clinical aspects of OS and ES, critical elements present in the sarcoma microenvironment, and engineering approaches to model the bone tumor microenvironment. Impact statement The current paradigm of cancer biology investigation and therapeutic testing relies heavily on monolayer, monoculture methods developed over half a century ago. However, these methods often lack essential hallmarks of the cancer microenvironment that contribute to tumor pathogenesis. Tissue engineers incorporate scaffolds, mechanical forces, cells, and bioactive signals into biological environments to drive cell phenotype. Investigators of bone sarcomas, aggressive tumors that often rob patients of decades of life, have begun to use tissue engineering techniques to devise in vitro models for these diseases. Their efforts highlight how critical elements of the cancer microenvironment directly affect tumor signaling and pathogenesis.

3D porous chitosan-chondroitin sulfate scaffolds promote epithelial to mesenchymal transition in prostate cancer cells

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a common cancer in men that is curable prior to metastasis, when its prognosis worsens. Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is found in the extracellular matrix of normal prostate tissue and PCa, with greater content in metastatic PCa. Biomaterial scaffolds containing CS have yet to be evaluated for tumor microenvironment applications. Three-dimensional porous chitosan-CS (C-CS) scaffolds were developed and evaluated for PCa culture. Three C-CS scaffold compositions were prepared with 4 w/v% chitosan and 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 w/v% CS and named 4-0.1, 4-0.5, and 4-1, respectively. The C-CS scaffolds had 90-95% porosity, average pore sizes between 143 and 166 μm, and no significant difference in scaffold stiffness. PC-3 and 22Rv1 PCa cells were cultured on the C-CS scaffolds to study the effect of CS on PCa growth and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). All C-CS scaffold compositions supported PCa growth and the 4-1 scaffolds had the greatest cell numbers for both PC-3 and 22Rv1. The C-CS scaffolds promoted upregulated EMT marker expression compared to 2D cultures with the greatest EMT marker expression in 4-1 scaffolds. Increasing CS concentration promoted upregulated vimentin expression in PC-3 cultures and N-cadherin and MMP-2 expression in 22Rv1 cultures. C-CS scaffolds promoted docetaxel drug resistance in PC-3 and 22Rv1 cultures and the 4-1 scaffold cultures had the greatest drug resistance. These results indicate that C-CS scaffolds are a promising in vitro platform for PCa.

Co-culture of hWJMSCs and pACs in double biomimetic ACECM oriented scaffold enhances mechanical properties and accelerates articular cartilage regeneration in a caprine model

Background

The dedifferentiation of chondrocytes and the unstable chondrogenic differentiation status of pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are immense issues in cell-based articular cartilage repair and regenerative strategies. Here, to improve the cartilage characteristics of seed cells, a double biomimetic acellular cartilage extracellular matrix (ACECM)-oriented scaffold was used to mimic the cartilage microenvironment for human umbilical cord Wharton’s jelly-derived MSCs (hWJMSCs) and primary cartilage cells (pACs) to regenerate hyaline cartilage.

Methods

A double biomimetic ACECM-oriented scaffold was created from the cartilage extracellular matrix of pig articular cartilage using pulverization decellularization freeze-drying procedures. hWJMSCs and pACs were co-cultured at ratios of 50:50 (co-culture group, ACCC), 0:100 (ACAC group) and 100:0 (ACWJ group) in the ACECM-oriented scaffold, and the co-culture system was implanted in a caprine model for 6 months or 9 months to repair full-thickness articular cartilage defects. The control groups, which had no cells, comprised the blank control (BC) group and the ACECM-oriented scaffold (AC) group. Gross morphology and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as well as histological and biomechanical evaluations were used to characterize the cartilage of the repair area.

Results

Relative to the control groups, both the gross morphology and histological staining results demonstrated that the neotissue of the ACCC group was more similar to native cartilage and better integrated with the surrounding tissue. Measurements of glycosaminoglycan content and Young’s modulus showed that the repair areas had more abundant cartilage-specific content and significantly higher mechanical strength in the ACCC group than in the control groups, especially at 9 months. On MRI, the T2-weighted signal of the repair area was homogeneous, and the oedema signal disappeared almost completely in the ACCC group at 9 months. HLA-ABC immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that hWJMSCs participated in the repair and regeneration of articular cartilage and escaped surveillance and clearance by the caprine immune system.

Conclusion

The structure and components of double biomimetic ACECM-oriented scaffolds provided a cartilage-like microenvironment for co-cultured seed cells and enhanced the biomechanics and compositions of neotissue. This co-culture system has the potential to overcome the dedifferentiation of passage chondrocytes and the unstable chondrogenic differentiation status of MSCs.

