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Pérez AC, Goossens A. Jasmonate signalling: a copycat of auxin signalling? PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2013; 36:2071-84. [PMID: 23611666 DOI: 10.1111/pce.12121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2013] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Plant hormones regulate almost all aspects of plant growth and development. The past decade has provided breakthrough discoveries in phytohormone sensing and signal transduction, and highlighted the striking mechanistic similarities between the auxin and jasmonate (JA) signalling pathways. Perception of auxin and JA involves the formation of co-receptor complexes in which hormone-specific E3-ubiquitin ligases of the SKP1-Cullin-F-box protein (SCF) type interact with specific repressor proteins. Across the plant kingdom, the Aux/IAA and the JASMONATE-ZIM DOMAIN (JAZ) proteins correspond to the auxin- and JA-specific repressors, respectively. In the absence of the hormones, these repressors form a complex with transcription factors (TFs) specific for both pathways. They also recruit several proteins, among which the general co-repressor TOPLESS, and thereby prevent the TFs from activating gene expression. The hormone-mediated interaction between the SCF and the repressors targets the latter for 26S proteasome-mediated degradation, which, in turn, releases the TFs to allow modulating hormone-dependent gene expression. In this review, we describe the similarities and differences in the auxin and JA signalling cascades with respect to the protein families and the protein domains involved in the formation of the pathway-specific complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cuéllar Pérez
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, B-9052, Gent, Belgium; Department of Plant Biotechnology & Bioinformatics, Ghent University, B-9052, Gent, Belgium
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Bajguz A, Piotrowska-Niczyporuk A. Synergistic effect of auxins and brassinosteroids on the growth and regulation of metabolite content in the green alga Chlorella vulgaris (Trebouxiophyceae). PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2013; 71:290-297. [PMID: 23994360 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The relationships between brassinosteroids (BRs) (brassinolide, BL; 24-epiBL; 28-homoBL; castasterone, CS; 24-epiCS; 28-homoCS) and auxins (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA; indole-3-butyric acid, IBA; indole-3-propionic acid, IPA) in the regulation of cell number, phytohormone level and metabolism in green alga Chlorella vulgaris were investigated. Exogenously applied auxins had the highest biological activity in algal cells at 50 μM. Among the auxins, IAA was characterized by the highest activity, while IBA - by the lowest. BRs at 0.01 μM were characterized by the highest biological activity in relation to auxin-treated and untreated cultures of C. vulgaris. The application of 50 μM IAA stimulated the level of all detected endogenous BRs in C. vulgaris cells. The stimulatory effect of BRs in green algae was arranged in the following order: BL > 24-epiBL > 28-homoBL > CS > 24-epiCS > 28-homoCS. Auxins cooperated synergistically with BRs stimulating algal cell proliferation and endogenous accumulation of proteins, chlorophylls and monosaccharides in C. vulgaris. The highest stimulation of algal growth and the contents of analyzed biochemical parameters were observed for the mixture of BL with IAA, whereas the lowest in the culture treated with both 28-homoCS and IBA. However, regardless of the applied mixture of BRs with auxins, the considerable increase in cell number and the metabolite accumulation was found above the level obtained in cultures treated with any single phytohormone. Obtained results confirm that both groups of plant hormones cooperate synergistically in the control of growth and metabolism of unicellular green alga C. vulgaris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Bajguz
- University of Bialystok, Institute of Biology, Department of Plant Biochemistry and Toxicology, Swierkowa 20 B, 15-950 Bialystok, Poland.
