Doxorubicin-tethered responsive gold nanoparticles facilitate intracellular drug delivery for overcoming multidrug resistance in cancer cells

A Nanomedicine Structure-Activity Framework for Research, Development, and Regulation of Future Cancer Therapies

Despite their clinical success in drug delivery applications, the potential of theranostic nanomedicines is hampered by mechanistic uncertainty and a lack of science-informed regulatory guidance. Both the therapeutic efficacy and the toxicity of nanoformulations are tightly controlled by the complex interplay of the nanoparticle's physicochemical properties and the individual patient/tumor biology; however, it can be difficult to correlate such information with observed outcomes. Additionally, as nanomedicine research attempts to gradually move away from large-scale animal testing, the need for computer-assisted solutions for evaluation will increase. Such models will depend on a clear understanding of structure-activity relationships. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the field of cancer nanomedicine and provides a knowledge framework and foundational interaction maps that can facilitate future research, assessments, and regulation. By forming three complementary maps profiling nanobio interactions and pathways at different levels of biological complexity, a clear picture of a nanoparticle's journey through the body and the therapeutic and adverse consequences of each potential interaction are presented.

Functionalized Moringa oleifera Gum as pH-Responsive Nanogel for Doxorubicin Delivery: Synthesis, Kinetic Modelling and In Vitro Cytotoxicity Study

Environment-responsive-cum-site-specific delivery of therapeutic drugs into tumor cells is a foremost challenge for chemotherapy. In the present work, Moringa oleifera gum-based pH-responsive nanogel (MOGN) was functionalized as a doxorubicin (DOX) carrier. It was synthesized via free radical polymerization through the γ-irradiation method using acrylamide and N,N'-MBA followed by hydrolysis, sonication, and ultracentrifugation. The swelling behavior of MOGN as a function of pH was assessed using a gravimetric method that revealed its superabsorbent nature (365.0 g/g). Furthermore, MOGN showed a very high loading efficiency (98.35 %L) of DOX by MOGN. In vitro release studies revealed that DOX release from DOX-loaded MOGN was 91.92% at pH 5.5 and 12.18% at 7.4 pH, thus favorable to the tumor environment. The drug release from nanogel followed Korsmeyer-Peppas model at pH 5.5 and 6.8 and the Higuchi model at pH 7.4. Later, the efficient DOX release at the tumor site was also investigated by cytotoxicity study using Rhabdomyosarcoma cells. Thus, the synthesized nanogel having high drug loading capacity and excellent pH-triggered disintegration and DOX release performance in a simulated tumor environment could be a promising candidate drug delivery system for the targeted and controlled release of anticancer drugs.

Protective effect of green synthesized Selenium Nanoparticles against Doxorubicin induced multiple adverse effects in Swiss albino mice

AIMS

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a widely used drug against multiple cancers. However, its clinical Use is often restricted due to multiple adverse effects. Recently, Selenium Nanoparticles (SeNPs) are gaining attention due to their low toxicity and higher biocompatibility, making them attractive nanoparticles (NPs) in medical and pharmaceutical sciences. Therefore, the current study aimed to assess if our biosynthesized SeNP from the endophytic fungus Fusarium oxysporum conjugated with DOX could alleviate the DOX-induced adverse effects.

MAIN METHODS

For this purpose, we investigated various genotoxic, biochemical, histopathological, and immunohistochemical parameters and finally analyzed the metabolite profile by LC-MS/MS.

KEY FINDINGS

We observed that DOX causes an increase in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS, RNS), 8-OHdG, and malondialdehyde (MDA), decreases antioxidant defense systems and reduces BCL-2 expression in cardiac tissue. In addition, a significant increase in DNA damage and alteration in the cytoarchitecture of the liver, kidney, and heart tissues was observed by Comet Tail Length and histopathological studies, respectively. Interestingly, the DOX-SeNP conjugate reduced ROS/RNS, 8-OHdG, and MDA levels in the liver, kidney, and heart tissues. It also restored the antioxidant enzymes and cytoarchitectures of the examined tissues, reduced genotoxicity, and increased the BCL-2 levels. Finally, metabolic profiling showed that DOX reduced the number of cardioprotective metabolites, which DOX-SeNP restored.

SIGNIFICANCE

Collectively, the present results describe the protective effect of DOX-conjugated SeNP against DOX-induced toxicities. In conclusion, DOX-SeNP conjugate might be better for treating patients receiving DOX alone. However, it warrants further thorough investigation.

Synthesis and Characterization of the Nanogold-Bound Ternary Copper(II) Complex of Phenanthroline and Cysteine as Potential Anticancer Agents

The aim of this study was to synthesize and characterize a nanogold-{[(Cu)(phen)(cys)(H₂O)]NO₃}_n conjugate and to evaluate its antiproliferative property against the breast cancer cell line (MCF7) and normal cell line (MCF10A). Nanogold solution was prepared using the Turkevich method. In one approach, a ternary copper(II) complex of 1,10-phenanthroline with l-cysteine, [(Cu)(phen)(cys)(H₂O)]NO₃, was first prepared and then tethered with the gold nanoparticles. In another approach, gold nanoparticles were reacted with l-cysteine, copper(II) nitrate, and 1,10-phenanthroline subsequently. The synthesized [(Cu)(phen)(cys)(H₂O)]NO₃ complex was characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry techniques, which showed that l-cysteine was bound to the copper through carboxylic and amino groups, with the thiol moiety remaining free. The free thiol group was bound to the nanogold surface to form the nanogold-{[(Cu)(phen)(cys)(H₂O)]NO₃}_n conjugate, as evidenced by the increase in the surface plasmon absorption band in ultraviolet-visible and the absence of a thiol peak in FTIR of the nanogold-copper complex conjugate. The anticancer activity of the nanogold-copper complex conjugate and the free copper complex against a breast cancer cell line (MCF7) and their toxicity on a normal cell line (MCF10A) were examined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxy phenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium assay. Results suggested that the nanogold-{[(Cu)(phen)(cys)(H₂O)]NO₃}_n conjugate demonstrates a selective antiproliferative and proapoptotic effect on the breast cancer cells, confirming the potential of the nanogold-copper complex conjugate as an anticancer agent.