CAFs-derived MFAP5 promotes bladder cancer malignant behavior through NOTCH2/HEY1 signaling

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are an important component of the tumor microenvironment and contribute to tumor cell proliferation and metastasis. Microfibrillar-associated protein 5 (MFAP5), a component of elastic microfibers and an oncogenic protein in several types of tumors, is secreted by CAFs. However, the role of MFAP5 in the bladder cancer remains unclear. Here, we report that MFAP5 is upregulated in bladder cancer and is associated with poor patient survival. Downregulation of MFAP5 in CAFs led to an impairment in proliferation and invasion of bladder cancer cells. Luciferase reporter assays and electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) showed QKI directly downregulates MFAP5 in CAFs. In addition, CAFs-derived MFAP5 led to an activation of the NOTCH2/HEY1 signaling pathway through direct interaction with the NOTCH2 receptor, thereby stimulating the N2ICD release. RNA-sequencing revealed that MFAP5-mediated PI3K-AKT signaling activated the DLL4/NOTCH2 pathway axis in bladder cancer. Moreover, downregulation of NOTCH2 by short hairpin RNA or the inactivating anti-body NRR2Mab was able to reverse the adverse effects of MFAP5 stimulation in vitro and in vivo. Together, these results demonstrate CAFs-derived MFAP5 promotes the bladder cancer proliferation and metastasis and provides new insight for targeting CAFs as novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategy.

Hypoxanthine Guanine Phosphoribosyltransferase expression is negatively correlated with immune activity through its regulation of purine synthesis

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of elevated Hypoxanthine Guanine Phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) on the immune response in the tumor microenvironment.

METHODOLOGY

HPRT expression was evaluated in cancer patients and correlated with cytokine expression, survival, and immune cell infiltration. An HPRT knockdown cell line was created to evaluate HPRT impact on purine expression and subsequent purine treatment was administered to immune cells to determine their influence on cell activation.

RESULTS

HPRT expression was negatively correlated with the general expression of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, HPRT expression was also negatively correlated with the infiltration of immune cell subsets: B-cells, CD4 + T cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells (p < 0.001) and CD8 + T-cells (p < 0.01). When HPRT was knocked down in a Raji cell line, the levels of adenosine were reduced significantly compared to the wild type. When examining the level of Ca2+ influx of Raji compared to the HPRT Raji knockdown cell, there was a significant decrease in calcium influx in the knockdown cells when compared to the wild type cells. This demonstrates that HPRT had a significant impact on overall cell activation and the ability of the cells to properly influx calcium needed for their activation.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that purine levels significantly reduce immune cell activation in cancer and the upregulation of HPRT in malignant tissue is a contributing factors to the immunosuppressive microenvironment.

Recent Advances in Microfluidic Platforms Applied in Cancer Metastasis: Circulating Tumor Cells' (CTCs) Isolation and Tumor-On-A-Chip

Cancer remains the leading cause of death worldwide despite the enormous efforts that are made in the development of cancer biology and anticancer therapeutic treatment. Furthermore, recent studies in oncology have focused on the complex cancer metastatic process as metastatic disease contributes to more than 90% of tumor-related death. In the metastatic process, isolation and analysis of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) play a vital role in diagnosis and prognosis of cancer patients at an early stage. To obtain relevant information on cancer metastasis and progression from CTCs, reliable approaches are required for CTC detection and isolation. Additionally, experimental platforms mimicking the tumor microenvironment in vitro give a better understanding of the metastatic microenvironment and antimetastatic drugs' screening. With the advancement of microfabrication and rapid prototyping, microfluidic techniques are now increasingly being exploited to study cancer metastasis as they allow precise control of fluids in small volume and rapid sample processing at relatively low cost and with high sensitivity. Recent advancements in microfluidic platforms utilized in various methods for CTCs' isolation and tumor models recapitulating the metastatic microenvironment (tumor-on-a-chip) are comprehensively reviewed. Future perspectives on microfluidics for cancer metastasis are proposed.

Divergent mutational processes distinguish hypoxic and normoxic tumours

Many primary tumours have low levels of molecular oxygen (hypoxia), and hypoxic tumours respond poorly to therapy. Pan-cancer molecular hallmarks of tumour hypoxia remain poorly understood, with limited comprehension of its associations with specific mutational processes, non-coding driver genes and evolutionary features. Here, as part of the ICGC/TCGA Pan-Cancer Analysis of Whole Genomes (PCAWG) Consortium, which aggregated whole genome sequencing data from 2658 cancers across 38 tumour types, we quantify hypoxia in 1188 tumours spanning 27 cancer types. Elevated hypoxia associates with increased mutational load across cancer types, irrespective of underlying mutational class. The proportion of mutations attributed to several mutational signatures of unknown aetiology directly associates with the level of hypoxia, suggesting underlying mutational processes for these signatures. At the gene level, driver mutations in TP53, MYC and PTEN are enriched in hypoxic tumours, and mutations in PTEN interact with hypoxia to direct tumour evolutionary trajectories. Overall, hypoxia plays a critical role in shaping the genomic and evolutionary landscapes of cancer.

Recent Advances in Tumor Microenvironment Hydrogen Peroxide-Responsive Materials for Cancer Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT), as one of the noninvasive clinical cancer phototherapies, suffers from the key drawback associated with hypoxia at the tumor microenvironment (TME), which plays an important role in protecting tumor cells from damage caused by common treatments. High concentration of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), one of the hallmarks of TME, has been recognized as a double-edged sword, posing both challenges, and opportunities for cancer therapy. The promising perspectives, strategies, and approaches for enhanced tumor therapies, including PDT, have been developed based on the fast advances in H₂O₂-enabled theranostic nanomedicine. In this review, we outline the latest advances in H₂O₂-responsive materials, including organic and inorganic materials for enhanced PDT. Finally, the challenges and opportunities for further research on H₂O₂-responsive anticancer agents are envisioned .

