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Environmental Health Factors and Sexually Dimorphic Differences in Behavioral Disruptions. Curr Environ Health Rep 2014; 1:287-301. [PMID: 25705580 DOI: 10.1007/s40572-014-0027-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests that environmental factors-in particular, those that we are exposed to during perinatal life-can dramatically shape the organism's risk for later diseases, including neurobehavioral disorders. However, depending on the environmental insult, one sex may demonstrate greater vulnerability than the other sex. Herein, we focus on two well-defined extrinsic environmental factors that lead to sexually dimorphic behavioral differences in animal models and linkage in human epidemiological studies. These include maternal or psychosocial stress (such as social stress) and exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds (such as one of the most prevalent, bisphenol A [BPA]). In general, the evidence suggests that early environmental exposures, such as BPA and stress, lead to more pronounced behavioral deficits in males than in females, whereas female neurobehavioral patterns are more vulnerable to later in life stress. These findings highlight the importance of considering sex differences and developmental timing when examining the effects of environmental factors on later neurobehavioral outcomes.
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Pastor-Ciurana J, Rabasa C, Ortega-Sánchez JA, Sanchís-Ollè M, Gabriel-Salazar M, Ginesta M, Belda X, Daviu N, Nadal R, Armario A. Prior exposure to repeated immobilization or chronic unpredictable stress protects from some negative sequels of an acute immobilization. Behav Brain Res 2014; 265:155-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Grégoire S, Wattiez AS, Etienne M, Marchand F, Ardid D. Monoarthritis-induced emotional and cognitive impairments in rats are sensitive to low systemic doses or intra-amygdala injections of morphine. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 735:1-9. [PMID: 24747193 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.03.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chronic pain is a multidimensional experience that not only includes changes in nociception but also impairments in emotional and cognitive functions, not often taken into account in preclinical research. The present study investigated emotional and cognitive impairments in an animal model of persistent inflammatory pain as well as the involvement of the basolateral complex (BLC) of the amygdala in these components. Monoarthritis was induced by intra-articular injection of complete Freund׳s adjuvant. Mechanical hypersensitivity, anxiety and depressive-like behaviours as well as cognitive capacities were assessed using several tests, such as von Frey, social interaction, open field, saccharin preference, spatial and social recognition memory tests. The effects of morphine administered systemically or into the BLC of the amygdala were also studied. Monoarthritic rats exhibited mechanical hypersensitivity, anxiety and depressive-like behaviours as well as cognitive impairments. Whereas low systemic doses and intra-BLC infusion of morphine failed to reduce mechanical hypersensitivity, they reversed monoarthritis-induced anxiety-like behaviours and cognitive impairments. Our findings further support a crucial role of amygdala in the effect of morphine on emotional/cognitive components of pain and not on mechanical hypersensitivity. Finally, our study highlights the interest of a multi-behavioural approach in the assessment of pain and the analgesic effect of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Grégoire
- Clermont Université, Université d׳Auvergne, NEURO-DOL, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; Clermont-Ferrand Inserm, U1107, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Anne-Sophie Wattiez
- Clermont Université, Université d׳Auvergne, NEURO-DOL, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; Clermont-Ferrand Inserm, U1107, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Monique Etienne
- Clermont Université, Université d׳Auvergne, NEURO-DOL, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; Clermont-Ferrand Inserm, U1107, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Fabien Marchand
- Clermont Université, Université d׳Auvergne, NEURO-DOL, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; Clermont-Ferrand Inserm, U1107, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Denis Ardid
- Clermont Université, Université d׳Auvergne, NEURO-DOL, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; Clermont-Ferrand Inserm, U1107, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
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Armario A, Nadal R. Individual differences and the characterization of animal models of psychopathology: a strong challenge and a good opportunity. Front Pharmacol 2013; 4:137. [PMID: 24265618 PMCID: PMC3821037 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2013.00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the development of valuable new techniques (i.e., genetics, neuroimage) for the study of the neurobiological substrate of psychiatric diseases, there are strong limitations in the information that can be gathered from human studies. It is thus critical to develop appropriate animal models of psychiatric diseases to characterize their putative biological bases and the development of new therapeutic strategies. The present review tries to offer a general perspective and several examples of how individual differences in animals can contribute to explain differential susceptibility to develop behavioral alterations, but also emphasizes methodological problems that can lead to inappropriate or over-simplistic interpretations. A critical analysis of the approaches currently used could contribute to obtain more reliable data and allow taking full advantage of new and sophisticated technologies. The discussion is mainly focused on anxiety-like and to a lower extent on depression-like behavior in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Armario
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain ; Unitat de Fisiologia Animal, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Yi LT, Li J, Geng D, Liu BB, Fu Y, Tu JQ, Liu Y, Weng LJ. Essential oil of Perilla frutescens-induced change in hippocampal expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in chronic unpredictable mild stress in mice. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2013; 147:245-253. [PMID: 23506995 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Revised: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/07/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Perilla frutescens (Perilla leaf), a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, has been used for centuries to treat various conditions including depression. A previous study of the authors demonstrated that essential oil of Perilla frutescens (EOPF) attenuated the depressive-like behavior in mice. AIM OF THE STUDY This study was undertaken to explore the dynamic change of behaviors and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression induced by chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), and improved by EOPF. MATERIALS AND METHODS Four separate CUMS experimental groups (1-week, 2-week, 3-week and 4-week treatment) were treated with EOPF (3 mg/kg and 6 mg/kg, p.o.) or fluoxetine (20 mg/kg, p.o.), followed by sucrose preference, locomotor activity, immobility and hippocampal BDNF measurement. RESULTS EOPF, as well as fluoxetine, restored the CUMS-induced decreased sucrose preference and increased immobility time, without affecting body weight gain and locomotor activity. Furthermore, CUMS (3 or 4-week) produced a reduction in both BDNF mRNA and protein expression in the hippocampus, which were ameliorated by EOPF (4-week) and fluoxetine (3 or 4-week) treatment. CONCLUSION These results presented here show that BDNF is expressed depending on length of CUMS procedure and EOPF administration. And this study might contribute to the underlying reason for the slow onset of antidepressant activity in clinic.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antidepressive Agents/isolation & purification
- Antidepressive Agents/pharmacology
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Body Weight/drug effects
- Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor/genetics
- Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor/metabolism
- Chronic Disease
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Down-Regulation
- Drugs, Chinese Herbal/isolation & purification
- Drugs, Chinese Herbal/pharmacology
- Fluoxetine/pharmacology
- Food Preferences/drug effects
- Hippocampus/drug effects
- Hippocampus/metabolism
- Male
- Medicine, Chinese Traditional
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred ICR
- Motor Activity/drug effects
- Oils, Volatile/isolation & purification
- Oils, Volatile/pharmacology
- Perilla frutescens/chemistry
- Phytotherapy
- Plant Leaves
- Plant Oils/isolation & purification
- Plant Oils/pharmacology
- Plants, Medicinal
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Stress, Psychological/drug therapy
- Stress, Psychological/genetics
- Stress, Psychological/metabolism
- Stress, Psychological/psychology
- Sucrose
- Time Factors
- alpha-Linolenic Acid/isolation & purification
- alpha-Linolenic Acid/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Tao Yi
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Engineering, College of Chemical Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, Fujian province, PR China.