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Saini S, Sharma I, Kaur N, Pati PK. Auxin: a master regulator in plant root development. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2013; 32:741-57. [PMID: 23553556 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-013-1430-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The demand for increased crop productivity and the predicted challenges related to plant survival under adverse environmental conditions have renewed the interest in research in root biology. Various physiological and genetic studies have provided ample evidence in support of the role of plant growth regulators in root development. The biosynthesis and transport of auxin and its signaling play a crucial role in controlling root growth and development. The univocal role of auxin in root development has established it as a master regulator. Other plant hormones, such as cytokinins, brassinosteroids, ethylene, abscisic acid, gibberellins, jasmonic acid, polyamines and strigolactones interact either synergistically or antagonistically with auxin to trigger cascades of events leading to root morphogenesis and development. In recent years, the availability of biological resources, development of modern tools and experimental approaches have led to the advancement of knowledge in root development. Research in the areas of hormone signal perception, understanding network of events involved in hormone action and the transport of plant hormones has added a new dimension to root biology. The present review highlights some of the important conceptual developments in the interplay of auxin and other plant hormones and associated downstream events affecting root development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivani Saini
- Department of Biotechnology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, India
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Lucas WJ, Groover A, Lichtenberger R, Furuta K, Yadav SR, Helariutta Y, He XQ, Fukuda H, Kang J, Brady SM, Patrick JW, Sperry J, Yoshida A, López-Millán AF, Grusak MA, Kachroo P. The plant vascular system: evolution, development and functions. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 55:294-388. [PMID: 23462277 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 398] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of the tracheophyte-based vascular system of land plants had major impacts on the evolution of terrestrial biology, in general, through its role in facilitating the development of plants with increased stature, photosynthetic output, and ability to colonize a greatly expanded range of environmental habitats. Recently, considerable progress has been made in terms of our understanding of the developmental and physiological programs involved in the formation and function of the plant vascular system. In this review, we first examine the evolutionary events that gave rise to the tracheophytes, followed by analysis of the genetic and hormonal networks that cooperate to orchestrate vascular development in the gymnosperms and angiosperms. The two essential functions performed by the vascular system, namely the delivery of resources (water, essential mineral nutrients, sugars and amino acids) to the various plant organs and provision of mechanical support are next discussed. Here, we focus on critical questions relating to structural and physiological properties controlling the delivery of material through the xylem and phloem. Recent discoveries into the role of the vascular system as an effective long-distance communication system are next assessed in terms of the coordination of developmental, physiological and defense-related processes, at the whole-plant level. A concerted effort has been made to integrate all these new findings into a comprehensive picture of the state-of-the-art in the area of plant vascular biology. Finally, areas important for future research are highlighted in terms of their likely contribution both to basic knowledge and applications to primary industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Lucas
- Department of Plant Biology, College of Biological Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Abstract
Brown algae are an extremely interesting, but surprisingly poorly explored, group of organisms. They are one of only five eukaryotic lineages to have independently evolved complex multicellularity, which they express through a wide variety of morphologies ranging from uniseriate branched filaments to complex parenchymatous thalli with multiple cell types. Despite their very distinct evolutionary history, brown algae and land plants share a striking amount of developmental features. This has led to an interest in several aspects of brown algal development, including embryogenesis, polarity, cell cycle, asymmetric cell division and a putative role for plant hormone signalling. This review describes how investigations using brown algal models have helped to increase our understanding of the processes controlling early embryo development, in particular polarization, axis formation and asymmetric cell division. Additionally, the diversity of life cycles in the brown lineage and the emergence of Ectocarpus as a powerful model organism, are affording interesting insights on the molecular mechanisms underlying haploid-diploid life cycles. The use of these and other emerging brown algal models will undoubtedly add to our knowledge on the mechanisms that regulate development in multicellular photosynthetic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenny A Bogaert
- Phycology Research Group, Department of Biology, Center for Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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56
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Viaene T, Delwiche CF, Rensing SA, Friml J. Origin and evolution of PIN auxin transporters in the green lineage. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 18:5-10. [PMID: 22981345 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2012] [Revised: 08/09/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Polarized auxin transport is crucial for many developmental processes in flowering plants and requires the PIN-FORMED (PIN) family of auxin efflux carriers. However, the impact of polar auxin transport and PIN proteins on the development of non-seed plant species and green algal lineages is largely unknown. Using recently available sequence information from streptophyte algae and other non-seed plant species, we have constructed a preliminary phylogenetic framework and present several hypotheses for PIN protein evolution. We postulate that PIN proteins originated in streptophyte algae at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and that plasma membrane localization was acquired during land plant evolution. We also suggest that PIN proteins are evolutionarily distinct from another family of auxin transporters at the ER, the PIN-LIKES (PILS) proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Viaene
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, 9052 Gent, Belgium.