Recent Advances in Tumor Microenvironment Hydrogen Peroxide-Responsive Materials for Cancer Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT), as one of the noninvasive clinical cancer phototherapies, suffers from the key drawback associated with hypoxia at the tumor microenvironment (TME), which plays an important role in protecting tumor cells from damage caused by common treatments. High concentration of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), one of the hallmarks of TME, has been recognized as a double-edged sword, posing both challenges, and opportunities for cancer therapy. The promising perspectives, strategies, and approaches for enhanced tumor therapies, including PDT, have been developed based on the fast advances in H₂O₂-enabled theranostic nanomedicine. In this review, we outline the latest advances in H₂O₂-responsive materials, including organic and inorganic materials for enhanced PDT. Finally, the challenges and opportunities for further research on H₂O₂-responsive anticancer agents are envisioned .

Variation in energy metabolism arising from the effect of the tumor microenvironment on cell biological behaviors of bladder cancer cells and endothelial cells

Tumor energy metabolism and angiogenesis play significant roles in tumor genesis and development, while the effect of the tumor microenvironment (TME), which tumors rely on, is always ignored. In this research, we cocultured bladder cancer (BC) T24 cells with tumor-associated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) under normoxic and hypoxic conditions and detected proliferation, migration, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and glycolysis to reveal the energy metabolism characteristics and their effect on cell biological behaviors (CBBs) in the TME. Compared with single-cultured cells, both cocultured T24 cells and HUVECs showed poor proliferation and migration in hypoxic environment, and OXPHOS was activated in cocultured T24 cells but weakened in cocultured HUVECs. However, in normoxic environment, cocultured T24 cells grew much faster while cocultured HUVECs grew slower compared with single-cultured cells. Additionally, glycolysis played a crucial role in energy metabolism and was inhibited in cocultured T24 cells but activated in cocultured HUVECs. In normoxic TME, OXPHOS take main responsibility of energy metabolism. T24 cells exhibited increased proliferation and migration with HUVECs support. In hypoxic TME, glycolysis may be the primary energy supply pathway. T24 cells then exhibit suppressed proliferation and migration, while HUVECs tend to promote angiogenesis to adapt to the harsh TME.

Co-culture of functionally enriched cancer stem-like cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts for single-cell whole transcriptome analysis

Considerable evidence suggests that breast cancer development and metastasis are driven by cancer stem-like cells (CSCs). Due to their unique role in tumor initiation, the interaction between CSCs and stromal cells is especially critical. In this work, we developed a platform to reliably isolate single cells in suspension and grow single-cell-derived spheres for functional enrichment of CSCs. The platform also allows adherent culture of stromal cells for cancer-stromal interaction. As a proof of concept, we grew SUM149 breast cancer cells and successfully formed single-cell-derived spheres. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) as stromal cells were found to significantly enhance the formation and growth of cancer spheres, indicating elevated tumor-initiation potential. After on-chip culture for 14 days, we retrieved single-cell derived spheres with and without CAF co-culture for single-cell transcriptome sequencing. Whole transcriptome analysis highlights that CAF co-culture can boost cancer stemness especially ALDHhigh CSCs and alter epithelial/mesenchymal status. Single-cell resolution allows identification of individual CSCs and investigation of cancer cellular heterogeneity. Incorporating whole transcriptome sequencing data with public patient database, we discovered novel genes associated with cancer-CAF interaction and critical to patient survival. The preliminary works demonstrated a reliable platform for enrichment of CSCs and studies of cancer-stromal interaction.

Tumor Targeting Strategies of Smart Fluorescent Nanoparticles and Their Applications in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Advantages such as strong signal strength, resistance to photobleaching, tunable fluorescence emissions, high sensitivity, and biocompatibility are the driving forces for the application of fluorescent nanoparticles (FNPs) in cancer diagnosis and therapy. In addition, the large surface area and easy modification of FNPs provide a platform for the design of multifunctional nanoparticles (MFNPs) for tumor targeting, diagnosis, and treatment. In order to obtain better targeting and therapeutic effects, it is necessary to understand the properties and targeting mechanisms of FNPs, which are the foundation and play a key role in the targeting design of nanoparticles (NPs). Widely accepted and applied targeting mechanisms such as enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, active targeting, and tumor microenvironment (TME) targeting are summarized here. Additionally, a freshly discovered targeting mechanism is introduced, termed cell membrane permeability targeting (CMPT), which improves the tumor-targeting rate from less than 5% of the EPR effect to more than 50%. A new design strategy is also summarized, which is promising for future clinical targeting NPs/nanomedicines design. The targeting mechanism and design strategy will inspire new insights and thoughts on targeting design and will speed up precision medicine and contribute to cancer therapy and early diagnosis.