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Sui ZY, Chae HJ, Huang GB, Zhao T, Shrestha Muna S, Chung YC. Effects of chronic mild stress in female bax inhibitor-1-gene knockout mice. CLINICAL PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE 2012; 10:155-62. [PMID: 23430888 PMCID: PMC3569165 DOI: 10.9758/cpn.2012.10.3.155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The anti-apoptotic protein Bax inhibitor-1 (BI-1) is a regulator of apoptosis linked to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and BI-1(-/-) mice exhibit increased sensitivity to tissue damage. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of BI-1 in the pathogenesis of chronic mild stress (CMS)-induced depression-like behaviors in BI-1(-/-) mice. METHODS We delivered CMS for 2 or 6 weeks in BI-1-knockout and wild-type mice. Control groups of BI-1-knockout and wild-type mice were left undisturbed. The measured parameters were sucrose consumption at weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, spontaneous locomotion, and a forced swimming test (FST) at weeks 2 and 6. RESULTS Significant decreases in sucrose consumption and increases in immobility time in the FST were observed in both stress groups compared with the non-stress groups. Interestingly, at week 2, but not at week 6, BI-1(-/-)-stress mice showed less sucrose intake and greater immobility time than did BI-1(+/+)-stress mice. CONCLUSION These results suggest that BI-1 may play role in protecting against the depressogenic effects of CMS in the short term, but not in the long term. Further study is required to deepen understanding of the role of BI-1 in protecting against depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Yan Sui
- Department of Psychiatry, Chonbuk National University Medical School & Institute for Medical Sciences, Jeonju, Korea. ; Department of Psychiatry, Chonbuk National University Hospital & Research Institute of Clinical Medicine, Jeonju, Korea
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Grégoire S, Michaud V, Chapuy E, Eschalier A, Ardid D. Study of emotional and cognitive impairments in mononeuropathic rats: Effect of duloxetine and gabapentin. Pain 2012; 153:1657-1663. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2012.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2012] [Revised: 04/04/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Yazir Y, Utkan T, Aricioglu F. Inhibition of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and soluble guanylate cyclase prevents depression-like behaviour in rats exposed to chronic unpredictable mild stress. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2012; 111:154-60. [PMID: 22385503 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2012.00877.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Depression is the most common psychiatric disorder. It is well established that endogenous nitric oxide (NO) contributes to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced depression. The aim of this study was to investigate brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) expression in CUMS-induced depression-like behaviour in rats. Rats were exposed to CUMS for 5 weeks. A specific and selective nNOS inhibitor, 3-bromo-7-nitroindazole (3-Br-7-NI; 20 mg/kg/day, i.p.), and a specific soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) inhibitor, 1H-(1,2,4)oxadiazolo(4,3-a)quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ; 10 mg/kg/day, i.p.), were administered during CUMS. The forced swimming test (FST) was used to assess despair and sucrose consumption, and sucrose preference test was used to assess anhedonia that are the main symptoms of the depression. We show that both 3-Br-7-NI and ODQ administration during CUMS suppressed CUMS-induced, depression-like behavioural changes, including reduced sucrose preference, body-weight and locomotor activity as well as increased immobility time in the FST. CUMS also significantly decreased BDNF protein levels in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus, which was reversed by 3-Br-7-NI and ODQ administration. Our findings suggest a novel role for nNOS and sGC-cGMP in the development of the CUMS model of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusufhan Yazir
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey.
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Update in the methodology of the chronic stress paradigm: internal control matters. Behav Brain Funct 2011; 7:9. [PMID: 21524310 PMCID: PMC3111355 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-7-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2010] [Accepted: 04/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
To date, the reliability of induction of a depressive-like state using chronic stress models is confronted by many methodological limitations. We believe that the modifications to the stress paradigm in mice proposed herein allow some of these limitations to be overcome. Here, we discuss a variant of the standard stress paradigm, which results in anhedonia. This anhedonic state was defined by a decrease in sucrose preference that was not exhibited by all animals. As such, we propose the use of non-anhedonic, stressed mice as an internal control in experimental mouse models of depression. The application of an internal control for the effects of stress, along with optimized behavioural testing, can enable the analysis of biological correlates of stress-induced anhedonia versus the consequences of stress alone in a chronic-stress depression model. This is illustrated, for instance, by distinct physiological and molecular profiles in anhedonic and non-anhedonic groups subjected to stress. These results argue for the use of a subgroup of individuals who are negative for the induction of a depressive phenotype during experimental paradigms of depression as an internal control, for more refined modeling of this disorder in animals.
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The Effects of Fluoxetine Treatment in a Chronic Mild Stress Rat Model on Depression-Related Behavior, Brain Neurotrophins and ERK Expression. J Mol Neurosci 2011; 45:246-55. [DOI: 10.1007/s12031-011-9515-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Liu Y, Yang N, Hao W, Zhao Q, Ying T, Liu S, Li Q, Liang Y, Wang T, Dong Y, Ji C, Zuo P. Dynamic proteomic analysis of protein expression profiles in whole brain of Balb/C mice subjected to unpredictable chronic mild stress: implications for depressive disorders and future therapies. Neurochem Int 2011; 58:904-13. [PMID: 21349309 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2011.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Revised: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The etiology and pathophysiology of depression remain unknown. Previous works were mostly performed on single observation time-point which might be insufficiently to reveal the molecular events changed during the disease development. Adult BALB/c mice were exposed to unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) for different periods and differential 2D gel electrophoresis (DIGE) approach was employed to the brain tissue to explore the molecular disease signatures. Sustained elevation of corticosterone level was observed, suggesting the hyperactivity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis when the mice were subjected to the stressful situation. The behavioral results indicated the depressive alterations of the mice exposing to UCMS. The altered proteins identified by proteomics showed that abnormal energy mobilization under stress condition was accompanied by overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Cytoskeleton protein and anti-oxidant enzymes were also changed by UCMS treatment. The results of biochemical and immunohistochemical assay confirmed the changes identified by DIGE analysis. These results indicated that the insufficiency of ATP synthesis, overwhelming ROS production and ER stress subsequently contributed to the cytoskeletal damage and inhibition to expression of some anti-oxidant proteins, which might ultimately bring functional neuron to apoptosis or death. Proteins whose expression is affected may provide tools for potential treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanyong Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, No. 5 Dongdansantiao, Beijing 100005, China
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Lagunas N, Calmarza-Font I, Diz-Chaves Y, Garcia-Segura LM. Long-term ovariectomy enhances anxiety and depressive-like behaviors in mice submitted to chronic unpredictable stress. Horm Behav 2010; 58:786-91. [PMID: 20691693 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2010] [Revised: 07/28/2010] [Accepted: 07/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Ovarian hormones exert anti-depressive and anxiolytic actions. In this study we have analyzed the effects of ovariectomy on the development of anxiety and depression-like behaviors and on cell proliferation in the hippocampus of mice submitted to chronic unpredictable stress. Animals submitted to stress 4 months after ovariectomy showed a significant increase in immobility behavior in the forced swimming test compared to animals submitted to stress 2 weeks after ovariectomy. In addition, long-term ovariectomy resulted in a significant decrease on the time spent in the open arms in the elevated plus-maze test compared to control animals. Stress did not significantly affect cell proliferation in the hilus of the dentate gyrus. However, ovariectomy resulted in a significant decrease in cell proliferation. These results indicate that long-term deprivation of ovarian hormones enhances the effect of chronic unpredictable stress on depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors in mice. Therefore, a prolonged deprivation of ovarian hormones may represent a risk factor for the development of depressive and anxiety symptoms after the exposure to stressful experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Lagunas
- Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Avenida Doctor Arce 37, Madrid, Spain
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Hu H, Su L, Xu Y, Zhang H, Wang L. Behavioral and [F-18] fluorodeoxyglucose micro positron emission tomography imaging study in a rat chronic mild stress model of depression. Neuroscience 2010; 169:171-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.04.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Revised: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/24/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Hu Y, Liu P, Guo DH, Rahman K, Wang DX, Xie TT. Antidepressant effects of the extract YZ-50 from Polygala tenuifolia in chronic mild stress treated rats and its possible mechanisms. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2010; 48:794-800. [PMID: 20645779 DOI: 10.3109/13880200903280034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
YZ-50 is an active fraction obtained from the root of Polygala tenuifolia Willd. (Polygalaceae) extract and it has been reported previously to exert beneficial effects on mental health in depressed sufferers, however, its mechanism of action remains unresolved. This study utilized the chronic mild stress (CMS) model of depression in Sprague-Dawley rats to evaluate the effects of YZ-50 on depressive behaviors. Furthermore, we tested the hypothesis that the capacity of YZ-50 to reverse the harmful effects of CMS is relative to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus. Repeated administration of YZ-50 for 28 days at the doses of 140 and 280 mg/kg in CMS, YZ-50 reversed the CMS-induced changes in sucrose consumption, plasma corticosterone levels and open field activity. In addition, CMS significantly decreased hippocampal BDNF mRNA levels. However, YZ-50 counteracted a decrease in hippocampal BDNF mRNA caused by CMS. In conclusion, YZ-50 reversed the harmful effects of CMS on mood and behaviors in rats and it possesses an antidepressant property that is at least in part mediated by the neuroendocrine and neuropropective systems, and it is likely that the HPA system plays an important role in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Hu
- Dept. of Clinical Pharmacology, Pharmacy Care Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