Uptake of Functional Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles in 3D Gut Cell Models

Ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (2 nm) easily penetrate the membranes of intestinal murine epithelial cells (MODE-K) and colorectal cancer cells (CT-26). They are also taken up by 3D spheroids (400 µm) of these cell types and primary gut organoids (500 µm). In contrast, dissolved dyes are not taken up by any of these cells or 3D structures. The distribution of fluorescent ultrasmall gold nanoparticles inside cells, spheroids, and gut organoids is examined by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Nanoparticles conjugated with the cytostatic drug doxorubicin and a fluorescent dye exhibit significantly greater cytotoxicity toward CT-26 tumor spheroids than equally concentrated dissolved doxorubicin, probably because they enter the interior of a spheroid much more easily than dissolved doxorubicin. Comprehensive analyses show that the cellular uptake of ultrasmall gold nanoparticles occurs by different endocytosis pathways.

Gold Nanoparticles Contact with Cancer Cell: A Brief Update

The fine-tuning of the physicochemical properties of gold nanoparticles has facilitated the rapid development of multifunctional gold-based nanomaterials with diagnostic, therapeutic, and therapeutic applications. Work on gold nanoparticles is increasingly focusing on their cancer application. This review provides a summary of the main biological effects exerted by gold nanoparticles on cancer cells and highlights some critical factors involved in the interaction process (protein corona, tumor microenvironment, surface functionalization). The review also contains a brief discussion of the application of gold nanoparticles in target discovery.

Nanotechnology in drug and gene delivery

Over the last decade, nanotechnology has widely addressed many nanomaterials in the biomedical area with an opportunity to achieve better-targeted delivery, effective treatment, and an improved safety profile. Nanocarriers have the potential property to protect the active molecule during drug delivery. Depending on the employing nanosystem, the delivery of drugs and genes has enhanced the bioavailability of the molecule at the disease site and exercised an excellent control of the molecule release. Herein, the chapter discusses various advanced nanomaterials designed to develop better nanocarrier systems used to face different diseases such as cancer, heart failure, and malaria. Furthermore, we demonstrate the great attention to the promising role of nanocarriers in ease diagnostic and biodistribution for successful clinical cancer therapy.

Multidrug Resistance in Cancer: Understanding Molecular Mechanisms, Immunoprevention and Therapeutic Approaches

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Several treatments are available for cancer treatment, but many treatment methods are ineffective against multidrug-resistant cancer. Multidrug resistance (MDR) represents a major obstacle to effective therapeutic interventions against cancer. This review describes the known MDR mechanisms in cancer cells and discusses ongoing laboratory approaches and novel therapeutic strategies that aim to inhibit, circumvent, or reverse MDR development in various cancer types. In this review, we discuss both intrinsic and acquired drug resistance, in addition to highlighting hypoxia- and autophagy-mediated drug resistance mechanisms. Several factors, including individual genetic differences, such as mutations, altered epigenetics, enhanced drug efflux, cell death inhibition, and various other molecular and cellular mechanisms, are responsible for the development of resistance against anticancer agents. Drug resistance can also depend on cellular autophagic and hypoxic status. The expression of drug-resistant genes and the regulatory mechanisms that determine drug resistance are also discussed. Methods to circumvent MDR, including immunoprevention, the use of microparticles and nanomedicine might result in better strategies for fighting cancer.

A doxorubicin-peptide-gold nanoparticle conjugate as a functionalized drug delivery system: exploring the limits

Efficient transport of pharmaceuticals to malignant cells in the human body often requires the application of drug-delivery systems (DDSs) consisting of several building blocks, each of them bearing a specific function. While nanoparticles are promising as potential carrier moieties, biomolecules may add to the efficient delivery by binding several drug molecules simultaneously. In this contribution, we apply a combination of atomistic molecular dynamics simulations and density functional theory calculations to characterize a multi-component DDS for the transport of the anthracycline antibiotic doxorubicin (DOX), comprising a gold nanoparticle (NP) and a drug-binding peptide (DBP) grafted on the NP surface. We have shown previously that the DDS can stabilize one DOX per DBP. However, by increasing the drug load to a 2 : 1 DOX : DBP ratio the two drug molecules compete for the available adsorption sites, which may cause spontaneous dissociation of one DOX molecule. We identify the chain length of the DBP as a limiting factor for the drug-loading capacity and provide important guidelines for further optimization of multi-component functionalized DDSs.