Melanoma-derived exosomes induce reprogramming fibroblasts into cancer-associated fibroblasts via Gm26809 delivery

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are activated fibroblasts and can interact with cancer cells to promote tumor progression. The process of how tumor cells reprogram normal fibroblasts (NFs) to tumor-promoting CAFs regulated by long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) remains incompletely understood. The tumor cells-released exosomes can induce reprogramming of NFs into CAFs. This study aimed to explore the role of melanoma-derived exosomes in regulating NF-CAF transition and to clarify whether lncRNA Gm26809 was involved in this process. The results showed that the exosomes secreted by melanoma cell B16F0 induced reprogramming of fibroblast NIH/3T3 cells into CAFs, as evidenced by increased expression of CAFs markers (α-SMA and FAP) and facilitated cell migration. Mechanistically, B16F0-secreted exosome delivered Gm26809 into NIH/3T3 cells where Gm26809 mediated reprogramming of fibroblast NIH/3T3 cells into CAFs. Furthermore, the conditioned medium from the co-culture of NIH/3T3 cells and B16F0-exosomes facilitated cell proliferation and migration in a melanoma cell line (Cloundman S91), and the effect was abrogated by Gm26809 knockdown in B16F0 cells. In summary, melanoma-derived exosomes facilitate melanoma cell proliferation and migration through reprogramming fibroblasts into tumor-promoting CAFs via transferring Gm26809.

Fabrication of H2O2-driven nanoreactors for innovative cancer treatments

The increased production of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is a typical feature of cancerous cells. This feature is closely associated with elevated oxidative stress inside solid tumour microenvironments, which thus impairs either the growth of cancer cells or their sensitivity to many cancer therapeutics. To date, numerous innovative strategies that target tumour H₂O₂ have been designed for effective cancer treatment. More recently, with the rapid advancement of nanomedicine, several nanoreactors, which are highly efficient in converting endogenous H₂O₂ to more toxic reactive oxygen species, promoting in situ H₂O₂, or decomposing endogenous H₂O₂ to molecular oxygen for tumour hypoxia attenuation, have been designed and attempted for effective cancer treatment. This review focuses on the latest progress of such innovative H₂O₂-driven nanoreactor-mediated cancer treatments. Afterwards, future perspectives on the development of tumour H₂O₂-driven nanoreactor-mediated cancer treatments and their potential clinical translations will be discussed.

Design, synthesis and biological activity of selective hCAs inhibitors based on 2-(benzylsulfinyl)benzoic acid scaffold

A large library of derivatives based on the scaffold of 2-(benzylsulfinyl)benzoic acid were synthesised and tested as atypical inhibitors against four different isoforms of human carbonic anhydrase (hCA I, II, IX and XII, EC 4.2.1.1). The exploration of the chemical space around the main functional groups led to the discovery of selective hCA IX inhibitors in the micromolar/nanomolar range, thus establishing robust structure-activity relationships within this versatile scaffold. HPLC separation of some selected chiral compounds and biological evaluation of the corresponding enantiomers was performed along with molecular modelling studies on the most active derivatives.

Optimization of the process for purifying icariin from Herba Epimedii by macroporous resin and the regulatory role of icariin in the tumor immune microenvironment

Pancreatic cancer is a digestive tract malignancy that poses a serious threat to human health. Compounds derived from traditional Chinese medicines have been an important source of anticancer drugs and adjuvant agents to regulate the tumor immune microenvironment in patients with pancreatic cancer. In this study, icariin was purified from Herba Epimedii using macropores, and its bioactivity against pancreatic cancer was also investigated. We found that icariin has direct inhibitory and immunomodulatory effects on tumor cells. In vitro experiments showed that icariin can inhibit the migration and proliferation of Panc02 pancreatic cancer cells and induce apoptosis. Our in vivo experiments show that icariin inhibits the development of mouse pancreatic cancer by inhibiting tumor-infiltrating M2 macrophages and polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) (PMN-MDSCs). In addition, icariin inhibits the polarization of RAW 264.7 cells into M2 macrophages by inhibiting the expression of ARG1 and MRC1 and downregulating the IL4-STAT6 signaling pathway. In conclusion, the inhibitory effect of icariin on pancreatic cancer can not only directly affect tumor cells but also inhibit tumor development by regulating the tumor immune microenvironment.

Tumor Microenvironment and Cell Fusion

Cell fusion is a highly regulated biological process that occurs under both physiological and pathological conditions. The cellular and extracellular environment is critical for the induction of the cell-cell fusion. Aberrant cell fusion is initiated during tumor progression. Tumor microenvironment is a complex dynamic system formed by the interaction between tumor cells and their surrounding cells. Cell-cell fusion mediates direct interaction between tumor cells and their surrounding cells and is associated with tumor initiation and progression. Various microenvironmental factors affect cell fusion in tumor microenvironment and generate hybrids that acquire genomes of both parental cells and exhibit novel characteristics, such as tumor stem cell-like properties, radioresistance, drug resistance, immune evasion, and enhanced migration and invasion abilities, which are closely related to the initiation, invasion, and metastasis of tumor. The phenotypic characteristics of hybrids are based on the phenotypes of parental cells, and the fusion of tumor cells with diverse types of microenvironmental fusogenic cells is concomitant with phenotypic heterogeneity. This review highlights the types of fusogenic cells in tumor microenvironment that can fuse with tumor cells and their specific significance and summarizes the various microenvironmental factors affecting tumor cell fusion. This review may be used as a reference to develop strategies for future research on tumor cell fusion and the exploration of cell fusion-based antitumor therapies.