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Abu-Zaitoon YM, Bennett K, Normanly J, Nonhebel HM. A large increase in IAA during development of rice grains correlates with the expression of tryptophan aminotransferase OsTAR1 and a grain-specific YUCCA. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2012; 146:487-99. [PMID: 22582989 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2012.01649.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) content of developing grains of Oryza sativa subsp. japonica was measured by combined liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry in multiple-reaction-monitoring mode. The increase from 50 ng g(-1) fresh weight to 2.9 µg g(-1) fresh weight from 1 to 14 days after pollination was much larger than that previously reported by enzyme-linked immunoassay methods. The largest increase in IAA content coincided with the start of the major starch deposition phase of grain-fill. The increase in IAA content was strongly correlated with the expression of putative IAA biosynthesis genes, OsYUC9, OsYUC11 and OsTAR1, measured by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. These results confirm the importance of the tryptophan aminotransferase/YUCCA pathway in this system. All three genes were expressed in endosperm; expression of OsYUC11 appeared to be confined to endosperm tissue. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that OsYUC11 and AtYUC10 belong to a separate clade of YUCCAs, which do not have orthologues outside the Angiosperms. This clade may have evolved with a specific role in endosperm. Expression of tryptophan decarboxylase in developing rice grains did not correlate with IAA levels, indicating that tryptamine is unlikely to be important for IAA synthesis in this system. In light of these observations, we hypothesize that IAA production in developing rice grains is controlled via expression of OsTAR1, OsYUC9, OsYUC11 and that IAA may be important during starch deposition in addition to its previously suggested role early in grain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousef M Abu-Zaitoon
- Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
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59
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Finet C, Jaillais Y. Auxology: when auxin meets plant evo-devo. Dev Biol 2012; 369:19-31. [PMID: 22687750 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.05.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 05/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Auxin is implicated throughout plant growth and development. Although the effects of this plant hormone have been recognized for more than a century, it is only in the past two decades that light has been shed on the molecular mechanisms that regulate auxin homeostasis, signaling, transport, crosstalk with other hormonal pathways as well as its roles in plant development. These discoveries established a molecular framework to study the role of auxin in land plant evolution. Here, we review recent advances in auxin biology and their implications in both micro- and macro-evolution of plant morphology. By analogy to the term 'hoxology', which refers to the critical role of HOX genes in metazoan evolution, we propose to introduce the term 'auxology' to take into account the crucial role of auxin in plant evo-devo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric Finet
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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60
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Boot KJM, Libbenga KR, Hille SC, Offringa R, van Duijn B. Polar auxin transport: an early invention. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:4213-8. [PMID: 22473986 PMCID: PMC3398450 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ers106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2011] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In higher plants, cell-to-cell polar auxin transport (PAT) of the phytohormone auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), generates maxima and minima that direct growth and development. Although IAA is present in all plant phyla, PAT has only been detected in land plants, the earliest being the Bryophytes. Charophyta, a group of freshwater green algae, are among the first multicellular algae with a land plant-like phenotype and are ancestors to land plants. IAA has been detected in members of Charophyta, but its developmental role and the occurrence of PAT are unknown. We show that naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA)-sensitive PAT occurs in internodal cells of Chara corallina. The relatively high velocity (at least 4-5 cm/h) of auxin transport through the giant (3-5 cm) Chara cells does not occur by simple diffusion and is not sensitive to a specific cytoplasmic streaming inhibitor. The results demonstrate that PAT evolved early in multicellular plant life. The giant Chara cells provide a unique new model system to study PAT, as Chara allows the combining of real-time measurements and mathematical modelling with molecular, developmental, cellular, and electrophysiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kees J. M. Boot
- Plant Biodynamics Laboratory, Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
- Molecular and Developmental Genetics, Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Kees R. Libbenga
- Plant Biodynamics Laboratory, Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sander C. Hille
- Plant Biodynamics Laboratory, Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