Gold Nanoparticle-Decorated Drug Nanocrystals for Enhancing Anticancer Efficacy and Reversing Drug Resistance Through Chemo-/Photothermal Therapy

Limited chemotherapeutic efficiency, drug resistance, and side effects are primary obstacles for cancer treatment. The development of co-delivery systems with synergistic treatment modes should be a promising strategy. Here, we fabricated a multifunctionalized nanocarrier with a combination of chemotherapeutic agents and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), which could integrate chemo-photothermal therapy, thus enhancing overall anticancer efficacy, sensitizing drug-resistant cancer cells, and diminishing cancer stem cells (CSCs). To be specific, camptothecin nanocrystals (CPT NCs) were prepared as a platform, on the surface of which AuNPs were decorated and a hyaluronic acid layer acted as capping, stabilizing, targeting, and hydrophilic agents for CPT NCs, and reducing agents for AuNPs, providing a bridge connecting AuNPs to CPT. These AuNP-decorated CPT NCs exhibited good physico-chemical properties such as optimal sizes, payload, stability, and photothermal efficiency. Compared to other CPT formulations, they displayed considerably improved biocompatibility, selectivity, intracellular uptake, cytotoxicity, apoptosis induction activity, Pgp inhibitory capability, and anti-CSC activity, owing to a synergistic/cooperative effect from AuNPs, CPT, near-infrared treatment, pH/photothermal-triggered drug release, and nanoscaled structure. A mitochondrial-mediated signaling pathway is the underlying mechanism for cytotoxic and apoptotic effects from AuNP-decorated CPT NCs, in terms of mitochondrial dysfunction, intensified oxidative stress, DNA fragmentation, caspase 3 activation, upregulation of proapoptotic genes such as p53, Bax, and caspase 3, and lower levels of antiapoptotic Bcl-2.

Treasure on the Earth—Gold Nanoparticles and Their Biomedical Applications

Recent advances in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles (NPs) have led to tremendous expansion of their potential applications in different fields, ranging from healthcare research to microelectronics and food packaging. Among the approaches for exploiting nanotechnology in medicine, gold nanomaterials in particular have been found as the most promising due to their unique advantages, such as in sensing, image enhancement, and as delivery agents. Although, the first scientific article on gold nanoparticles was presented in 1857 by Faraday, during the last few years, the progress in manufacturing these nanomaterials has taken an enormous step forward. Due to the nanoscale counterparts of gold, which exhibit distinct properties and functionality compared to bulk material, gold nanoparticles stand out, in particular, in therapy, imaging, detection, diagnostics, and precise drug delivery. This review summarizes the current state-of-the-art knowledge in terms of biomedical applications of gold nanoparticles. The application of AuNPs in the following aspects are discussed: (i) imaging and diagnosing of specific target; (ii) treatment and therapies using AuNPs; and (iii) drug delivery systems with gold nanomaterials as a carrier. Among the different approaches in medical imaging, here we either consider AuNPs as a contrast agent in computed tomography (CT), or as a particle used in optical imaging, instead of fluorophores. Moreover, their nontoxic feature, compared to the gadolinium-based contrast agents used in magnetic resonance imaging, are shown. The tunable size, shape, and functionality of gold nanoparticles make them great carriers for targeted delivery. Therefore, here, we summarize gold-based nanodrugs that are FDA approved. Finally, various approaches to treat the specific diseases using AuNPs are discussed, i.e., photothermal or photodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy.

Emerging Nanotherapeutic Approaches to Overcome Drug Resistance in Cancers with Update on Clinical Trials

A key issue with modern cancer treatments is the emergence of resistance to conventional chemotherapy and molecularly targeted medicines. Cancer nanotherapeutics were created in order to overcome the inherent limitations of traditional chemotherapeutics. Over the last few decades, cancer nanotherapeutics provided unparalleled opportunities to understand and overcome drug resistance through clinical assessment of rationally designed nanoparticulate delivery systems. In this context, various design strategies such as passive targeting, active targeting, nano-drug, and multimodal nano-drug combination therapy provided effective cancer treatment. Even though cancer nanotherapy has made great technological progress, tumor biology complexity and heterogeneity and a lack of comprehensive knowledge of nano-bio interactions remain important roadblocks to future clinical translation and commercialization. The current developments and advancements in cancer nanotherapeutics employing a wide variety of nanomaterial-based platforms to overcome cancer treatment resistance are discussed in this article. There is also a review of various nanotherapeutics-based approaches to cancer therapy, including targeting strategies for the tumor microenvironment and its components, advanced delivery systems for specific targeting of cancer stem cells (CSC), as well as exosomes for delivery strategies, and an update on clinical trials. Finally, challenges and the future perspective of the cancer nanotherapeutics to reverse cancer drug resistance are discussed.

Gold Tablets: Gold Nanoparticles Encapsulated into Dextran Tablets and Their pH-Responsive Behavior as an Easy-to-Use Platform for Multipurpose Applications

Many applications using gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) require (i) their functionalization with a biopolymer to increase their stability and (ii) their transformation into an easy-to-handle material, which provide them with specific properties. In this research, a portable tablet platform is presented based on dextran-encapsulated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs-dTab) by a ligand exchange reaction between citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs-Cit) and dextran. These newly fabricated tablets were characterized utilizing ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy-attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques. The results showed that dextran-capped gold nanoparticles in a tablet platform (AuNPs-dTab) were well-dispersed and highly stable for at least a year at room temperature. In addition to particle and surface characterization of AuNPs-dTab, the tablet morphology in terms of thickness, diameter, density, and opacity was also measured using 6 and 10% dextran with 2, 4 and 8 nM AuNPs-Cit. We further investigated the pH-responsive behavior of AuNPs-dTab in the presence and absence of sodium chloride. Results showed that neutral and alkaline environments were suitable to render AuNPs dispersed in a tablet, while an acidic condition controls the aggregation rate of AuNPs as confirmed by concentration-dependent aggregation phenomena. Besides the easy fabrication, these tablets were portable and low-cost (approx. 1.22 CAD per 100 tablets of a 100 μL solution of dextran-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs-dSol)). The biocompatible nature of dextran along with the acidic medium trigger nature of AuNPs makes our proposed tablet a potential candidate for cancer therapy due to the acidic surrounding of tumor tissues as compared to normal cells. Also, our proposed tablet approach paves the way for the fabrication of portable and easy-to-use optical sensors based on the AuNPs embedded in a natural polymeric architecture that would serve as a colorimetric recognition indicator for detecting analytes of interest.