Personalized medicine: From diagnostic to adaptive

Personalized therapy has made great strides but suffers from the lack of companion diagnostics. With the dawn of extracellular vesicle (EV) based liquid biopsies fast approaching, this article proposes a novel approach to cancer treatment – adaptive therapy. Already being implemented in the field of radiation oncology, adaptive radiation therapy utilizes cutting-edge imaging techniques as a viable means to monitor a patient's tumor throughout the entire treatment cycle by adapting the dosage and alignment to match the dynamic tumor. Through an EV liquid biopsy, medical oncologists will also soon have the means to continuously monitor a patient's tumor as it changes over time. With this information, physicians will be able to “adapt” pre-planned therapies concurrently with the fluctuating tumor environment, thus creating a more precise personalized medicine. In this article, a theory for adaptive medicine and the current state of the field with an outlook on future challenges are discussed.

The biochemical and molecular mechanisms involved in the role of tumor micro-environment stress in development of drug resistance

BACKGROUND

Multi-drug resistance (MDR) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in cancer and it continues to be a challenge in cancer treatment. Moreover, the tumor micro-environment is essential to the formation of drug resistant cancers. Recent evidence indicates that the tumor micro-environment is a critical regulator of cancer progression, distant metastasis and acquired resistance of tumors to various therapies. Despite significant advances in chemotherapy and radiotherapy, the development of therapeutic resistance leads to reduced drug efficacy.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

This review highlights mechanistic aspects of the biochemistry of the tumor micro-enviroment, such as the hypoglycaemia, reactive oxygen species (ROS), hypoxia and their effects in propagating MDR. This is achieved through: (A) increased survival via autophagy and failure of apoptosis; (B) altered metabolic processing; and (C) reduction in drug delivery and uptake or increased drug efflux.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

The development of MDR in cancer has been demonstrated to be majorly influenced by naturally occurring stressors within the tumor micro-environment, as well as chemotherapeutics. Thus, the tumor micro-environment is currently emerging as a major focus of research which needs to be carefully addressed before cancer can be successfully treated.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Elucidating the biochemical mechanisms which promote MDR is essential in development of effective therapeutics that can overcome these acquired defences in cancer cells.

CXCL12 and Its Isoforms: Different Roles in Pancreatic Cancer?

CXCL12 is a chemokine that acts through CXCR4 and ACKR3 receptors and plays a physiological role in embryogenesis and haematopoiesis. It has an important role also in tumor development, since it is released by stromal cells of tumor microenvironment and alters the behavior of cancer cells. Many studies investigated the roles of CXCL12 in order to understand if it has an anti- or protumor role. In particular, it seems to promote tumor invasion, proliferation, angiogenesis, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), and metastasis in pancreatic cancer. Nevertheless, some evidence shows opposite functions; therefore research on CXCL12 is still ongoing. These discrepancies could be due to the presence of at least six CXCL12 splicing isoforms, each with different roles. Interestingly, three out of six variants have the highest levels of expression in the pancreas. Here, we report the current knowledge about the functions of this chemokine and then focus on pancreatic cancer. Moreover, we discuss the methods applied in recent studies in order to understand if they took into account the existence of the CXCL12 isoforms.

Generation and Characterization of Fibroblast-Specific Basigin Knockout Mice

Basigin is a well-known extracellular stimulator of fibroblasts and may confer resistance to apoptosis of fibroblasts in vitro under some pathological status, but its exact function in fibroblasts and the underlying mechanism remain poorly understood. The systematic Basigin gene knockout leads to the perinatal lethality of mice, which limits the delineation of its function in vivo. In this study, we generated a fibroblast-specific Basigin knock-out mouse model and demonstrated the successful deletion of Basigin in fibroblasts. The fibroblast-specific deletion of Basigin did not influence the growth, fertility and the general condition of the mice. No obvious differences were found in the size, morphology, and histological structure of the major organs, including heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney, between the knockout mice and the control mice. The deletion of Basigin in fibroblasts did not induce apoptosis in the tissues of the major organs. These results provide the first evidence that the fibroblast-specific Basigin knock-out mice could be a useful tool for exploring the function of Basigin in fibroblasts in vivo.

Prognostic and Predictive Immunohistochemistry-Based Biomarkers in Cancer and Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has drastically improved the prognosis of many patients with cancer, but it can also lead to severe immune-related adverse events. Biomarkers, which are molecular markers that indicate a patient's disease outcome or a patient's response to treatment, are therefore crucial to helping clinicians weigh the potential benefits of immunotherapy against its potential toxicities. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) has thus far been a powerful technique for discovery and use of biomarkers such as CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. However, IHC has limited reproducibility. Thus, if more IHC-based biomarkers are to reach the clinic, refinement of the technique using multiplexing or automation is key.