- Mathematical Institute, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 1, 2333 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Remko Offringa
- Plant Biodynamics Laboratory, Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
- Molecular and Developmental Genetics, Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bert van Duijn
- Plant Biodynamics Laboratory, Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
- Fytagoras, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Consequences of the presence of 24-epibrassinolide, on cultures of a diatom, Asterionella formosa. Biochimie 2012; 94:1213-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Niklas KJ, Kutschera U. Plant development, auxin, and the subsystem incompleteness theorem. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:37. [PMID: 22645582 PMCID: PMC3355799 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant morphogenesis (the process whereby form develops) requires signal cross-talking among all levels of organization to coordinate the operation of metabolic and genomic subsystems operating in a larger network of subsystems. Each subsystem can be rendered as a logic circuit supervising the operation of one or more signal-activated system. This approach simplifies complex morphogenetic phenomena and allows for their aggregation into diagrams of progressively larger networks. This technique is illustrated here by rendering two logic circuits and signal-activated subsystems, one for auxin (IAA) polar/lateral intercellular transport and another for IAA-mediated cell wall loosening. For each of these phenomena, a circuit/subsystem diagram highlights missing components (either in the logic circuit or in the subsystem it supervises) that must be identified experimentally if each of these basic plant phenomena is to be fully understood. We also illustrate the "subsystem incompleteness theorem," which states that no subsystem is operationally self-sufficient. Indeed, a whole-organism perspective is required to understand even the most simple morphogenetic process, because, when isolated, every biological signal-activated subsystem is morphogenetically ineffective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl J. Niklas
- Department of Plant Biology, Cornell UniversityIthaca, NY, USA
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63
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Pires ND, Dolan L. Morphological evolution in land plants: new designs with old genes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2012; 367:508-18. [PMID: 22232763 PMCID: PMC3248709 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2011.0252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The colonization and radiation of multicellular plants on land that started over 470 Ma was one of the defining events in the history of this planet. For the first time, large amounts of primary productivity occurred on the continental surface, paving the way for the evolution of complex terrestrial ecosystems and altering global biogeochemical cycles; increased weathering of continental silicates and organic carbon burial resulted in a 90 per cent reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. The evolution of plants on land was itself characterized by a series of radical transformations of their body plans that included the formation of three-dimensional tissues, de novo evolution of a multicellular diploid sporophyte generation, evolution of multicellular meristems, and the development of specialized tissues and organ systems such as vasculature, roots, leaves, seeds and flowers. In this review, we discuss the evolution of the genes and developmental mechanisms that drove the explosion of plant morphologies on land. Recent studies indicate that many of the gene families which control development in extant plants were already present in the earliest land plants. This suggests that the evolution of novel morphologies was to a large degree driven by the reassembly and reuse of pre-existing genetic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liam Dolan
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK
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64
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Wabnik K, Kleine-Vehn J, Govaerts W, Friml J. Prototype cell-to-cell auxin transport mechanism by intracellular auxin compartmentalization. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2011; 16:468-75. [PMID: 21665516 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2011] [Revised: 05/01/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Carrier-dependent, intercellular auxin transport is central to the developmental patterning of higher plants (tracheophytes). The evolution of this polar auxin transport might be linked to the translocation of some PIN auxin efflux carriers from their presumably ancestral localization at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the polar domains at the plasma membrane. Here we propose an eventually ancient mechanism of intercellular auxin distribution by ER-localized auxin transporters involving intracellular auxin retention and switch-like release from the ER. The proposed model integrates feedback circuits utilizing the conserved nuclear auxin signaling for the regulation of PIN transcription and a hypothetical ER-based signaling for the regulation of PIN-dependent transport activity at the ER. Computer simulations of the model revealed its plausibility for generating auxin channels and localized auxin maxima highlighting the possibility of this alternative mechanism for polar auxin transport.