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Malkesman O, Scattoni ML, Paredes D, Tragon T, Pearson B, Shaltiel G, Chen G, Crawley JN, Manji HK. The female urine sniffing test: a novel approach for assessing reward-seeking behavior in rodents. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 67:864-71. [PMID: 20034613 PMCID: PMC2922846 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abnormal hedonic behavior is a key feature of many psychiatric disorders. Several paradigms measure reward-seeking behavior in rodents, but each has limitations. We describe a novel approach for monitoring reward-seeking behavior in rodents: sniffing of estrus female urine by male mice, along with number of ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) emitted during the test. METHODS The female urine sniffing test (FUST) was designed to monitor reward-seeking activity in rodents together with tests of helplessness and sweet solution preference. USVs and dopamine release from the nucleus accumbens (NAc) were recorded. Sniffing activity was measured in 1) manipulation-naive C57BL/6J and 129S1/SVImJ mice and Wistar-Kyoto rats; 2) stressed mice; 3) two groups of mice that underwent the learned helplessness paradigm-one untreated, and one treated with the SSRI citalopram; and 4) GluR6 knockout mice, known to display lithium-responsive, mania-related behaviors. RESULTS Males from all three strains spent significantly longer sniffing female urine than sniffing water. Males emitted USVs and showed significantly elevated NAc dopamine levels while sniffing urine. Foot-shock stress significantly reduced female urine sniffing time. Compared with mice that did not undergo the LH paradigm, LH males spent less time sniffing female urine, and citalopram treatment alleviated this reduction. Compared with their wildtype littermates, GluR6KO males sniffed female urine longer and showed enhanced saccharin preference. CONCLUSIONS In rodents, sniffing female urine is a preferred activity accompanied by biological changes previously linked to reward-seeking activities. The FUST is sensitive to behavioral and genetic manipulation and to relevant drug treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oz Malkesman
- Laboratory of Molecular Pathophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Strekalova T, Steinbusch HWM. Measuring behavior in mice with chronic stress depression paradigm. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2010; 34:348-61. [PMID: 20026369 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2009.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 11/27/2009] [Accepted: 12/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Many studies with chronic stress, a common depression paradigm, lead to inconsistent behavioral results. We are introducing a new model of stress-induced anhedonia, which provides more reproducible induction and behavioral measuring of depressive-like phenotype in mice. First, a 4-week stress procedure induces anhedonia, defined by decreased sucrose preference, in the majority of but not all C57BL/6 mice. The remaining 30-50% non-anhedonic animals are used as an internal control for stress effects that are unrelated to anhedonia. Next, a modified sucrose test enables the detection of inter-individual differences in mice. Moreover, testing under dimmed lighting precludes behavioral artifacts caused by hyperlocomotion, a major confounding factor in stressed mice. Finally, moderation of the stress load increases the reproducibility of anhedonia induction, which otherwise is difficult to provide because of inter-batch variability in laboratory mice. We believe that our new mouse model overcomes some major difficulties in measuring behavior with chronic stress depression models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana Strekalova
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, NL 6229 ER Maastricht, Netherlands.
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Interferon-gamma deficiency modifies the effects of a chronic stressor in mice: Implications for psychological pathology. Brain Behav Immun 2010; 24:462-73. [PMID: 20004715 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Revised: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 12/04/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory cytokines promote behavioral and neurochemical variations similar to those evident following stressor exposure, and have been implicated in promoting depressive illness. Indeed, immunotherapeutic application of the cytokine, interferon-alpha, promoted depressive illness in cancer and hepatitis C patients. We assessed the possibility that another interferon cytokine family member, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), might contribute to the behavioral and biochemical alterations provoked by a chronic stressor regimen that has been used to model neuropsychiatric pathology in rodents. As predicted, IFN-gamma-deficient mice displayed basal differences in behavior (e.g., reduced open field exploration) and altered neurochemical activity (e.g., increased noradrenergic and serotonergic activity within the central amygdala), relative to their wild-type counterparts. Moreover, stressor-induced elevations of corticosterone and the pro-inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, were attenuated in IFN-gamma-deficient mice. Similarly, the IFN-gamma null mice were refractory to the chronic stressor-induced alterations of dopamine metabolism (within the prefrontal cortex, paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and central amygdala) evident in wild-type mice. Yet, the chronic stressor provoked signs of anxiety (e.g., reduced open field exploration) and depression-like behavior (e.g., increased forced swim immobility, reduced consumption of a palatable solution) among both wild-type and IFN-gamma knockout mice alike, suggesting a dissociation of behavioral functioning from the stressor-induced alterations of immunological, hormonal and dopaminergic activity. Together, these data suggest a complex neurobehavioral phenotype, wherein IFN-gamma deletion engenders a state of heightened basal emotionality coupled with increased monoaminergic activity in the amygdala. At the same time, however, IFN-gamma deficiency appears to blunt some of the neurochemical, corticoid and cytokine alterations ordinarily associated with chronic stressor exposure.
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68
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Two different putative genetic animal models of childhood depression—A review. Prog Neurobiol 2009; 88:153-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2008] [Revised: 01/27/2009] [Accepted: 03/12/2009] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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69
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SHEN YD, XU BH, LIU N, WEI LL, CHEN W. Effects of Antidepressant on the Expression of Neuropeptide Y in Brain of a Rat Model of Depression Induced by Chronic Stress. ACTA PSYCHOLOGICA SINICA 2009. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1041.2009.00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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70
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Gao D, Zheng Z, Han M, Tang X, Sun X. Findings of P300-like and CNV-like potentials in rat model of depression following repeatedly forced swim stress. Int J Psychophysiol 2009; 72:160-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2008] [Revised: 11/26/2008] [Accepted: 12/02/2008] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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71
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Factors of Reproducibility of Anhedonia Induction in a Chronic Stress Depression Model in Mice. MOOD AND ANXIETY RELATED PHENOTYPES IN MICE 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-303-9_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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72
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Toth E, Avital A, Leshem M, Richter-Levin G, Braun K. Neonatal and juvenile stress induces changes in adult social behavior without affecting cognitive function. Behav Brain Res 2008; 190:135-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2007] [Revised: 01/24/2008] [Accepted: 02/11/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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73
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Casarotto PC, Andreatini R. Repeated paroxetine treatment reverses anhedonia induced in rats by chronic mild stress or dexamethasone. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2007; 17:735-42. [PMID: 17462866 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2007.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2006] [Revised: 02/14/2007] [Accepted: 03/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The present study was designed to assess the effect of dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid receptor agonist, in the sucrose preference test in rats. Rats treated acutely with dexamethasone (5-10 mg/kg) showed a significant decrease in sucrose preference (anhedonia) in comparison to vehicle treated rats, although 1 mg/kg dexamethasone did not alter the sucrose preference. Daily paroxetine treatment (10 g/kg, i.p., 14 days) reversed the anhedonic effect of acute dexamethasone (5 mg/kg), while causing no increased sucrose preference in rats that received dexamethasone vehicle. The paroxetine vehicle treated rats showed anhedonia even 14 days after acute dexamethasone administration. Paroxetine (10 mk/kg, i.p. for 28 days) also reversed anhedonia induced by chronic mild stress (8 weeks). In conclusion, acute dexamethasone induced an enduring anhedonic state that was reversed by repeated paroxetine treatment. Thus, the present study adds new data to the evidence supporting an important role for glucocorticoid in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- P C Casarotto
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Farmacologia do Sistema Nervoso Central, Departamento de Farmacologia, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Centro Politécnico C.P. 19031, 81540-990 Curitiba - PR - Brazil
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74
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Abstract
The chronic mild stress (CMS) paradigm was developed to model anhedonia in animals. The repeated administration of a series of unpredictable, mild stressors attempts to mimic the daily stress associated with the onset of clinical depression in humans. Male animals are predominantly used in these investigations despite significant, well-documented sex differences in human depression. In this study, the CMS procedure was modified to be more ecologically relevant to female animals. The effects of stress on sucrose preference, social interaction, rate of weight gain, and regularity of the estrous cycle in female Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were evaluated in both single- and paired-housed rats, during 3 weeks each of baseline, CMS, and post-CMS phases. The results indicate that only single-housed rats exposed to stressors have a reduced rate of weight gain, significantly attenuated sucrose preference levels, and increased social interaction scores during the CMS phase of the study. Housing condition more than exposure to stress appeared to contribute to the disruption of estrous cycling in some animals. These data suggest that housing affords some protection from the negative consequences of CMS, at least in female rats, and that lack of social interaction in the single-housing condition may render females more vulnerable to stress-related illnesses. The development of paradigms that model human depression should emphasize sex-specific differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Baker
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ont., Canada
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75
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Liang S, Byers DM, Irwin LN. Sex and diet affect the behavioral response of rats to chronic mild stressors. Physiol Behav 2007; 93:27-36. [PMID: 17727904 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2006] [Revised: 05/18/2007] [Accepted: 07/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the interaction between sex, stressors, and dietary choice in rats, a preferred diet under the influence of chronic mild stressors was empirically determined to consist of soybeans and cookies in addition to lab chow. This preferred mixed diet was then tested for its influence on several behavioral tests at the end of prolonged exposure to the potential stressors. Rats of both sexes decreased their frequency of rearing but increased their attention to novelty in response to stressors. In the elevated plus maze, diet interacted with exposure to stressors to influence time spent in the open arm in females but not males. In the forced swim test, females but not males fed the mixed diet showed increased immobility, whether exposed to stressors or not. Finally, females but not males showed a differential effect of diet under stressors on the sucrose preference test, but this result was confounded by estrus cycling, demonstrating the importance of this factor in analyzing behavior in females. These results suggest that male and female rats differ in their susceptibility to the behavioral-modifying influences of stressors. And to the extent that diet serves as a coping mechanism, it does so differently in males and females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuwen Liang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W. University Avenue, El Paso, Texas 79968, United States.