Microfluidics-Assisted Engineering of pH/Enzyme Dual-Activatable ZIF@Polymer Nanosystem for Co-Delivery of Proteins and Chemotherapeutics with Enhanced Deep-Tumor Penetration

The impermeable barriers of solid tumors restrict the co-delivery of protein-based drugs and chemotherapeutics for cancer treatment. Therefore, we developed a ZIF-DOX/RA@DG nanosystem that encapsulates ribonuclease A (RA) and doxorubicin (DOX) in a zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8) core, with a dextran-based coating (DG). The nanosystem exhibits dual-responsiveness due to γ-glutamyl transpeptidase-activatable cationization and acidic microenvironment-triggered degradation. The DG-coating process was achieved using a microfluidic approach, which stabilized the polymer responsiveness, ZIF-8-based structure, and bioactivity of the encapsulated therapeutics. In vivo results confirmed that the nanosystem could co-deliver RA and DOX to deep impermeable lesions with a synergistic anticancer therapeutic effects. Such a multi-drug delivery system based on an intelligent-responsive design and a microfluidics-assisted synthesis strategy shows great clinical prospects.

The Intracellular and Extracellular Microenvironment of Tumor Site: The Trigger of Stimuli-Responsive Drug Delivery Systems

The tumor microenvironment (TME), including intracellular and extracellular microenvironment, contains many biochemical indicators (such as acidity/alkalinity, oxygen content, and enzymatic activity) that are different from the normal physiological environment. These abnormal biochemical indicators can accelerate the heterogeneity of tumors, but on the other hand, they also provide opportunities for the design of intelligent drug delivery systems (DDSs). The TME-responsive DDSs have shown great potential in reducing the side effects of chemotherapy and improving the curative effect of tumors. In this review, the abnormal biochemical indicators of TME are introduced in detail from both the extracellular and intracellular aspects. In view of the various physiological barriers encountered during drug delivery, the strategy of constructing TME-responsive DDSs is discussed. By summarizing the typical research progress, the authors prospect the development of TME-responsive DDS in the future.

Combinatorial nanococktails via self-assembling lipid prodrugs for synergistically overcoming drug resistance and effective cancer therapy

Background

Combinatorial systemic chemotherapy is a powerful treatment paradigm against cancer, but it is fraught with problems due to the emergence of chemoresistance and additive systemic toxicity. In addition, coadministration of individual drugs suffers from uncontrollable pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, resulting in suboptimal combination synergy.

Methods

Toward the goal of addressing these unmet medical issues, we describe a unique strategy to integrate multiple structurally disparate drugs into a self-assembling nanococktail platform. Conjugation of a polyunsaturated fatty acid (e.g., linoleic acid) with two chemotherapies generated prodrug entities that were miscible with tunable drug ratios for aqueous self-assembly. In vitro and in vivo assays were performed to investigate the mechanism of combinatorial nanococktails in mitigating chemoresistance and the efficacy of nanotherapy.

Results

The coassembled nanoparticle cocktails were feasibly fabricated and further refined with an amphiphilic matrix to form a systemically injectable and PEGylated nanomedicine with minimal excipients. The drug ratio incorporated into the nanococktails was optimized and carefully examined in lung cancer cells to maximize therapeutic synergy. Mechanistically, subjugated resistance by nanococktail therapy was achieved through the altered cellular uptake pathway and compromised DNA repair via the ATM/Chk2/p53 cascade. In mice harboring cisplatin-resistant lung tumor xenografts, administration of the nanococktail outperformed free drug combinations in terms of antitumor efficacy and drug tolerability.

Conclusion

Overall, our study provides a facile and cost-effective approach for the generation of cytotoxic nanoparticles to synergistically treat chemoresistant cancers.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40824-022-00249-7.

Targeted Delivery Methods for Anticancer Drugs

Several drug-delivery systems have been reported on and often successfully applied in cancer therapy. Cell-targeted delivery can reduce the overall toxicity of cytotoxic drugs and increase their effectiveness and selectivity. Besides traditional liposomal and micellar formulations, various nanocarrier systems have recently become the focus of developmental interest. This review discusses the preparation and targeting techniques as well as the properties of several liposome-, micelle-, solid-lipid nanoparticle-, dendrimer-, gold-, and magnetic-nanoparticle-based delivery systems. Approaches for targeted drug delivery and systems for drug release under a range of stimuli are also discussed.

Stimuli-Responsive Delivery Strategies for Controllable Gene Editing in Tumor Therapeutics

CRISPR system has attracted significant interest due to its great potential in tumour therapy. Developing effective, precise and safe delivery vectors is a prerequisite for CRISPR applications. Some disease-related biological...