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65
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66
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Wodniok S, Brinkmann H, Glöckner G, Heidel AJ, Philippe H, Melkonian M, Becker B. Origin of land plants: do conjugating green algae hold the key? BMC Evol Biol 2011; 11:104. [PMID: 21501468 PMCID: PMC3088898 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-11-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The terrestrial habitat was colonized by the ancestors of modern land plants about 500 to 470 million years ago. Today it is widely accepted that land plants (embryophytes) evolved from streptophyte algae, also referred to as charophycean algae. The streptophyte algae are a paraphyletic group of green algae, ranging from unicellular flagellates to morphologically complex forms such as the stoneworts (Charales). For a better understanding of the evolution of land plants, it is of prime importance to identify the streptophyte algae that are the sister-group to the embryophytes. The Charales, the Coleochaetales or more recently the Zygnematales have been considered to be the sister group of the embryophytes However, despite many years of phylogenetic studies, this question has not been resolved and remains controversial. Results Here, we use a large data set of nuclear-encoded genes (129 proteins) from 40 green plant taxa (Viridiplantae) including 21 embryophytes and six streptophyte algae, representing all major streptophyte algal lineages, to investigate the phylogenetic relationships of streptophyte algae and embryophytes. Our phylogenetic analyses indicate that either the Zygnematales or a clade consisting of the Zygnematales and the Coleochaetales are the sister group to embryophytes. Conclusions Our analyses support the notion that the Charales are not the closest living relatives of embryophytes. Instead, the Zygnematales or a clade consisting of Zygnematales and Coleochaetales are most likely the sister group of embryophytes. Although this result is in agreement with a previously published phylogenetic study of chloroplast genomes, additional data are needed to confirm this conclusion. A Zygnematales/embryophyte sister group relationship has important implications for early land plant evolution. If substantiated, it should allow us to address important questions regarding the primary adaptations of viridiplants during the conquest of land. Clearly, the biology of the Zygnematales will receive renewed interest in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Wodniok
- Biozentrum Köln, Botanik, Universität zu Köln, Zülpicher Strasse 47b, 50674 Köln, Germany
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67
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Simon S, Petrášek J. Why plants need more than one type of auxin. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 180:454-60. [PMID: 21421392 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The versatile functionality and physiological importance of the phytohormone auxin is a major focus of attention in contemporary plant science. Recent studies have substantially contributed to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the physiological role of auxin in plant development. The mechanism of auxin action includes both fast responses not involving gene expression, possibly mediated by Auxin Binding Protein 1 (ABP1), and slower responses requiring auxin-regulated gene expression mediated by F-box proteins. These two mechanisms of action have been described to varying degrees for the major endogenous auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and for the synthetic auxins 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and naphthalene-1-acetic acid (NAA). However, in addition to IAA, plants synthesize three other compounds that are commonly regarded as "endogenous auxins", namely, 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid (4-Cl-IAA), indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and phenylacetic acid (PAA). Although a spectrum of auxinic effects has been identified for all these as well as several other endogenous compounds, we remain largely ignorant of many aspects of their mechanisms of action and the extent to which they contribute to auxin-regulated plant development. Here, we briefly summarize the action of IBA, 4-Cl-IAA and PAA, and discuss the extent to which their action overlaps with that of IAA or results from their metabolic conversions to IAA. Other possible pathways for their action are considered. We present a scheme for homeostatic regulation of IAA levels that embraces other endogenous auxins in terms of the described mechanism of auxin action including its receptor and downstream signal transduction events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibu Simon
- Institute of Experimental Botany, ASCR, Rozvojová 263, 16502 Praha 6, Czech Republic
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68
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De Smet I, Beeckman T. Asymmetric cell division in land plants and algae: the driving force for differentiation. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2011; 12:177-88. [PMID: 21346731 DOI: 10.1038/nrm3064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Asymmetric cell division generates two cells with different fates and has an important role in plant development. It produces distinct cell types and new organs, and maintains stem cell niches. To handle the constraints of having immobile cells, plants possess numerous unique features to obtain asymmetry, such as specific regulators of intrinsic polarity. Although several components have not yet been identified, new findings, together with knowledge from different developmental systems, now allow us to take an important step towards a mechanistic overview of asymmetric cell division in plants and algae. Strikingly, several key regulators are used for different developmental processes, and common mechanisms can be recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ive De Smet
- Plant and Crop Sciences Division, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK.