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76
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Fahey B, Hickey B, Kelleher D, O'Dwyer AM, O'Mara SM. The widely-used anti-viral drug interferon-alpha induces depressive- and anxiogenic-like effects in healthy rats. Behav Brain Res 2007; 182:80-7. [PMID: 17588681 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2007] [Revised: 04/27/2007] [Accepted: 05/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) is a naturally occurring human cytokine that is a key therapy in the treatment of several viral diseases and cancers. However, treatment can produce significant neuropsychiatric and neurotoxic adverse events, including depression and anxiety. Here we investigated the effects of a clinically-comparable treatment regime of IFN-alpha on depressive- and anxiety-like behaviour in rats; and also examined frontal-cortical and hippocampal BDNF levels. Rats treated with IFN-alpha for four weeks showed significant increases in depressive- and anxiety-like behaviour. Further experimental investigation revealed that hedonic dysregulation (stronger preference for a sweet solution) did not emerge until the second week of treatment, and became more persistent as treatment progressed. No significant IFN-alpha-induced changes in BDNF levels were found. These results indicate that the affective deficits seen in patients may be modelled in healthy animals. This model may represent a novel tool to investigate the extent of and mechanisms underlying the IFN-alpha psychiatric syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bríana Fahey
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Lloyd Building, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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77
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Li S, Wang C, Wang M, Li W, Matsumoto K, Tang Y. Antidepressant like effects of piperine in chronic mild stress treated mice and its possible mechanisms. Life Sci 2007; 80:1373-81. [PMID: 17289085 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2006.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2006] [Revised: 12/13/2006] [Accepted: 12/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the antidepressant-like effect of piperine in mice exposed to chronic mild stress (CMS) procedure. Repeated administration of piperine for 14 days at the doses of 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg reversed the CMS-induced changes in sucrose consumption, plasma corticosterone level and open field activity. Furthermore, the decreased proliferation of hippocampal progenitor cells was ameliorated and the level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in hippocampus of CMS stressed mice was up-regulated by piperine treatment in the same time course. In addition, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) assays showed that piperine (6.25-25 microM) or fluoxetine (FLU, 1 microM) dose-dependently protected primary cultured hippocampal neurons from the lesion induced by 10 microM corticosterone (CORT). Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to detect the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) level of BDNF in cultured neurons. Treatment with piperine (6.25-25 microM) for 72 h reversed the CORT-induced reduction of BDNF mRNA expression in cultured hippocampal neurons. In summary, up-regulation of the progenitor cell proliferation of hippocampus and cytoprotective activity might be mechanisms involved in the antidepressant-like effect of piperine, which may be closely related to the elevation of hippocampal BDNF level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Li
- Laboratory for Brain and Mind, Institute of Neuroinformatics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116023,China.
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78
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Strekalova T, Gorenkova N, Schunk E, Dolgov O, Bartsch D. Selective effects of citalopram in a mouse model of stress-induced anhedonia with a control for chronic stress. Behav Pharmacol 2006; 17:271-87. [PMID: 16572005 DOI: 10.1097/00008877-200605000-00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A stress-induced decrease in sucrose preference in rodents is regarded as an analog of anhedonia, a key symptom of depression. We investigated the effects of citalopram, administrated via drinking water (15 mg/kg/day), in a mouse model of stress-induced anhedonia. In this model, chronic stress induces anhedonia in a subset of C57BL/6N mice, while the remaining animals do not show a hedonic deficit or other depressive-like behaviors, although they are exposed to the same stressors as the anhedonic mice. Pre-stress and post-stress treatment with citalopram counteracted the development and maintenance of anhedonia and rescued normal floating in the forced swim test, demonstrating an antidepressant-like action. During the post-stress treatment, citalopram selectively increased sucrose preference and intake on the fourth week of treatment in anhedonic mice without affecting non-anhedonic animals. Citalopram also decreased elevated water consumption in the anhedonic group. Citalopram, administered 1 week before and during a 4-week stress procedure, decreased the percentage of anhedonic mice and reduced the increase of water intake in stressed mice. This study suggests that our chronic stress paradigm can serve as a model of anhedonia, in which antidepressant treatment is selectively effective in animals with a hedonic deficit.