STIM-Orai Channels and Reactive Oxygen Species in the Tumor Microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is shaped by cancer and noncancerous cells, the extracellular matrix, soluble factors, and blood vessels. Interactions between the cells, matrix, soluble factors, and blood vessels generate this complex heterogeneous microenvironment. The TME may be metabolically beneficial or unbeneficial for tumor growth, it may favor or not favor a productive immune response against tumor cells, or it may even favor conditions suited to hijacking the immune system for benefitting tumor growth. Soluble factors relevant for TME include oxygen, reactive oxygen species (ROS), ATP, Ca2+, H⁺, growth factors, or cytokines. Ca2+ plays a prominent role in the TME because its concentration is directly linked to cancer cell proliferation, apoptosis, or migration but also to immune cell function. Stromal-interaction molecules (STIM)-activated Orai channels are major Ca2+ entry channels in cancer cells and immune cells, they are upregulated in many tumors, and they are strongly regulated by ROS. Thus, STIM and Orai are interesting candidates to regulate cancer cell fate in the TME. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about the function of ROS and STIM/Orai in cancer cells; discuss their interdependencies; and propose new hypotheses how TME, ROS, and Orai channels influence each other.

Tumor⁻Microenvironment Interaction: Analysis of Mast Cell Populations in Normal Tissue and Proliferative Disorders of the Canine Prostate

Mast cells (MCs) are involved in angiogenesis, tissue remodeling and immunomodulation in several human and animal tumors, although their exact role is still controversial. Since no information is available in canine prostate carcinoma (PC) and normal prostate tissues, the aims of this study were to evaluate the possible correlations between MC distribution, molecular expression and microvessel density (MVD) in normal prostatic tissue and proliferative disorders of the canine prostate. All samples (6 normal, 15 benign prostate hyperplasia-BPH, 8 PC) were stained with Toluidine Blue and immunohistochemically evaluated for tryptase, c-Kit (CD117) and CD31. Mast cell density (MCD) and MVD were quantified by the hot-spot method. MCD was significantly increased in periglandular/peritumoral areas, when compared with intraglandular/intratumoral areas, in all groups (p = 0.03). C-Kit expression was strongly associated with PC (ρ = 0.75 p = 0.03), whereas positive correlation between tryptase and c-Kit expression (ρ = 0.64 p = 0.01) was observed in periglandular areas of BPH. MVD showed a correlation with MCD in BPH (ρ = 0.54 p = 0.04). Our data support the importance of c-Kit in regulating MC proliferation. The predominant location of MCs in peritumoral areas of canine PC was similar to the human counterpart, in which PC cells are supposed to produce substances attracting MCs to the tumor microenvironment.

Improving antitumor outcomes for palliative intratumoral injection therapy through lecithin- chitosan nanoparticles loading paclitaxel- cholesterol complex

Background

Intratumoral injection is a palliative treatment that aims at further improvement in the survival and quality of life of patients with advanced or recurrent carcinomas, or cancer patients with severe comorbidities or those with a poor performance status.

Methods

In this study, a solvent-injection method was used to prepare paclitaxel–cholesterol complex-loaded lecithin–chitosan nanoparticles (PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs) for intratumoral injection therapy, and the physicochemical properties of NPs were well characterized.

Results

The particle size and zeta potential of PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs were 142.83±0.25 nm and 13.50±0.20 mV, respectively. Release behavior of PTX from PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs showed a pH-sensitive pattern. The result of cell uptake assay showed that PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs could effectively enter cells via the energy-dependent caveolae-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis in company with the Golgi apparatus. Meanwhile, PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs had a better ability to induce cell apoptosis than PTX solution. The in vivo antitumor results suggested that PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs effectively inhibited mouse mammary cancer growth and metastasis to distant organs and significantly improved the survival rate of tumor-bearing mice by intratumoral administration.

Conclusion

In general, our study demonstrated that PTX-CH-loaded LCS_NPs used for palliative treatment by intratumoral injection showed improved safety and antitumor efficacy, which provided an alternative approach in the field of palliative chemotherapy.

Molecular landmarks of tumor hypoxia across cancer types

Many primary-tumor subregions have low levels of molecular oxygen, termed hypoxia. Hypoxic tumors are at elevated risk for local failure and distant metastasis, but the molecular hallmarks of tumor hypoxia remain poorly defined. To fill this gap, we quantified hypoxia in 8,006 tumors across 19 tumor types. In ten tumor types, hypoxia was associated with elevated genomic instability. In all 19 tumor types, hypoxic tumors exhibited characteristic driver-mutation signatures. We observed widespread hypoxia-associated dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) across cancers and functionally validated miR-133a-3p as a hypoxia-modulated miRNA. In localized prostate cancer, hypoxia was associated with elevated rates of chromothripsis, allelic loss of PTEN and shorter telomeres. These associations are particularly enriched in polyclonal tumors, representing a constellation of features resembling tumor nimbosus, an aggressive cellular phenotype. Overall, this work establishes that tumor hypoxia may drive aggressive molecular features across cancers and shape the clinical trajectory of individual tumors.