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69
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De Smet I, Voss U, Lau S, Wilson M, Shao N, Timme RE, Swarup R, Kerr I, Hodgman C, Bock R, Bennett M, Jürgens G, Beeckman T. Unraveling the evolution of auxin signaling. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 155:209-21. [PMID: 21081694 PMCID: PMC3075796 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.168161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Auxin signaling is central to plant growth and development, yet hardly anything is known about its evolutionary origin. While the presence of key players in auxin signaling has been analyzed in various land plant species, similar analyses in the green algal lineages are lacking. Here, we survey the key players in auxin biology in the available genomes of Chlorophyta species. We found that the genetic potential for auxin biosynthesis and AUXIN1 (AUX1)/LIKE AUX1- and P-GLYCOPROTEIN/ATP-BINDING CASSETTE subfamily B-dependent transport is already present in several single-celled and colony-forming Chlorophyta species. In addition, our analysis of expressed sequence tag libraries from Coleochaete orbicularis and Spirogyra pratensis, green algae of the Streptophyta clade that are evolutionarily closer to the land plants than those of the Chlorophyta clade, revealed the presence of partial AUXIN RESPONSE FACTORs and/or AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID proteins (the key factors in auxin signaling) and PIN-FORMED-like proteins (the best-characterized auxin-efflux carriers). While the identification of these possible AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR- and AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID precursors and putative PIN-FORMED orthologs calls for a deeper investigation of their evolution after sequencing more intermediate genomes, it emphasizes that the canonical auxin response machinery and auxin transport mechanisms were, at least in part, already present before plants "moved" to land habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ive De Smet
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology, 9052 Ghent, Belgium.
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70
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Robert S, Kleine-Vehn J, Barbez E, Sauer M, Paciorek T, Baster P, Vanneste S, Zhang J, Simon S, Čovanová M, Hayashi K, Dhonukshe P, Yang Z, Bednarek SY, Jones AM, Luschnig C, Aniento F, Zažímalová E, Friml J. ABP1 mediates auxin inhibition of clathrin-dependent endocytosis in Arabidopsis. Cell 2010; 143:111-21. [PMID: 20887896 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2010.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 346] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2009] [Revised: 05/10/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Spatial distribution of the plant hormone auxin regulates multiple aspects of plant development. These self-regulating auxin gradients are established by the action of PIN auxin transporters, whose activity is regulated by their constitutive cycling between the plasma membrane and endosomes. Here, we show that auxin signaling by the auxin receptor AUXIN-BINDING PROTEIN 1 (ABP1) inhibits the clathrin-mediated internalization of PIN proteins. ABP1 acts as a positive factor in clathrin recruitment to the plasma membrane, thereby promoting endocytosis. Auxin binding to ABP1 interferes with this action and leads to the inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Our study demonstrates that ABP1 mediates a nontranscriptional auxin signaling that regulates the evolutionarily conserved process of clathrin-mediated endocytosis and suggests that this signaling may be essential for the developmentally important feedback of auxin on its own transport.
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71
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Friml J, Jones AR. Endoplasmic reticulum: the rising compartment in auxin biology. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 154:458-62. [PMID: 20921163 PMCID: PMC2948984 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.161380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 07/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jirí Friml
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium.
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72
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Blanc G, Duncan G, Agarkova I, Borodovsky M, Gurnon J, Kuo A, Lindquist E, Lucas S, Pangilinan J, Polle J, Salamov A, Terry A, Yamada T, Dunigan DD, Grigoriev IV, Claverie JM, Van Etten JL. The Chlorella variabilis NC64A genome reveals adaptation to photosymbiosis, coevolution with viruses, and cryptic sex. THE PLANT CELL 2010; 22:2943-55. [PMID: 20852019 PMCID: PMC2965543 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.110.076406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2010] [Revised: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Chlorella variabilis NC64A, a unicellular photosynthetic green alga (Trebouxiophyceae), is an intracellular photobiont of Paramecium bursaria and a model system for studying virus/algal interactions. We sequenced its 46-Mb nuclear genome, revealing an expansion of protein families that could have participated in adaptation to symbiosis. NC64A exhibits variations in GC content across its genome that correlate with global expression level, average intron size, and codon usage bias. Although Chlorella species have been assumed to be asexual and nonmotile, the NC64A genome encodes all the known meiosis-specific proteins and a subset of proteins found in flagella. We hypothesize that Chlorella might have retained a flagella-derived structure that could be involved in sexual reproduction. Furthermore, a survey of phytohormone pathways in chlorophyte algae identified algal orthologs of Arabidopsis thaliana genes involved in hormone biosynthesis and signaling, suggesting that these functions were established prior to the evolution of land plants. We show that the ability of Chlorella to produce chitinous cell walls likely resulted from the capture of metabolic genes by horizontal gene transfer from algal viruses, prokaryotes, or fungi. Analysis of the NC64A genome substantially advances our understanding of the green lineage evolution, including the genomic interplay with viruses and symbiosis between eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Blanc
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire Information Génomique et Structurale UPR2589, Aix-Marseille Université, Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée, 13009 Marseille, France.