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79
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Harris RBS, Palmondon J, Leshin S, Flatt WP, Richard D. Chronic disruption of body weight but not of stress peptides or receptors in rats exposed to repeated restraint stress. Horm Behav 2006; 49:615-25. [PMID: 16423352 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2005] [Revised: 11/27/2005] [Accepted: 12/06/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Rats exposed to restraint stress for 3 h on each of 3 days lose weight and do not return to the weight of their non-stressed controls for extended periods of time. Studies described here demonstrate that the initial weight loss is associated with increased energy expenditure and reduced food intake on the days of restraint but that there is no difference between stressed and control rats once stress ends. The failure to compensate for this energy deficit accounts for the sustained reduction in weight which lasts for up to 80 days after the end of restraint. In an additional experiment, in situ hybridization was used to measure mRNA expression of corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) and CRF receptors in hypothalamic nuclei, of urocortin (UCN) in the Edinger Westphal nucleus and of UCN III in the rostral perifornical area and medial amygdaloidal nucleus. Immediately after the second 3 h bout of restraint stress, there was a significant increase in expression of UCN in the Edinger Westphal nucleus and of CRF-R1 in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and a less pronounced decrease in CRF-R2 expression in the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. There were no differences in expression of stress-related peptides or their receptors 40 days after the end of repeated restraint. These results suggest that the sustained reduction in body weight and increased responsiveness to subsequent stressors in rats that have been exposed to repeated restraint are not associated with prolonged changes in mRNA expression of CRF receptors or their ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth B S Harris
- Department of Foods and Nutrition, Dawson Hall, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
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80
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Zheng H, Liu Y, Li W, Yang B, Chen D, Wang X, Jiang Z, Wang H, Wang Z, Cornelisson G, Halberg F. Beneficial effects of exercise and its molecular mechanisms on depression in rats. Behav Brain Res 2006; 168:47-55. [PMID: 16290283 PMCID: PMC2662337 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2005.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2005] [Revised: 10/02/2005] [Accepted: 10/10/2005] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Exercise showed the beneficial effects on mental health in depressed sufferers, whereas, its underlying mechanisms remained unresolved. This study utilized the chronic unpredictable stress (CNS) animal model of depression to evaluate the effects of exercise on depressive behaviors and spatial performance in rats. Furthermore, we tested the hypothesis that the capacity of exercise to reverse the harmful effects of CNS was relative to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus. Animal groups were exposed to CNS for 4 weeks with and without access to voluntary wheel running. Stressed rats consumed significantly less of a 1% sucrose solution during CNS and exhibited a significant decrease in open field behavior. On the other hand, they showed impaired spatial performance in Morris water maze test 2 weeks after the end of CNS. Further, CNS significantly decreased hippocampal BDNF mRNA levels. However, voluntary exercise improved or even reversed these harmful behavioral effects in stressed rats. Furthermore, exercise counteracted a decrease in hippocampal BDNF mRNA caused by CNS. In addition, we also found that CMS alone increased circulating corticosterone (CORT) significantly and decreased hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mRNA. At the same time, exercise alone increased CORT moderately and did not affect hippocampal GR mRNA levels. While, when both CNS and exercise were combined, exercise reduced the increase of CORT and the decrease of GR caused by CMS. The results demonstrated that: (1) exercise reversed the harmful effects of CNS on mood and spatial performance in rats and (2) the behavioral changes induced by exercise and/or CNS might be associated with hippocampal BDNF levels, and in addition, the HPA system might play different roles in the two different processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Zheng
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Yanyou Liu
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Wei Li
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Bo Yang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Dengbang Chen
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Xiaojia Wang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Zhou Jiang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Hongxing Wang
- Medical Experimental Animal Center, Sichuan Medical Academy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610046, PR China
| | - Zhengrong Wang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - G. Cornelisson
- Halberg Chronobiology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - F. Halberg
- Halberg Chronobiology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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81
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Willner P. Chronic mild stress (CMS) revisited: consistency and behavioural-neurobiological concordance in the effects of CMS. Neuropsychobiology 2005; 52:90-110. [PMID: 16037678 DOI: 10.1159/000087097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1217] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The chronic mild stress (CMS) model of depression has high validity but has in the past been criticized for being difficult to replicate. However, a large number of recent publications have confirmed that CMS causes behavioural changes in rodents that parallel symptoms of depression. This review summarizes studies from over sixty independent research groups that have reported decreases in reactivity to rewards, and a variety of other depression-like behaviours, in rats or mice, following exposure to CMS. Together, these changes are referred to as a 'depressive' behavioural profile. Almost every study that has examined the effects of chronic antidepressant treatment in these procedures has reported that antidepressants were effective in reversing or preventing these 'depressive' behavioural changes. (The single exception is a study in which the duration of treatment was too brief to constitute an adequate trial.) There are also a handful of reports of CMS causing significant effects in the opposite direction, termed here an 'anomalous' behavioural profile. There are six neurobiological parameters that have been studied in both 'anhedonic' and 'anomalous' animals: psychostimulant and place-conditioning effects of dopamine agonists; dopamine D2 receptor number and message; inhibition of dopamine turnover by quinpirole, and beta-adrenergic receptor binding. On all six measures, CMS caused opposite effects in animals displaying 'depressive' and 'anomalous' profiles. Thus, there is overwhelming evidence that under appropriate experimental conditions, CMS can cause antidepressant-reversible depressive-like effects in rodents; however, the 'anomalous' profile that is occasionally reported appears to be a genuine phenomenon, and these two sets of behavioural effects appear to be associated with opposite patterns of neurobiological changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Willner
- Department of Psychology, University of Wales Swansea, Swansea, UK.
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82
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Malkesman O, Braw Y, Zagoory-Sharon O, Golan O, Lavi-Avnon Y, Schroeder M, Overstreet DH, Yadid G, Weller A. Reward and anxiety in genetic animal models of childhood depression. Behav Brain Res 2005; 164:1-10. [PMID: 16055204 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2005.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2005] [Revised: 04/12/2005] [Accepted: 04/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
One of the most important criteria for major depressive disorder in adults and in children and adolescents as well, is the loss of interest in or pleasure from typically enjoyable experiences or activities: anhedonia. Anxiety is frequently co-morbid with depression. We examined reward and anxiety in genetic animal models of childhood depression. Two different "depressed" lines were studied: the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) and their controls, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats and the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) line and their controls, Wistar rats. Recently, we found that prepubertal rats (about 35 days old) from these lines exhibited increased immobility in the swim test, and abnormal social play observed after 24-h isolation. We hypothesized that FSL and WKY prepubertal rats will further show anhedonia in two different behavioral assays: the conditioned place preference test (CPP), examining the rewarding aspect of social interaction and the saccharin preference test. Behavior in the open field paradigm and freezing behavior in the CPP apparatus were also used as measures of anxiety. WKY, but not FSL prepubertal rats, consumed less of the saccharin solution compared to their control line. FSL, and WKY prepubertal rats found social interaction to be rewarding to a similar extent as their control lines, in the CPP test. Only the WKY rats showed anxiety in behavior in the open field and freezing behavior in the CPP paradigm. The results suggest that WKY prepubertal rats are anxious and sensitive to stress-induced anhedonia, while FSL prepubertal rats exhibit none of these symptoms.
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MESH Headings
- Age Factors
- Analysis of Variance
- Animals
- Anxiety/complications
- Anxiety/genetics
- Child
- Conditioning, Classical/physiology
- Depressive Disorder, Major/complications
- Depressive Disorder, Major/genetics
- Disease Models, Animal
- Exploratory Behavior/physiology
- Female
- Freezing Reaction, Cataleptic/physiology
- Humans
- Male
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred Strains
- Rats, Inbred WKY
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Rats, Wistar
- Reward
- Sexual Maturation
- Social Behavior
- Species Specificity
- Stress, Psychological/complications
- Stress, Psychological/genetics
- Taste/genetics
- Taste/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- O Malkesman
- Interdisciplinary Program in the Brain Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Israel
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83
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Strekalova T, Spanagel R, Dolgov O, Bartsch D. Stress-induced hyperlocomotion as a confounding factor in anxiety and depression models in mice. Behav Pharmacol 2005; 16:171-80. [PMID: 15864072 DOI: 10.1097/00008877-200505000-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Chronic stress is broadly used to model anxiety and depression. However, in chronic stress models, anxiety- and depression-like behaviors might be masked by unspecific effects of stress. We tested whether chronic stress in mice can induce unspecific changes in locomotion, and whether these changes interfere with the measurement of anxiety and forced-swimming behaviors. Also, we studied these latter behaviors in relation to the duration of stress, the lighting conditions during testing, and after the injection of diazepam. We employed a 4-week chronic stress paradigm, adopted from a model of stress-induced anhedonia and a 1-week subchronic stress, both consisting of rat exposure, restraint stress and tail suspension. Chronically stressed mice, tested under bright and moderate illumination, exhibited 'anxiolytic-like' behavior along with prolonged swimming and hyperactivity. These behaviors were not detectable under weak illumination or after the injection of diazepam (0.25 mg/kg). Instead, normal locomotion, increased anxiety and inhibited swimming were revealed under these conditions. Thus, chronic stress can induce hyperlocomotion in mice, which is triggered by acute stressors such as light, and interferes with the evaluation of anxiety and forced swimming. One week of stress did not change locomotion and forced swimming, and increased anxiety irrespective of illumination applied during testing. Our data can possibly explain previously reported contradictions in the behavioral testing of mice with chronic stress models of anxiety and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Strekalova
- Zentralinstitut für Seelische Gesundheit, Mannheim, Germany.