A novel anti-tumor/anti-tumor-associated fibroblast/anti-mPEG tri-specific antibody to maximize the efficacy of mPEGylated nanomedicines against fibroblast-rich solid tumor

The therapeutic efficacy of methoxypolyethylene glycol (mPEG)-coated nanomedicines in solid tumor treatment is hindered by tumor-associated fibroblasts (TAFs), which promote tumor progression and form physical barriers. We developed an anti-HER2/anti-FAP/anti-mPEG tri-specific antibody (TsAb) for one-step conversion of mPEG-coated liposomal doxorubicin (Lipo-Dox) to immunoliposomes, which simultaneously target HER2⁺ breast cancer cells and FAP⁺ TAFs. The non-covalent modification did not adversely alter the physical characteristics and stability of Lipo-Dox. The TsAb-Lipo-Dox exhibited specific targeting and enhanced cytotoxicity against mono- and co-cultured HER2⁺ breast cancer cells and FAP⁺ TAFs, compared to bi-specific antibody (BsAb) modified or unmodified Lipo-Dox. An in vivo model of human breast tumor containing TAFs also revealed the improved tumor accumulation and therapeutic efficacy of TsAb-modified mPEGylated liposomes without signs of toxicity. Our data indicate that arming clinical mPEGylated nanomedicines with the TsAb is a feasible and applicable approach for overcoming the difficulties caused by TAFs in solid tumor treatment.

Nanogold-based materials in medicine: from their origins to their future

The properties of gold-based materials have been explored for centuries in several research fields, including medicine. Multiple published production methods for gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have shown that the physicochemical and optical properties of AuNPs depend on the production method used. These different AuNP properties have allowed exploration of their usefulness in countless distinct biomedical applications over the last few years. Here we present an extensive overview of the most commonly used AuNP production methods, the resulting distinct properties of the AuNPs and the potential application of these AuNPs in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in biomedicine.

TPGS2000-DOX Prodrug Micelles for Improving Breast Cancer Therapy

Background

Doxorubicin (DOX) is an anthracycline antibiotic that inhibits the growth of several solid and hematologic malignant tumors. Increasing the targeting ability of DOX and reducing the multi-drug resistance (MDR) of tumor cells to DOX are major aims for researchers.

Purpose

In this study, to increase therapeutic efficiency, reduce the side effects and the MDR of tumor cells to DOX, D-alpha-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 2000 succinate monoester (TPGS2000)-DOX prodrug micelles were developed by grafting DOX to TPGS2000 via an amide bond that release DOX in the slightly acidic conditions in tumor tissue.

Materials and Methods

The TPGS2000-DOX micelles were constructed using polyethylene glycol 12-hydroxy stearate (Solutol HS15) as the carrier. The in vitro drug release profile and dilution stability of the nanomicelles were determined. The in vitro cytotoxicity and distribution of the nanomicelles in the tumor cells were also investigated. Moreover, we explored the therapeutic outcomes using the MCF-7/ADR tumor-bearing murine model.

Results

The average particle size was approximately 30 nm with a narrow distribution, which was conducive for solid tumor accumulation. The results of in vivo imaging and in vitro cellular uptake assays demonstrated that the TPGS2000-DOX micelles increased the tumor-targeting ability and cellular uptake of DOX. The anticancer potential of TPGS2000-DOX micelles was higher than that of DOX, as revealed by in vitro cytotoxic assays with MCF-7/ADR cells and in vivo antitumor assays with MCF-7 tumor-bearing nude mice.

Conclusion

TPGS2000-DOX prodrug micelles reverse the MDR of tumor cells, achieve passive targeting by forming nanomicelles, and subsequently enhance the efficacy and reduce the toxicity of DOX.

Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures for effective treatment of cancer: advances and prospects

Recently, DNA nanostructures with vast application potential in the field of biomedicine, especially in drug delivery. Among these, tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDN) have attracted interest worldwide due to their high stability, excellent biocompatibility, and simplicity of modification. TDN could be synthesized easily and reproducibly to serve as carriers for, chemotherapeutic drugs, nucleic acid drugs and imaging probes. Therefore, their applications include, but are not restricted to, drug delivery, molecular diagnostics, and biological imaging. In this review, we summarize the methods of functional modification and application of TDN in cancer treatment. Also, we discuss the pressing questions that should be targeted to increase the applicability of TDN in the future.

Evaluation of the Biocompatibility and Endothelial Differentiation Capacity of Mesenchymal Stem Cells by Polyethylene Glycol Nanogold Composites

Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) such as atherosclerosis, where inflammation occurs in the blood vessel wall, are one of the major causes of death worldwide. Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs)-based treatment coupled with nanoparticles is considered to be a potential and promising therapeutic strategy for vascular regeneration. Thus, angiogenesis enhanced by nanoparticles is of critical concern. In this study, Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) incorporated with 43.5 ppm of gold (Au) nanoparticles was prepared for the evaluation of biological effects through in vitro and in vivo assessments. The physicochemical properties of PEG and PEG–Au nanocomposites were first characterized by UV-Vis spectrophotometry (UV-Vis), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFMs). Furthermore, the reactive oxygen species scavenger ability as well as the hydrophilic property of the nanocomposites were also investigated. Afterwards, the biocompatibility and biological functions of the PEG–Au nanocomposites were evaluated through in vitro assays. The thin coating of PEG containing 43.5 ppm of Au nanoparticles induced the least platelet and monocyte activation. Additionally, the cell behavior of MSCs on PEG–Au 43.5 ppm coating demonstrated better cell proliferation, low ROS generation, and enhancement of cell migration, as well as protein expression of the endothelialization marker CD31, which is associated with angiogenesis capacity. Furthermore, anti-inflammatory and endothelial differentiation ability were both evaluated through in vivo assessments. The evidence demonstrated that PEG–Au 43.5 ppm implantation inhibited capsule formation and facilitated the expression of CD31 in rat models. TUNEL assay also indicated that PEG–Au nanocomposites would not induce significant cell apoptosis. The above results elucidate that the surface modification of PEG–Au nanomaterials may enable them to serve as efficient tools for vascular regeneration grafts.