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73
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Tromas A, Paponov I, Perrot-Rechenmann C. AUXIN BINDING PROTEIN 1: functional and evolutionary aspects. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2010; 15:436-446. [PMID: 20605513 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2010.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2009] [Revised: 04/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/05/2010] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we examine the role of AUXIN BINDING PROTEIN 1 (ABP1) in mediating growth and developmental responses. ABP1 is involved in a broad range of cellular responses to auxin, acting either as the main regulator of the response, such as seen for entry into cell division or, as a fine-tuning device as for the regulation of expression of early auxin response genes. Phylogenetic analysis has revealed that ABP1 is an ancient protein that was already present in various algae and has acquired a motif of retention in the endoplasmic reticulum only recently. An evaluation of the evidence for ABP1 function according to its cellular localization supports the plasma membrane as a starting point for ABP1-mediated auxin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Tromas
- Institut des Sciences du Végétal, CNRS UPR2355, University of Paris-Sud, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif sur Yvette Cedex, France
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74
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Le Bail A, Billoud B, Kowalczyk N, Kowalczyk M, Gicquel M, Le Panse S, Stewart S, Scornet D, Cock JM, Ljung K, Charrier B. Auxin metabolism and function in the multicellular brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 153:128-44. [PMID: 20200071 PMCID: PMC2862433 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.149708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2009] [Accepted: 02/17/2010] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Ectocarpus siliculosus is a small brown alga that has recently been developed as a genetic model. Its thallus is filamentous, initially organized as a main primary filament composed of elongated cells and round cells, from which branches differentiate. Modeling of its early development suggests the involvement of very local positional information mediated by cell-cell recognition. However, this model also indicates that an additional mechanism is required to ensure proper organization of the branching pattern. In this paper, we show that auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is detectable in mature E. siliculosus organisms and that it is present mainly at the apices of the filaments in the early stages of development. An in silico survey of auxin biosynthesis, conjugation, response, and transport genes showed that mainly IAA biosynthesis genes from land plants have homologs in the E. siliculosus genome. In addition, application of exogenous auxins and 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid had different effects depending on the developmental stage of the organism, and we propose a model in which auxin is involved in the negative control of progression in the developmental program. Furthermore, we identified an auxin-inducible gene called EsGRP1 from a small-scale microarray experiment and showed that its expression in a series of morphogenetic mutants was positively correlated with both their elongated-to-round cell ratio and their progression in the developmental program. Altogether, these data suggest that IAA is used by the brown alga Ectocarpus to relay cell-cell positional information and induces a signaling pathway different from that known in land plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Bénédicte Charrier
- CNRS-Université Pierre et Marie Curie, UMR 7139 Marine Plants and Biomolecules (A.L.B., B.B., N.K., M.G., S.S., D.S., J.M.C., B.C.), and Platform of Cytology, CNRS FR2424 (S.L.P.), Station Biologique de Roscoff, 29682 Roscoff cedex, France; Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University for Agricultural Sciences, S–901 83 Umea, Sweden (M.K., K.L.)