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84
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Gouirand AM, Matuszewich L. The effects of chronic unpredictable stress on male rats in the water maze. Physiol Behav 2005; 86:21-31. [PMID: 16099481 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2005] [Revised: 06/07/2005] [Accepted: 06/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to chronic stress can affect cognitive processes in a complex manner depending upon the intensity and duration of the stressors. The current study investigated the effects of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS), a procedure thought to use moderate stressors, on acquisition of and performance in the Morris Water Maze (MWM). Separate behavioral tests were also used to determine whether the stress-induced changes in MWM were due to general changes in locomotor activity or preference for a rewarding stimulus. Adult male rats were exposed to 10 days of different stressors applied at various times. Following the last stressor, stressed and non-stressed rats began training in the MWM, were tested in an open field box, or were tested for sucrose preference. In the MWM, rats exposed to stress had shorter latencies to reach the hidden platform during training. The path lengths on day 2 of training, trials 2 and 4, were shorter in CUS rats compared to controls, with the stressed rats traveling less in the outer portion of the maze. During the probe trial, CUS rats also traveled less overall and less in the outer portion of the maze, although all other measures were the same. The facilitation in learning the platform location was not due to a change in other behavioral components that could contribute to the measures, such as general activity, sensorimotor processing or the preference for a 2% sucrose solution. Thus, chronic unpredictable stress selectively appears to affect the search strategies in the water maze.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Gouirand
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, 60115, USA
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85
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De La Garza R. Endotoxin- or pro-inflammatory cytokine-induced sickness behavior as an animal model of depression: focus on anhedonia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005; 29:761-70. [PMID: 15878621 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
In humans, exposure to endotoxins or pro-inflammatory cytokines induces a number of neuropsychological symptoms collectively referred to as 'flu-like syndrome'. The degree of overlap between flu-like syndrome and major depressive disorder is considerable and a close linkage between these has been predicted to arise due to hypersecretion of endogenous pro-inflammatory cytokines and activation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis. In animals, exposure to pro-inflammatory cytokines or endotoxins induces a 'sickness behavior' syndrome that is analogous to flu-like symptoms observed in human patients. The goal of the current paper is to review evidence implicating endotoxin- or cytokine-induced sickness behavior as an animal model of depression, with an emphasis on reduced consumption of highly palatable substances as a defining feature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard De La Garza
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, NPI Room A8-148, 740 Westwood Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA.
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86
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Negroni J, Venault P, Pardon MC, Pérez-Diaz F, Chapouthier G, Cohen-Salmon C. Chronic ultra-mild stress improves locomotor performance of B6D2F1 mice in a motor risk situation. Behav Brain Res 2005; 155:265-73. [PMID: 15364486 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2004.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2004] [Revised: 04/29/2004] [Accepted: 04/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Chronic low grade stress predispose to psychopathological disorders. We consistently showed that chronic ultra-mild stress (CUMS) applied to B6D2F1 female mice induced behavioral disinhibition in several conflict exploration models. Insufficient reactivity to conflicts may be maladaptive and lead to inappropriate appreciation of potential risks and impaired ability to cope with those. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to assess the effect of a CUMS procedure on the behavior of mice in a motor risk situation based on multisensory conflict. Following three weeks exposure to various mild stressors, stressed and control B6D2F1 mice were tested on the rotating beam to determine how CUMS exposure affected balance control, posture stability and locomotor performance in response to a sensory-motor challenge. Detailed behavioral analysis included several parameters, both postural (height of the trunk, tail angle, number of imbalances, falls and head movements) and kinetic (mean velocity on the beam, distance covered with large and small movements, plus time spent in no-motion episodes). Comparisons between control and stressed mice showed that CUMS exposure increased mean velocity and improved locomotor performance in the learning task. In addition, sensitivity to sensory conflict seemed to be reduced in stressed mice, which displayed fewer behavioral adjustments to the increasing difficulty of the test compared to control mice. The results are discussed in terms of the possible influence of disturbances in behavioral and attentional inhibitory processes following CUMS exposure. Whether longer periods of CUMS exposure would shift the performance on the RTB from improvement to deterioration remain to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Negroni
- CNRS UMR 7593 "Vulnérabilité, Adaptation & Psychopathologie", Faculté de Médecine Pitié-Salpêtrière, 91 Bd de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
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87
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Abstract
Among the most useful models for depressive disorders are those, which involve a stress induced change in behaviour. Learned helplessness is one such model and is induced through exposure to uncontrollable and unpredictable aversive events. Learned helplessness as induced in rats using foot shock is well characterized and has good face validity and predictive validity as a model of depression, including alterations in HPA axis activity and REM sleep characteristic of depression. The data concerning the validity will be briefly reviewed. The model can also be used to look at the role of genetics through selective breeding. These studies will be reviewed and the utility of the genetic strains for understanding the interaction of stress and affect will be examined. A second model of depression using exposure to chronic stress also has high face and predictive validity. A new form of this approach, recently described, also is suitable for the examination of genetic factors leading to depressive like behaviour and this will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fritz A Henn
- Central Institute of Mental Health, D-68159 Mannheim, Germany.
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88
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Abstract
A decrease in sensitivity to pleasurable stimuli, anhedonia, is a major symptom of depression in humans. Several animal models have been developed to simulate this symptom (e.g. drug withdrawal, learned helplessness) using reward-sensitive procedures such as intracranial self-stimulation and progressive ratio responding as a measure of reward function. Recently, we introduced the use of another procedure, novel-object place conditioning in rats, to measure reward function in an associative learning situation. Withdrawal from chronic nicotine blocked a place preference conditioned by access to novel objects. This blockade was not due to impairment of object interaction, general activity, novelty detection, environmental familiarization, or expression of learning. Consequently, nicotine withdrawal directly reduced the rewarding properties of novelty. It is proposed that the novel-object place conditioning procedure could be usefully extended to other experimental situations and to genetically altered mice, so as to better understand the processes underlying changes in reward function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick A Bevins
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588-0308, USA.
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89
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Strekalova T, Spanagel R, Bartsch D, Henn FA, Gass P. Stress-induced anhedonia in mice is associated with deficits in forced swimming and exploration. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; 29:2007-17. [PMID: 15266352 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 416] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In order to develop a model for a depression-like syndrome in mice, we subjected male C57BL/6 mice to a 4-week-long chronic stress procedure, consisting of rat exposure, restraint stress, and tail suspension. This protocol resulted in a strong decrease in sucrose preference, a putative indicator of anhedonia in rodents. Interestingly, predisposition for stress-induced anhedonia was indicated by submissive behavior in a resident-intruder test. In contrast, most mice with nonsubmissive behavior did not develop a decrease in sucrose preference and were regarded as nonanhedonic. These animals were used as an internal control for stress-induced behavioral features not associated with the anhedonic state, since they were exposed to the same stressors as the anhedonic mice. Using a battery of behavioral tests after termination of the stress procedure, we found that anhedonia, but not chronic stress per se, is associated with key analogues of depressive symptoms, such as increased floating during forced swimming and decreased exploration of novelty. On the other hand, increased anxiety, altered locomotor activity, and loss of body weight were consequences of chronic stress, which occurred independently from anhedonia. Thus, behavioral correlates of stress-induced anhedonia and of chronic stress alone can be separated in the present model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana Strekalova
- Central Institute of Mental Health, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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90
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Grønli J, Murison R, Bjorvatn B, Sørensen E, Portas CM, Ursin R. Chronic mild stress affects sucrose intake and sleep in rats. Behav Brain Res 2004; 150:139-47. [PMID: 15033287 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(03)00252-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2003] [Revised: 07/08/2003] [Accepted: 07/08/2003] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Depression in humans is associated with sleep abnormalities of three types: altered rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, fragmented sleep, and reduced delta sleep. In an animal model of depression, chronic exposure to mild stressors (CMS, e.g. periods of soiled cage, reversed light/dark cycle, grouped housing, food and/or water deprivation) causes behavioral and hormonal changes which, in humans, often are associated with depression. In the CMS model, a reduced sucrose intake has been defined as one of the core symptoms of depression, anhedonia, although this finding is not consistent among various laboratories. In the present study, we investigated if the CMS procedure, in our laboratory, would cause decreased sucrose intake and, also, give sleep changes similar to what is found in depressed patients. Exposure to CMS decreased sucrose intake in our rats. The largest effect was obtained after 2 weeks of the stress protocol. CMS rats spent more time in REM sleep and showed more fragmented sleep compared to their baseline recording, while there were no changes in the control rats. Increased sleep fragmentation in CMS rats was particularly evident by increased number of arousals, and increased REM sleep and slow-wave-sleep-1 (SWS-1) episodes. The duration of sleep stage episodes was decreased. The amount of slow-wave-sleep-2 (SWS-2) was not decreased, however SWS-2 in percent of total SWS was reduced. Correlation analysis showed that animals that had less consumption of sucrose spent more time in REM sleep and had increased number of REM sleep episodes. In this study, CMS appears to be a model of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janne Grønli
- Section on Physiology, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5009 Bergen, Norway.