Gelatinase-sensitive nanoparticles loaded with photosensitizer and STAT3 inhibitor for cancer photothermal therapy and immunotherapy

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and 9 are the family members of proteases normally up-regulated in tumor to enhance the invasion and metastatic of tumor cells, and are associated with poor outcome of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs). In the present work, MMPs-degradable gelatin nanoparticles (GNPs) are simultaneously loaded with photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) along with signal transducer activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) inhibitor NSC74859 (NSC, N) for efficient photothermal therapy (PTT) and immunotherapy of HNSCCs. In the tumor tissue, Gel-N-ICG nanoparticle was degraded and encapsulated ICG and NSC were effectively released. Under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, the released ICG nanoparticles enabled effective photothermal destruction of tumors, and the STAT3 inhibitor NSC elicited potent antitumor immunity for enhanced cancer therapy. Based on two HNSCC mouse models, we demonstrated that Gel-N-ICG significantly delayed tumor growth without any appreciable body weight loss. Taken together, the strategy reported here may contribute that the stimuli-responsive proteases triggered nanoplatform could reduce tumor size more effectively in complex tumor microenvironment (TME) through combination of PTT and immunotherapy.

Surface engineered nanocarriers for the management of breast cancer

Breast cancer is commonly known life-threatening malignancy in women after lung cancer. The standard of care (SOC) treatment for breast cancer primarily includes surgery, radiotherapy, hormonal therapy, and chemotherapy. However, the effectiveness of conventional chemotherapy is restricted by several limitations such as poor targeting, drug resistance, poor drug delivery, and high toxicity. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have gained a lot of interest in the scientific community because of its unique features and promising potential in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. The unique physicochemical and biological properties of the nanoparticulate drug delivery systems promotes the drug accumulation, Pharmacokinetic profile towards the tumor site and thereby, reduces the cytotoxicity towards healthy cells. In addition, to improve tumor-specific drug delivery, researchers have focused on surface engineered nanocarrier system with targeting molecules/ligands that are specific to overexpressed receptors present on cancer cells. In this review, we have summarized the different biological ligands and surface-engineered nanoparticles, enlightening the physicochemical characteristics, toxic effects, and regulatory considerations of nanoparticles involved in treatment of breast cancer.

Tumor Microenvironment-Responsive Polypeptide Nanogels for Controlled Antitumor Drug Delivery

Tumor microenvironment-responsive polypeptide nanogels belong to a biomaterial with excellent biocompatibility, easily adjustable performance, biodegradability, and non-toxic properties. They are developed for selective delivery of antitumor drugs into target organs to promote tumor cell uptake, which has become an effective measure of tumor treatment. Endogenous (such as reduction, reactive oxygen species, pH, and enzyme) and exogenous (such as light and temperature) responsive nanogels can release drugs in response to tumor tissues or cells to improve drug distribution and reduce drug side effects. This article systematically introduces the research progress in tumor microenvironment-responsive polypeptide nanogels to deliver antitumor drugs and provides a reference for the development of antitumor nanoformulations.

Nanotechnology-Based Delivery Systems for Antimicrobial Peptides

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a significant threat to global health. The conventional antibiotic pool has been depleted, forcing the investigation of novel and alternative antimicrobial strategies. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have shown potential as alternative diagnostic and therapeutic agents in biomedical applications. To date, over 3000 AMPs have been identified, but only a fraction of these have been approved for clinical trials. Their clinical applications are limited to topical application due to their systemic toxicity, susceptibility to protease degradation, short half-life, and rapid renal clearance. To circumvent these challenges and improve AMP’s efficacy, different approaches such as peptide chemical modifications and the development of AMP delivery systems have been employed. Nanomaterials have been shown to improve the activity of antimicrobial drugs by providing support and synergistic effect against pathogenic microbes. This paper describes the role of nanotechnology in the targeted delivery of AMPs, and some of the nano-based delivery strategies for AMPs are discussed with a clear focus on metallic nanoparticle (MNP) formulations.

Application of Gold Nanoparticle-Based Materials in Cancer Therapy and Diagnostics

Several metal nanoparticles have been developed for medical application. While all have their benefits, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are ideal in cancer therapy and diagnosis as they are chemically inert and minimally toxic. Several studies have shown the potential of AuNPs in the therapeutic field, as photosensitizing agents in sonochemical and photothermal therapy and as drug delivery, as well as in diagnostics and theranostics. Although there is a significant number of reviews on the application of AuNPs in cancer medicine, there is no comprehensive review on their application both in therapy and diagnostics. Therefore, considering the high number of studies on AuNPs’ applications, this review summarizes data on the application of AuNPs in cancer therapy and diagnostics. In addition, we looked at the influence of AuNPs’ shape and size on their biological properties. We also present the potential use of hybrid materials based on AuNPs in sonochemical and photothermal therapy and the possibility of their use in diagnostics. Despite their potential, the use of AuNPs and derivatives in cancer medicine still has some limitations. In this review, we provide an overview of the biological, physicochemical, and legal constraints on using AuNPs in cancer medicine.