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75
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Jiang Z, Guo H. A comparative genomic analysis of plant hormone related genes in different species. J Genet Genomics 2010; 37:219-30. [DOI: 10.1016/s1673-8527(09)60040-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2009] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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76
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Eklund DM, Thelander M, Landberg K, Ståldal V, Nilsson A, Johansson M, Valsecchi I, Pederson ERA, Kowalczyk M, Ljung K, Ronne H, Sundberg E. Homologues of the Arabidopsis thaliana SHI/STY/LRP1 genes control auxin biosynthesis and affect growth and development in the moss Physcomitrella patens. Development 2010; 137:1275-84. [PMID: 20223761 DOI: 10.1242/dev.039594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The plant hormone auxin plays fundamental roles in vascular plants. Although exogenous auxin also stimulates developmental transitions and growth in non-vascular plants, the effects of manipulating endogenous auxin levels have thus far not been reported. Here, we have altered the levels and sites of auxin production and accumulation in the moss Physcomitrella patens by changing the expression level of homologues of the Arabidopsis SHI/STY family proteins, which are positive regulators of auxin biosynthesis genes. Constitutive expression of PpSHI1 resulted in elevated auxin levels, increased and ectopic expression of the auxin response reporter GmGH3pro:GUS, and in an increased caulonema/chloronema ratio, an effect also induced by exogenous auxin application. In addition, we observed premature ageing and necrosis in cells ectopically expressing PpSHI1. Knockout of either of the two PpSHI genes resulted in reduced auxin levels and auxin biosynthesis rates in leafy shoots, reduced internode elongation, delayed ageing, a decreased caulonema/chloronema ratio and an increased number of axillary hairs, which constitute potential auxin biosynthesis sites. Some of the identified auxin functions appear to be analogous in vascular and non-vascular plants. Furthermore, the spatiotemporal expression of the PpSHI genes and GmGH3pro:GUS strongly overlap, suggesting that local auxin biosynthesis is important for the regulation of auxin peak formation in non-vascular plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Magnus Eklund
- Department of Plant Biology and Forest Genetics, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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77
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De Smet I, Lau S, Mayer U, Jürgens G. Embryogenesis - the humble beginnings of plant life. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 61:959-70. [PMID: 20409270 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2010.04143.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Each plant starts life from the zygote formed by the fusion of an egg and a sperm cell. The zygote gives rise to a multicellular embryo that displays a basic plant body organization and is surrounded by nutritive endosperm and maternal tissue. How the body organization is generated had already been studied before the genome sequence of Arabidopsis thaliana was completed 10 years ago, but several regulatory mechanisms of embryo development have since been discovered or analysed in more detail. Although this progress did not strictly depend on the availability of the genome sequence itself, several advances were considerably facilitated. In this review, we mainly address early embryo development, highlighting general mechanisms and crucial regulators, including phytohormones, that are involved in patterning the embryo and were mainly analysed in the post-genome decade. We also highlight some unsolved problems, provide a brief outlook on the future of Arabidopsis embryo research, and discuss how the knowledge gained from Arabidopsis could be translated to crop species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ive De Smet
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 3, Tübingen, Germany
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78
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Krecek P, Skupa P, Libus J, Naramoto S, Tejos R, Friml J, Zazímalová E. The PIN-FORMED (PIN) protein family of auxin transporters. Genome Biol 2009; 10:249. [PMID: 20053306 PMCID: PMC2812941 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2009-10-12-249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
A review of the PIN auxin-efflux transporters, which have important roles in plant development. Summary The PIN-FORMED (PIN) proteins are secondary transporters acting in the efflux of the plant signal molecule auxin from cells. They are asymmetrically localized within cells and their polarity determines the directionality of intercellular auxin flow. PIN genes are found exclusively in the genomes of multicellular plants and play an important role in regulating asymmetric auxin distribution in multiple developmental processes, including embryogenesis, organogenesis, tissue differentiation and tropic responses. All PIN proteins have a similar structure with amino- and carboxy-terminal hydrophobic, membrane-spanning domains separated by a central hydrophilic domain. The structure of the hydrophobic domains is well conserved. The hydrophilic domain is more divergent and it determines eight groups within the protein family. The activity of PIN proteins is regulated at multiple levels, including transcription, protein stability, subcellular localization and transport activity. Different endogenous and environmental signals can modulate PIN activity and thus modulate auxin-distribution-dependent development. A large group of PIN proteins, including the most ancient members known from mosses, localize to the endoplasmic reticulum and they regulate the subcellular compartmentalization of auxin and thus auxin metabolism. Further work is needed to establish the physiological importance of this unexpected mode of auxin homeostasis regulation. Furthermore, the evolution of PIN-based transport, PIN protein structure and more detailed biochemical characterization of the transport function are important topics for further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Krecek
- Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Rozvojová 263, CZ-16502 Prague 6, Czech Republic
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79
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Grube M, Berg G. Microbial consortia of bacteria and fungi with focus on the lichen symbiosis. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2009.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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