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91
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Cryan JF, Mombereau C. In search of a depressed mouse: utility of models for studying depression-related behavior in genetically modified mice. Mol Psychiatry 2004; 9:326-57. [PMID: 14743184 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4001457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 446] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The ability to modify mice genetically has been one of the major breakthroughs in modern medical science affecting every discipline including psychiatry. It is hoped that the application of such technologies will result in the identification of novel targets for the treatment of diseases such as depression and to gain a better understanding of the molecular pathophysiological mechanisms that are regulated by current clinically effective antidepressant medications. The advent of these tools has resulted in the need to adopt, refine and develop mouse-specific models for analyses of depression-like behavior or behavioral patterns modulated by antidepressants. In this review, we will focus on the utility of current models (eg forced swim test, tail suspension test, olfactory bulbectomy, learned helplessness, chronic mild stress, drug-withdrawal-induced anhedonia) and research strategies aimed at investigating novel targets relevant to depression in the mouse. We will focus on key questions that are considered relevant for examining the utility of such models. Further, we describe other avenues of research that may give clues as to whether indeed a genetically modified animal has alterations relevant to clinical depression. We suggest that it is prudent and most appropriate to use convergent tests that draw on different antidepressant-related endophenotypes, and complimentary physiological analyses in order to provide a program of information concerning whether a given phenotype is functionally relevant to depression-related pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Cryan
- Neuroscience Research, The Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland.
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92
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Wong ML, Licinio J. From monoamines to genomic targets: a paradigm shift for drug discovery in depression. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2004; 3:136-51. [PMID: 15040578 DOI: 10.1038/nrd1303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Depression, a complex psychiatric disorder that affects approximately 15% of the population, has an enormous social cost. Although the disorder is thought to be the outcome of gene-environmental interactions, the causative genes and environmental factors underlying depression remain to be identified. All the antidepressant drugs now in use--the forerunner of which was discovered serendipitously 50 years ago--modulate monoamine neurotransmission, and take six to eight weeks to exert their effects, but each drug is efficacious in only 60-70% of patients. A conceptually novel antidepressant that acted rapidly and safely in a high proportion of patients would almost certainly become the world's bestselling drug. Yet such a drug is not on the horizon. Here, we cover the different phases of antidepressant drug discovery in the past, present and future, and comment on the challenges and opportunities for antidepressant research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ma-Li Wong
- Center for Pharmacogenomics, Neuropsychiatric Institute and David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, 695 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1761, USA.
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93
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Bielajew C, Konkle ATM, Kentner AC, Baker SL, Stewart A, Hutchins AA, Santa-Maria Barbagallo L, Fouriezos G. Strain and gender specific effects in the forced swim test: effects of previous stress exposure. Stress 2003; 6:269-80. [PMID: 14660059 DOI: 10.1080/10253890310001602829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The chronic mild stress (CMS) procedure was developed in rodents to target anhedonia, the core symptom of depressive melancholia. Stress exposure has been shown to induce a variety of physiological, biochemical and behavioral alterations associated with depression, although its anhedonic consequences as indexed by either sucrose intake and preference or thresholds for brain stimulation reward are less reliably observed. In the present study, we assessed the effects of six weeks of CMS on the latter measure in two strains of male and female rats subsequently challenged with an acute psychophysical stressor, forced swimming; their behavior in the swimming cylinder was evaluated on two consecutive days. While brain stimulation reward thresholds and response rates were unchanged by CMS exposure, significant differences in forced swim behaviors were observed between male control and CMS groups. In particular, male Long Evans rats with a history of CMS showed the largest decrease in the duration of active behaviors on the second test day, a pattern less evident in the Sprague-Dawley strain of rats, or in any of the female groups. The results suggest that the effects of depressogenic manipulations are strain and gender dependent, with male Long Evans rats most susceptible, as demonstrated by the selective reduction of struggling behaviors. Inclusion of multiple measures, including the forced swim test, would provide a better understanding of the psychopathological profile engendered by chronic exposure to mild stressors and its genetic specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bielajew
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont, Canada.
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94
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Konkle ATM, Baker SL, Kentner AC, Barbagallo LSM, Merali Z, Bielajew C. Evaluation of the effects of chronic mild stressors on hedonic and physiological responses: sex and strain compared. Brain Res 2003; 992:227-38. [PMID: 14625061 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2003.08.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The chronic mild stress (CMS) paradigm was developed in order to simulate in animals the symptom of anhedonia, a major feature of depression. Typically, changes in hedonic status are interpreted from a decrease in either intake or preference for a mild sucrose solution. Although the incidence of clinical depression is significantly higher in women than in men, the study of this disorder in most animal models of depression has been based on the responses of male rodents. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of 6 weeks of CMS administration among male and female rats of two rat strains, Sprague-Dawley (SD) and Long Evans (LE), with respect to physiological (body, adrenal gland, and spleen weight) and biochemical (plasma corticosterone levels) indices of stress as well as evaluations of 1 and 24 h sucrose intake and preference. Estrous cycle was tracked throughout the study. Overall, our results indicate a slower rate of weight gain in animals, greater in males, exposed to the chronic stressor regime. Furthermore, CMS is shown to disrupt estrous cycling, predominantly in the Long Evans strain of rats. The main behavioral finding was a significant reduction in 24 h sucrose intake in female treated groups, which was not accompanied by alterations in preference. Corticosterone levels were elevated in CMS-treated animals relative to the singly housed control groups, but exposure to a subsequent stressor was not influenced by the stress history. Taken together, the effects of chronic stressor exposure are evident, based on physiological and biochemical indices, although none of the measures distinguished any striking gender specific reactions. The usefulness of sucrose intake or preference as behavioral indices of CMS-induced anhedonia in males and females is modest at best.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne T M Konkle
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5
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95
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Sobrian SK, Marr L, Ressman K. Prenatal cocaine and/or nicotine exposure produces depression and anxiety in aging rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2003; 27:501-18. [PMID: 12691787 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-5846(03)00042-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The adult use of cocaine and nicotine has been linked to depression and/or anxiety. Changes in emotional behavior were assessed using behavioral paradigms developed as animal analogs of psychiatric disorders in 12-14 month old Sprague-Dawley rats exposed daily on gestational days 8-20 to cocaine and nicotine, either alone or in combination. Results from the elevated plus maze (EPM), used to assess anxiety-related behaviors, indicated that offspring prenatally exposed to either high-dose cocaine (40 mg/kg/day) or high-dose nicotine (5.0 mg/kg/day) were less timid/more impulsive. Animals from these two groups spent the most time on the open arms, and had the highest percentage of entries into the open arms of the EPM. Combined in utero exposure to cocaine and nicotine nullified these effects. Cocaine challenge (20 mg/kg) did not interact with prenatal treatment, but increased activity on all arms of the EPM in all groups. Sucrose preference was used as a measure of anhedonia, a cardinal symptom of depressive illness. Reduced sucrose preference was seen only in the group of offspring prenatally exposed to high-dose cocaine (40 mg/kg) plus low-dose nicotine (2.5 mg/kg/day). Exposure to a water-deprivation stress normalized sucrose preference in this group, without altering preference or intake in the other prenatal treatment groups. Transient hyperactivity was seen in the offspring of dams treated with high-dose nicotine, an effect that was again reversed in combined drug groups. Traditional gender differences in activity levels and sucrose intake, that is, females greater than males, were still evident in this population of aging rats. These data indicate that prenatal exposure to cocaine and/or nicotine has long-term effects on emotional behavior. Combined drug exposure contributed to the development of depressive symptoms, but not anxiety-like behavior, in a dose-dependent manner. In contrast, exposure to high doses of either drug alone reduced cautionary behavior. Data from this line of research could provide insight into the pathogenesis of emotional disorders, especially during the aging process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonya K Sobrian
- Department of Pharmacology, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC 20059, USA.