Synthesis, Chemical-Physical Characterization, and Biomedical Applications of Functional Gold Nanoparticles: A Review

Relevant properties of gold nanoparticles, such as stability and biocompatibility, together with their peculiar optical and electronic behavior, make them excellent candidates for medical and biological applications. This review describes the different approaches to the synthesis, surface modification, and characterization of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) related to increasing their stability and available features useful for employment as drug delivery systems or in hyperthermia and photothermal therapy. The synthetic methods reported span from the well-known Turkevich synthesis, reduction with NaBH4 with or without citrate, seeding growth, ascorbic acid-based, green synthesis, and Brust-Schiffrin methods. Furthermore, the nanosized functionalization of the AuNP surface brought about the formation of self-assembled monolayers through the employment of polymer coatings as capping agents covalently bonded to the nanoparticles. The most common chemical-physical characterization techniques to determine the size, shape and surface coverage of AuNPs are described underlining the structure-activity correlation in the frame of their applications in the biomedical and biotechnology sectors.

Pathways for Oral and Rectal Delivery of Gold Nanoparticles (1.7 nm) and Gold Nanoclusters into the Colon: Enteric-Coated Capsules and Suppositories

Two ways to deliver ultrasmall gold nanoparticles and gold-bovine serum albumin (BSA) nanoclusters to the colon were developed. First, oral administration is possible by incorporation into gelatin capsules that were coated with an enteric polymer. These permit the transfer across the stomach whose acidic environment damages many drugs. The enteric coating dissolves due to the neutral pH of the colon and releases the capsule's cargo. Second, rectal administration is possible by incorporation into hard-fat suppositories that melt in the colon and then release the nanocarriers. The feasibility of the two concepts was demonstrated by in-vitro release studies and cell culture studies that showed the easy redispersibility after dissolution of the respective transport system. This clears a pathway for therapeutic applications of drug-loaded nanoparticles to address colon diseases, such as chronic inflammation and cancer.

A tumor microenvironment responsive nanosystem for chemodynamic/chemical synergistic theranostics of colorectal cancer

Rationale: The synergism of new modalities alongside chemodynamic therapy into common chemotherapy has shown promising potential in clinical applications. This paper reports a tumor microenvironment-responsive nanosystem for chemodynamic/chemical synergistic therapy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Methods: The biodegradable nanosystem is synthesized using a surface-modified chain transfer agent for surface-initiated living radical polymerization of the chemotherapeutic drug. Results: In this nanosystem, named CAMNSN@PSN38, the cycling time and solubility of the chemotherapeutic drug are improved. The nanoparticles delivered to tumor tissues gradually release the chemotherapeutic drug and Mn2+ through glutathione (GSH)-triggered biodegradation in the tumor microenvironment. SN38, the released chemotherapeutic drug, not only shows excellent chemical therapy effects but also improves the generation of H2O2. Furthermore, with the Fenton-like agent Mn2+, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is improved markedly. Finally, CAMNSN@PSN38 shows excellent inhibition of tumor growth in three colorectal cancer tumor models, with an improved accumulation of ROS and controlled release of SN38. Conclusions: The CAMNSN@PSN38-mediated chemodynamic/chemical synergistic therapy provides a promising paradigm for the treatment and MRI-guided therapy of colorectal cancer.

Gold nanorods conjugated with biocompatible zwitterionic polypeptide for combined chemo-photothermal therapy of cervical cancer

Combined chemo-photothermal therapy of gold nanorods (GNRs) for cancer treatment shows better therapeutic efficiency than mono-chemotherapy, which has gained worldwide interests of scientists and clinician in both laboratory and clinic application. However, high cytotoxicity, declined delivery efficiency, and unsatisfactory therapy effect of the GNRs are still challenging in anti-cancer treatment. Herein, a series of pH-sensitively zwitterionic polypeptide conjugated GNRs were synthesized via a gold-thiol interaction for combination of chemo-photothermal therapy in cervical cancer treatment. The acid-labile hydrazone bond was utilized to incorporate the doxorubicin (DOX) for pH-sensitive drug release under tumoral environment. The as prepared GNRs conjugates demonstrated pH-triggered surface charge conversion from negative to positive when transporting from blood circulation to tumor extracellular environment, which can facilitate the cellular uptake via electrostatic interaction. After cellular internalization, the drug release was promoted by cleavage of the hydrazone in GNRs conjugates under cancer intracellular acid environment. As the effective near-infrared (NIR) photothermal materials, the as prepared GNRs conjugates can absorb NIR photo energy and convert it into heat under irradiation, which can efficiently kill the tumor cells. In cell assay, the GNRs conjugates displayed excellent biocompatibility against normal cell, enhanced cancer cell uptake, and remarkable cancer cell killing effects. In HeLa tumor-bearing mice, the GNRs conjugates demonstrated enhanced tumor inhibition efficacy by combination of chemo-photothermal therapy.

Fluorescent detection of microRNA-21 in MCF-7 cells based on multifunctional gold nanorods and the integration of chemotherapy and phototherapy

MicroRNA-21 is an important biomarker of tumor early prediction and metastasis, and its accurate detection is of great significance for tumor diagnosis and treatment. It will be a meaningful work to combine the detection of RNA with chemotherapy and photothermal therapy on the same composite material. Herein, we designed a multifunctional nanocomposite based on gold nanorods (AuNRs), making use of microRNA-triggered drug release and near-infrared photothermal effect, which has been developed for cancer therapy and microRNA-21detection. Firstly, the AuNRs with photothermal effect were synthesized as carriers for drug delivery. Then the surface of gold nanorods was modified by functional DNA chains to provide an efficient site for doxorubicin (DOX) loading. Finally, folic acid was introduced to achieve the targeted treatment of MCF-7 cells. The microRNA competed with the double-stranded DNA, resulting in the release of DOX and the recovery of fluorescence signal located at 595 nm with an excitation of 488 nm effectively. The nano-biosensor could not only achieve dual-function of diagnosis and treatment of cancer cells, but also accomplish the detection of microRNA in tumor cells. It showed a high selectivity for microRNA-21 determination with a limit of detection (LOD) of 2.1 nM from the linear relationship from 1.0 × 10^-5 M to 5.0 × 10^-7 M. This scheme provides an outstanding strategy for cell imaging, treatment, and detection, which serves as a promising candidate in the field of biomedical research.

