True grit and genetics: Predicting academic achievement from personality

Big Five personality traits and academic performance: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE AND METHOD

This meta-analysis reports the most comprehensive assessment to date of the strength of the relationships between the Big Five personality traits and academic performance by synthesizing 267 independent samples (N = 413,074) in 228 unique studies. It also examined the incremental validity of personality traits above and beyond cognitive ability in predicting academic performance.

RESULTS

The combined effect of cognitive ability and personality traits explained 27.8% of the variance in academic performance. Cognitive ability was the most important predictor with a relative importance of 64%. Conscientiousness emerged as a strong and robust predictor of performance, even when controlling for cognitive ability, and accounted for 28% of the explained variance in academic performance. A significant moderating effect of education level was observed. The relationship of academic performance with openness, extraversion, and agreeableness demonstrated significantly larger effect sizes at the elementary/middle school level compared to the subsequent levels. Openness, despite its weak overall relative importance, was found to be an important determinant of student performance in the early years of school.

CONCLUSION

These findings reaffirm the critical role of personality traits in explaining academic performance through the most comprehensive assessment yet of these relationships.

The mechanisms of interest and perseverance in predicting achievement among academically resilient and non-resilient students: Evidence from Swedish longitudinal data

BACKGROUND

Students with low socio-economic status (SES) are typically depicted as low performers and more likely to fail in school. However, a group of students, despite their background, manage to succeed in school. The capacity to overcome adversities and achieve successful educational outcomes is referred to as Academic Resilience. Research on the relationship between personality traits and academic performance shows that conscientiousness is a crucial factor in predicting academic success and resilience. However, it has also been shown that achievement is a result of an interaction between conscientiousness and students' interest in the subject.

AIMS

The study aims to investigate how students' school-related perseverance and interest predict academic achievement among resilient and non-resilient pupils over time in the Swedish compulsory school setting.

SAMPLE

Study subjects were a subset (N = 1,665) of the sampled compulsory school students from the 1992 birth cohort in the evaluation through follow-up (ETF) database.

METHODS

Multigroup structural equation modelling (SEM) with latent variable interaction was used. Measurement invariance was tested to examine the comparability of the constructs across groups.

RESULTS

The results suggest that resilient students rely heavily on both perseverance of effort and interest in school subjects to succeed in their education. For the non-resilient group, the later perseverance level was conditioned on the level of the interest, and neither their early nor later grade interest was related to their achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

The academically resilient students displayed more consistency in interest and perseverance over time, which might explain their relative success compared to the non-resilient group.

Grit and chiropractic students' academic performance: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

Previous investigations have studied the relationship between grit and academic performance, and it has been reported that grittier students perform better academically. The objectives of this study are to measure chiropractic students' grittiness and to explore the correlation between grit and academic performance.

METHODS

We distributed the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) questionnaire to chiropractic students in electronic form. We included questions about their previous grade point average and the number of times they had retaken examinations. We scored the overall Grit-S scale and the Consistency of Interest and Perseverance of Effort subscales. A 2-tailed t test and 1-way analysis of variance were used to determine differences between groups.

RESULTS

The response rate was 87% (n = 110). The mean grit score (3.44 ± 0.60) was similar to the general population and slightly lower than other healthcare professionals. The students who had a grade point average between <80% but less than 90% obtained significantly higher grit scores compared to those who had a grade point average <60% but less than 70%. Similarly, students who had no examination retakes had higher grit scores compared to those who took 4 or more exam retakes. We observed these differences in the overall and subscales scores. No other group showed any difference.

CONCLUSION

The results of this research showed that the grittier students performed better academically than the less gritty students. Grit scores can potentially be used to identify the students at risk of failing or dropping out. The role and potential application of grit in chiropractic education, student support, and admission procedures should be further evaluated.

Genetic and environmental architecture of conscientiousness in adolescence

Using a genetically informative design (about 2000 twin pairs), we investigated the phenotypic and genetic and environmental architecture of a broad construct of conscientiousness (including conscientiousness per se, effortful control, self-control, and grit). These four different measures were substantially correlated; the coefficients ranged from 0.74 (0.72–0.76) to 0.79 (0.76–0.80). Univariate genetic analyses revealed that individual differences in conscientiousness measures were moderately attributable to additive genetic factors, to an extent ranging from 62 (58–65) to 64% (61–67%); we obtained no evidence that shared environmental influences were observed. Multivariate genetic analyses showed that for the four measures used to assess conscientiousness, genetic correlations were stronger than the corresponding non-shared environmental correlations, and that a latent common factor accounted for over 84% of the genetic variance. Our findings suggest that individual differences in the four measures of conscientiousness are not distinguishable at both the phenotypic and behavioural genetic levels, and that the overlap was substantially attributable to genetic factors.