Starvation-induced autophagy promotes the invasion and migration of human bladder cancer cells via TGF-β1/Smad3-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition activation

The biological characteristics of bladder cancer include enhanced invasion and migration, which are the main causes of death in patients. Starvation is a typical feature of the bladder cancer microenvironment and can induce autophagy. Autophagy has an important relationship with the invasion and migration of tumors. However, the role of autophagy in the invasion and migration of bladder cancer cells remains unclear. Hence, the aim of the current study was to clarify this role and underlying mechanism. In this study, we found that starvation enhanced the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-mediated invasion and migration of T24 and 5637 cells while inducing autophagy. The inhibition of autophagy with chloroquine (CQ) or 3-methyladenine (3MA) decreased EMT-mediated invasion and migration. In addition, the expression of transforming growth factor 1 (TGF-β1) and phosphorylated Smad3 (p-Smad3) increased after starvation. The inhibition of autophagy with CQ or 3MA also decreased the expression of TGF-β1 and p-Smad3. The inhibitor of TGF-β receptor sb431542 also inhibited the invasion, migration, and EMT of T24 and 5637 cells during starvation. Furthermore, recombinant TGF-β1 induced autophagy and inhibition of the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway with sb431542 suppressed autophagy. In summary, our results suggested that autophagy promotes the invasion and migration of bladder cancer cells by inducing EMT through the TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling pathway. Moreover, autophagy and TGF-β1 can form a positive feedback loop to synergistically promote invasion and migration. Thus, our findings may provide a theoretical basis for the prevention of invasion and migration in bladder cancer.

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapy via Targeting Tumor Microenvironment

Cancer remains one of the major health problems all over the world and conventional therapeutic approaches have failed to attain an effective cure. Tumor microenvironments (TME) present a unique challenge in tumor therapy due to their complex structures and multiple components, which also serve as the soil for tumor growth, development, invasion, and migration. The complex TME includes immune cells, fibrous collagen structures, and tortuous blood vessels, in which conventional therapeutic approaches are rendered useless. State-of-the-art nanotechnologies have potential to cope with the threats of malignant tumors. With unique physiochemical properties, carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), including graphene, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and carbon quantum dots, offer opportunities to resolve the hurdles, by targeting not only cancer cells but also the TME. This review summarizes the progress about CNM-based cancer therapy strategies, which mainly focuses on both the treatment for cancer cells and TME-targeted modulation. In the last, the challenges for TME-based therapy via CNMs are discussed, which will be important in guiding current basic research to clinical translation in the future.

TGF-β induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in an advanced cervical tumor model by 3D printing

An advanced in vitro cervical tumor model was established by 3D printing to study the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is a very important stage of dissemination of carcinoma leading to metastatic tumors. A HeLa/hydrogel grid construct composed of gelatin, alginate, Matrigel and HeLa cells was fabricated by forced extrusion in a layer-by-layer fashion. HeLa cells rapidly proliferated, formed spheroids and presented tumorigenic characteristic in the 3D-printed structure. With the supplement of TGF-β, aggregated HeLa cells started to disintegrate, and some of them changed into fibroblast-like spindle morphology, which indicated that EMT was induced. The down-regulation of epithelial marker E-cadherin, and up-regulation of mesenchymal markers such as snail, vimentin and N-cadherin were all observed in the 3D-printed model, and performed differently in 3D and 2D models. The TGF-β induced EMT was inhibited by the treatment of disulfiram and EMT pathway inhibitor C19 in a dose dependent manner, showing great potential for future studies of a therapeutic program towards cervical tumor metastasis.

Emerging role of RUNX3 in the regulation of tumor microenvironment

A number of genes have been therapeutically targeted to relieve cancer, but cancer relapse is still a growing issue. The concept that the surrounding tumor environment is critical for the progression of cancer may foster an answer to the issue of cancer malignancy. Runt domain transcription factors (RUNX1, 2, and 3) are evolutionarily conserved and have been intensively studied for their roles in normal development and pathological conditions. During tumor growth, a hypoxic microenvironment and infiltration of the tumor by immune cells are common phenomena. In this review, we briefly introduce the consequences of hypoxia and immune cell infiltration into the tumor microenvironment with a focus on RUNX3 as a critical regulator. Furthermore, based on our current knowledge of the functional role of RUNX3 in hypoxia and immune cell maintenance, a probable therapeutic intervention is suggested for the effective management of tumor growth and malignancy. [BMB Reports 2018; 51(4): 174-181].