Nanomaterials and Stem Cell Differentiation Potential: An Overview of Biological Aspects and Biomedical Efficacy

Nanoparticles (NPs) due to their medical applications are widely used. Accordingly, the use of mesenchymal stem cells is one of the most important alternatives in tissue engineering field. NPs play effective roles in stem cells proliferation and differentiation. The combination of NPs and tissue regeneration by stem cells has created new therapeutic approach towards humanity. Of note, the physicochemical properties of NPs determine their biological function. Interestingly, various mechanisms such as modulation of signaling pathways and generation of reactive oxygen species, are involved in NPs-induced cellular proliferation and differentiation. This review summarized the types of nanomaterials effective on stem cell differentiation, the physicochemical features, biomedical application of these materials and relationship between nanomaterials and environment.

Amplification of tumor oxidative stresses by Poly(disulfide acetal) for multidrug resistance reversal

Discovering new strategies to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR) is still urgently needed. MDR is associated with the overexpression of transmembrane efflux pumps, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is indispensable for its function. Herein, we developed a pH- and glutathione (GSH)-responsive amphiphilic poly(disulfide acetal) (PCS) containing cinnamaldehyde (CA) and disulfide groups that amplify oxidative stress for anticancer drug delivery and simultaneously overcome drug resistance in cancer cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating CA and the disulfide groups to deplete GSH and synergize to amplify oxidative stress in cancer cells by oxidizing nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide with hydrogen (NADH) to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺). The production of ATP is preferentially inhibited, leading to the malfunction of efflux pumps due to the lack of ATP and making resistant cells more impressionable to anticancer drugs. The in vitro and in vivo experiments confirmed that PCS could induce amplified oxidative stress and efficiently overcome MDR in cancer cells. We believe that the polymer with amplified oxidative stress in cancer cells holds great promise in developing polymer-based drug delivery systems to reverse MDR for cancer therapy.

Chemoprotective Effect of Daphnetin in Doxorubicin Treated Esophageal Cancer Stem Cell Xenograft Tumor Mouse

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapy drugs commonly used for cancer therapy, but chemotherapy has limitation due to side effects. Current studies suggest natural products are reducing the side effects of chemotherapy medicines. In this study, we examined the side effects of doxorubicin (Dox) in esophageal cancer cells (CSCs) derived tumors in vivo.

METHODS

Esophageal cancer cells (YMI) were treated in vitro with daphnetin (DAP) along with DOX. The MTT assay was used for estimating the cell viability and Annexin/7-AAD was used for the determination of apoptosis. Cell cycle arrest was conducted using the PI-staining method. The potential effect of DAP was evaluated by the estimation of oxidative stress such as total antioxidant capacity (TAC), malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and body weight in the xenograft mice.

RESULTS

DAP can protect Dox cell toxicity by suppressing cell apoptosis of ESCC. DAP arrest the cells as S-phase. In vivo experimental study showed that Dox simultaneously with DAP decreases the tumor size along with increased body weight in the nude mice compared to Dox alone treated group mice. Dox along with the DAP exhibited less systemic toxicity and reduced oxidative stress fraction circulation.

CONCLUSION

The result suggests that daphnetin may be used as an adjuvant therapy to reduce the systemic toxicity of chemotherapeutic agents, such as DOX, in stem cell treatment with ESCC cancer.

Multifunctional Plasmonic Core-Satellites Nanoprobe for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy Based on a Cascade Reaction Induced by MicroRNA

Constructing multifunctional plasmonic core-satellites (CS) nanoassembly for clinical cancer diagnosis and therapy has gained vast attention. Herein, we reported a doxorubicin (Dox)-loaded CS nanoprobe for microRNA (miRNA) detection, targeting drug release, and therapy evaluation. The plasmonic CS nanoprobe was constructed with uniformly distributional 50 nm (core) and 13 nm (satellites) gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), which were functionally assembled with a specific sequence of DNA and peptides. Anticancer drug Dox was loaded by intercalating into the GC-rich double strands. In the presence of target miRNA (miRNA-21 used as model), the constructed CS nanostructure was disassembled, producing characteristic localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) signals and releasing Dox. With the increase of the miRNA-21 concentration ranging from 0.01 to 1000 fM, a distinct blue shift of scattering spectra peak occurred, along with obvious color change from orange to green under a dark-field microscope (DFM), which can be used to detect miRNA at single-particle level. Meanwhile, it released Dox-induced apoptosis. Caspase-3 involved in apoptosis was then activated to cleave the specific peptide substrate, releasing fluorophore FAM from AuNPs. As a result, caspase-3 was detected based on restored fluorescence intensity, which was used to evaluate the therapy effectiveness. In a word, the multifunctional plasmonic CS nanoprobe can be used not only to image cellular miRNA-21 to distinguish tumor cells from normal cells, but also to release drugs and monitor the apoptotic process in situ by confocal imaging.