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96
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Pijlman FTA, Wolterink G, Van Ree JM. Physical and emotional stress have differential effects on preference for saccharine and open field behaviour in rats. Behav Brain Res 2003; 139:131-8. [PMID: 12642184 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00124-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Stress may influence the sensitivity of subjects to rewarding stimuli and stress modality may differentially affect this sensitivity. This relation was investigated in our animal model using chronic physical (repeated mild foot shocks) and emotional (witness) stress. Previous research has established that the two stressors have differential long-term effects on behaviour, where physical stress caused inactivity in a small open field and emotional stress hyperactivity. Rats were stressed on 5 consecutive days and tested for locomotor activity in a small open field (day 10) and saccharine preference (day 11). The preference for graded concentrations of saccharine over water was used as a measure for their sensitivity to reward. Physical stress treatment induced a long-term decrease both in preference for saccharine and open field activity compared to control treatment. Emotional stress animals showed an increase in open field behaviour activity and a slight increase in saccharine preference. Physical stress seems to cause anhedonia, while emotional stress might cause an increased sensitivity to reward. In conclusion, stress can induce differential long-term effects on sensitivity to positive stimuli and the response to novelty depending on stress modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Femke T A Pijlman
- Rudolf Magnus Institute for Neurosciences, Department of Medical Pharmacology, University Medical Centre Utrecht, P.O. Box 85060, 3508 AB, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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97
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Häidkind R, Eller M, Harro M, Kask A, Rinken A, Oreland L, Harro J. Effects of partial locus coeruleus denervation and chronic mild stress on behaviour and monoamine neurochemistry in the rat. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003; 13:19-28. [PMID: 12480118 DOI: 10.1016/s0924-977x(02)00076-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
It has been proposed that lesions of the ascending noradrenergic projections render animals more vulnerable to stress. In this study, the effects of partial denervation of the locus coeruleus (LC) by DSP-4 (10 mg/kg) treatment, chronic mild stress (CMS) and their combination were examined. DSP-4 was administered to rats 1 week before the onset of CMS, which was applied for 5 weeks. In the forced swimming test, the immobility time was decreased by both DSP-4 and CMS. In the open field test, the number of defecations was increased after DSP-4 treatment plus CMS. Partial LC denervation decreased the levels of noradrenaline (NA) by 34%, increased NA turnover, and decreased the density of beta-adrenoceptors in the cerebral cortex. CMS decreased the binding affinity of beta-adrenoceptors, an effect not observed in the DSP-4 treated animals. In conclusion, 6 weeks after partial LC denervation NA turnover is increased in the cortex, and the effect of CMS on emotionality is enhanced.
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MESH Headings
- Analysis of Variance
- Animals
- Benzylamines/toxicity
- Biogenic Monoamines/metabolism
- Body Weight/drug effects
- Chronic Disease
- Denervation/methods
- Exploratory Behavior/drug effects
- Frontal Lobe/drug effects
- Frontal Lobe/metabolism
- Hypothalamus/drug effects
- Hypothalamus/metabolism
- Locus Coeruleus/drug effects
- Male
- Neurotransmitter Uptake Inhibitors/toxicity
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Receptors, Adrenergic/classification
- Receptors, Adrenergic/drug effects
- Receptors, Adrenergic/metabolism
- Receptors, Dopamine D2/drug effects
- Receptors, Dopamine D2/metabolism
- Receptors, Serotonin/drug effects
- Receptors, Serotonin/metabolism
- Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT1
- Stress, Physiological/metabolism
- Stress, Physiological/psychology
- Sucrose/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Riina Häidkind
- Department of Psychology, University of Tartu, Centre of Behavioural and Health Sciences, Tiigi 78, EE-50410 Tartu, Estonia
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98
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Bielajew C, Konkle ATM, Merali Z. The effects of chronic mild stress on male Sprague-Dawley and Long Evans rats: I. Biochemical and physiological analyses. Behav Brain Res 2002; 136:583-92. [PMID: 12429420 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00222-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The chronic unpredictable mild stress (CMS) is a paradigm developed in animals to model the relatively minor and unanticipated irritants that lead to a state of anhedonia in some individuals. However, the effectiveness of CMS is sometimes difficult to establish, for which unique strain sensitivities has been attributed as one contributing factor. These considerations led us to design the present study, which was an investigation of the corticosterone response to CMS in two outbred rat strains--Sprague-Dawley and Long Evans. Animals were exposed to one of two conditions--control or CMS--for 3 weeks during which body weight and fecal count were regularly monitored. At the end of this period, blood was sampled at a variety of time intervals following induction of a brief restraint stressor. First, a significant effect of CMS on corticosterone levels was evident at time 0 (prior to the application of the acute restraint stressor) in both strains. Second, the typical quadratic pattern of stressor-elicited fluctuations in this measure was similar in both Sprague-Dawley and Long Evans rats, with consistently elevated levels for the first hour following exposure to the acute stressor; near baseline values were observed at 2 h. However, only in the Long Evans strain were CMS related values much less than that observed in the control group after restraint stress. Third, both strains showed a reduced weight gain in the CMS groups relative to control groups. Fourth, spleen and adrenal weights were similar across all groups. Fifth, fecal counts remained stable across weeks of treatment in all groups with the exception of the Long Evans rats exposed to CMS; in this group, average counts were systematically reduced over the treatment period. We conclude that a history of chronic stress significantly blunts corticosterone levels in Long Evans but not Sprague-Dawley rats following exposure to an acute stressor. Physiological indices however are less influenced by this experience, at least when the exposure is limited to 3 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Bielajew
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, 11 Marie Curie, Ottowa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5.
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99
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Bell ME, Bhargava A, Soriano L, Laugero K, Akana SF, Dallman MF. Sucrose intake and corticosterone interact with cold to modulate ingestive behaviour, energy balance, autonomic outflow and neuroendocrine responses during chronic stress. J Neuroendocrinol 2002; 14:330-42. [PMID: 11963830 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2826.2002.00784.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In adrenalectomized (ADX) rats, either corticosterone replacement or increased sucrose intake will restore body weight gain, uncoupling protein-1, fat depot mass, food intake and corticotropin-releasing factor mRNA expression to normal. Here, we tested the potential interactions between sucrose intake and circulating corticosterone on behavioural, metabolic, autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to the stress of cold. Rats were left intact, sham-ADX, or ADX and replaced with pellets that provided normal, basal (30%B) or high stress (100%B) constant circulating concentrations of corticosterone +/- sucrose. More calories were consumed in cold than at room temperature (RT), provided that corticosterone concentrations were elevated above mean daily basal values in cold. Neither increased sucrose nor increased chow ingestion occurred in cold if the rats were ADX and replaced with 30%B. However, sucrose drinking in this group markedly ameliorated other responses to cold. By contrast, ADX30%B rats not drinking sucrose fared poorly, and none of the metabolic or endocrine variables were similar to those in sham-ADX controls. ADX100%B group in cold, resembled intact rats without sucrose; however, this group was metabolically abnormal at RT. We conclude that drinking sucrose lowers stress-induced corticosterone secretion while reducing many responses to cold; elevated corticosterone concentrations in the stress-response range are essential for the normal integrated cold-induced responses to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Bell
- Department of Physiology, Program in Neuroscience, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA
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100
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Harris RBS, Mitchell TD, Simpson J, Redmann SM, Youngblood BD, Ryan DH. Weight loss in rats exposed to repeated acute restraint stress is independent of energy or leptin status. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2002; 282:R77-88. [PMID: 11742826 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.2002.282.1.r77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Acute release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) during repeated restraint (3-h restraint on each of 3 days) causes temporary hypophagia but chronic suppression of body weight in rats. Here we demonstrated that a second bout of repeated restraint caused additional weight loss, but continuing restraint daily for 10 days did not increase weight loss because the rats adapted to the stress. In these two studies serum leptin, which suppresses the endocrine response to stress, was reduced in restrained rats. Peripheral infusion of leptin before and during restraint did not prevent stress-induced weight loss, although stress-induced corticosterone release was suppressed. Restrained rats were hyperthermic during restraint, but there was no evidence that fever or elevated free interleukin-6 caused the sustained reduction in weight. Restraining food-restricted rats caused a small but significant weight loss. Food-restricted rats fed ad libitum after the end of restraint showed a blunted hyperphagia and slower rate of weight regain than their controls. These results indicate that repeated acute stress induces a chronic change in weight independent of stress-induced hypophagia and may represent a change in homeostasis initiated by repeated acute activation of the central CRF system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth B S Harris
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70808, USA.
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