Toxicity mechanism-based prodrugs: glutathione-dependent bioactivation as a strategy for anticancer prodrug design

INTRODUCTION

6-Mercaptopurine (6-MP) and 6-thioguanine (6-TG), two anticancer drugs, have high systemic toxicity due to a lack of target specificity. Therefore, increasing target selectivity should improve drug safety. Areas covered: The authors examined the hypothesis that new prodrug designs based upon mechanisms of kidney-selective toxicity of trichloroethylene would reduce systemic toxicity and improve selectivity to kidney and tumor cells. Two approaches specifically were investigated. The first approach was based upon bioactivation of trichloroethylene-cysteine S-conjugate by renal cysteine S-conjugate β-lyases. The prodrugs obtained were kidney-selective but exhibited low turnover rates. The second approach was based on the toxic mechanism of trichloroethylene-cysteine S-conjugate sulfoxide, a Michael acceptor that undergoes rapid addition-elimination reactions with biological thiols. Expert opinion: Glutathione-dependent Michael addition-elimination reactions appear to be an excellent strategy to design highly efficient anticancer drugs. Targeting glutathione could be a promising approach for the development of anticancer prodrugs because cancer cells usually upregulate glutathione biosynthesis and/or glutathione S-transferases expression.

Genetics of metastasis: melanoma and other cancers

Melanoma is a malignant neoplasm of melanocytes that accounts for the majority of skin cancer deaths despite comprising less than 5% of all cutaneous malignancies. Its incidence has increased faster than that of any other cancer over the past half-century and the annual costs of treatment in the United States alone have risen rapidly. Although the majority of primary melanomas are cured with local excision, metastatic melanoma historically carries a grim prognosis, with a median survival of 9 months and a long-term survival rate of 10%. Given the urgent need to develop treatment strategies for metastatic melanoma and the explosion of genetic technologies over the past 20 years, there has been extensive research into the genetic alterations that cause melanocytes to become malignant. More recently, efforts have focused on the genetic changes that drive melanoma metastasis. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge of the genetics of primary cutaneous and ocular melanoma, the genetic changes associated with metastasis in melanoma and other cancer types, and non-genetic factors that may contribute to metastasis.

Global trends in nanomedicine research on triple negative breast cancer: a bibliometric analysis

Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising tool in the clinic to combat several difficult-to-manage diseases, such as cancer, which is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Chemotherapeutic drugs present several limitations such as undesired side effects, low specificity, resistance, and high relapse rates. Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is caused by cells that lack specific receptors in their membrane, such as estrogen (ER+) and progesterone (PR+) receptors, or by cells that do not express the amplification of human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2+). This cancer type has poor prognosis, high relapse rates, and no targeted therapies. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the trends of nanotechnology research in TNBC and compare the contribution of research from different regions, institutions, and authors. A search of the studies published between 2012 and 2017, related to nanotechnology and TNBC, with different keyword combinations, was performed in the Scopus database. The keywords found in this search were grouped into four clusters, in which "breast cancer" was the most mentioned (1,133 times) and the word "MCF-7 cell line" is one of the latest hotspots that appeared in the year 2016. A total of 1,932 articles, which were cited 26,450 times, were identified. The USA accounted for 28.36% of the articles and 27.61% of the citations; however, none of its centers appeared in the list of 10 most productive ones in terms of publications. The journals Biomaterials and International Journal of Nanomedicine had the highest number of publications. The USA and China had the highest number of articles produced and cited; however, the highest average citation per article was from Singapore. The studies focused on the research of antineoplastic agents in animal models and cell culture, and these were the most used topics in research with nanotechnology and TNBC.

Presence of stromal cells in a bioengineered tumor microenvironment alters glioblastoma migration and response to STAT3 inhibition

Despite the increasingly recognized importance of the tumor microenvironment (TME) as a regulator of tumor progression, only few in vitro models have been developed to systematically study the effects of TME on tumor behavior in a controlled manner. Here we developed a three-dimensional (3D) in vitro model that recapitulates the physical and compositional characteristics of Glioblastoma (GBM) extracellular matrix (ECM) and incorporates brain stromal cells such as astrocytes and endothelial cell precursors. The model was used to evaluate the effect of TME components on migration and survival of various patient-derived GBM cell lines (GBM10, GBM43 and GBAM1) in the context of STAT3 inhibition. Migration analysis of GBM within the 3D in vitro model demonstrated that the presence of astrocytes significantly increases the migration of GBM, while presence of endothelial precursors has varied effects on the migration of different GBM cell lines. Given the role of the tumor microenvironment as a regulator of STAT3 activity, we tested the effect of the STAT3 inhibitor SH-4-54 on GBM migration and survival. SH-4-54 inhibited STAT3 activity and reduced 3D migration and survival of GBM43 but had no effect on GBM10. SH-4-54 treatment drastically reduced the viability of the stem-like line GBAM1 in liquid culture, but its effect lessened in presence of a 3D ECM and stromal cells. Our results highlight the interplay between the ECM and stromal cells in the microenvironment with the cancer cells and indicate that the impact of these relationships may differ for GBM cells of varying genetic and clinical histories.

The impact of tumor cell metabolism on T cell-mediated immune responses and immuno-metabolic biomarkers in cancer

The role of adaptive immunity is increasingly recognized as an important element both in the process of tumorigenesis and in the patient's response to treatment. While this understanding has led to new therapeutic strategies that potentiate the activities of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, only a minority of patients attain durable responses. Metabolic activities in the tumor microenvironment, including hypoxia and acidity, can adversely affect immune responses, making the identification of metabolic biomarkers critically important for understanding and employing immunotherapies.