An examination of genetic and environmental factors related to negative personality traits, educational attainment, and economic success

Personality variables are associated with educational attainment and socioeconomic outcomes. In this study we incorporated a polygenic score derived from the largest genome-wide association study (GWAS) of educational attainment to date (Lee et al., 2018) into the Interactionist Model of R. D. Conger, Martin, and Masarik (2021) that describes the influence of socioeconomic factors on individual development. The inclusion of a polygenic score predictive of educational attainment (PS-Edu) into this model, and the use of the multigeneration, longitudinal Family Transitions Project (FTP) provide a unique opportunity to investigate genetic and environmental influences on the development of negative personality traits and educational and economic outcomes. The FTP is a three-generation sample. This study utilized data from the first generation (G1; mean age 40 at initiation of the FTP) and second generation (G2; assessed at mean ages 18 and 30). Participants are approximately 50% female, 99% of European ancestry, primarily from lower to middle class SES. PS-Edu was significantly correlated with educational attainment in both generations of the FTP, accounting for 4.1 to 6.7% of the variance. Findings confirm that PS-Edu is a complex genetic index that is correlated with all of the socioeconomic constructs in the model. Results suggest potential gene-environment correlation or common genetic influences underlie associations among parenting investments, negative personality traits, and educational attainment. Genetic variance captured by PS-Edu was mediated substantially through G1 parental investments. Although study limitations warrant cautious interpretation, we demonstrate the promise of including polygenic scores in developmental models to better understand genetic and environmental influences on human development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Influence of grit on lifestyle factors during the COVID-19 pandemic in a sample of adults in the United States

The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has profoundly impacted the world, including disruptions in lifestyles to support physical distancing. It is well known that personality plays a role in lifestyle behaviors such that certain traits predict health and well-being. The present study examined the relationship between grit and lifestyle behaviors during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic and initial lockdowns in the United States. It was hypothesized that those with more grit would engage in healthier lifestyle behaviors of increased physical activity, less sedentary time, and better eating habits. Using an internet-based survey, data was collected from adults from April 13th to May 4th, 2020. Survey questions focused on demographics, grit, physical activity and sedentary time, and dietary habits. Associations between grit and lifestyle were examined using a combination of hierarchical multiple regression analyses and ANCOVAs. The sample of 888 adults (age: 34.8 ± 14.0) was 74.2% female. Those with higher grit were more physically active, reported less sedentary time, and practiced better dietary habits. Collectively, these findings suggest that grit may help individuals lead a healthier lifestyle during stressful or negative events such as a global pandemic. Future work should examine the role of grit on lifestyle behaviors as the quarantine continues.

Beyond Passion and Perseverance: Review and Future Research Initiatives on the Science of Grit

Grit, which is originally conceptualized as passion and perseverance for long-term goals, has been associated with optimal performance. Although previous meta-analytic and systematic reviews summarized how grit relates to performance outcomes, they possess considerable shortcomings, such as (a) absence of summary on the association of grit with well-being outcomes; (b) absence of discussion on social, psychological, and emotional mechanisms linking grit to well-being; and (c) lack of elaboration on how alternative models can resolve fundamental problems in the grit construct. This integrative review provides a comprehensive summary on the link of grit to performance and well-being outcomes. Importantly, it elaborates how alternative models can potentially address flaws in the existing grit theory. Future research directions are discussed on how to move forward the science of grit.

With grit to innovative teams?

This article in the Journal Gruppe. Interaktion. Organisation. (GIO) develops a theoretical model for the emergence of team grit, i.e. the competence to pursue long-term goals with passion and perseverance. We examine the role of team grit for today’s dynamic innovation processes, building on findings from research on individual grit. Our model shows how team inputs as well as the dynamic interaction of team processes and affective and cognitive emergent states lead to the emergence of team grit and thus promote team innovation. We explore contagion and crossover processes as mechanisms for team grit to emerge, and examine team processes that we assume to affect team grit. Our model not only provides a starting point for further research on team grit, but also provides practitioners with recommendations to foster team grit in order to improve their innovative performance in the team.

The Bright Side of Grit in Burnout-Prevention: Exploring Grit in the Context of Demands-Resources Model among Chinese High School Students

This study contributes to understanding students' emotional responses to academic stressors by integrating grit into the well-established Job Demands-Resources Model and by examining the relationship between academic demands, grit (consistency of interests, perseverance of effort), burnout, engagement, academic achievement, depression, and life satisfaction in Chinese students. We conducted a self-report study with N = 1527 Chinese high school students (M_age = 16.38 years, SD = 1.04). The results of structural equation modeling showed that after controlling for gender, socio-economic status, and school types, demands positively related to burnout and negatively related to engagement. Both facets of grit negatively related to exhaustion, whereas only perseverance of effort positively related to engagement. Burnout positively related to depression and negatively related to life satisfaction, whereas engagement positively related to life satisfaction. However, neither burnout nor engagement was related to academic achievement. Our findings indicate that grit may be protective against school burnout.

Investigating the genetic architecture of noncognitive skills using GWAS-by-subtraction

Little is known about the genetic architecture of traits affecting educational attainment other than cognitive ability. We used genomic structural equation modeling and prior genome-wide association studies (GWASs) of educational attainment (n = 1,131,881) and cognitive test performance (n = 257,841) to estimate SNP associations with educational attainment variation that is independent of cognitive ability. We identified 157 genome-wide-significant loci and a polygenic architecture accounting for 57% of genetic variance in educational attainment. Noncognitive genetics were enriched in the same brain tissues and cell types as cognitive performance, but showed different associations with gray-matter brain volumes. Noncognitive genetics were further distinguished by associations with personality traits, less risky behavior and increased risk for certain psychiatric disorders. For socioeconomic success and longevity, noncognitive and cognitive-performance genetics demonstrated associations of similar magnitude. By conducting a GWAS of a phenotype that was not directly measured, we offer a view of genetic architecture of noncognitive skills influencing educational success.

The Maze Test: A Computer Tool for Testing Perseverance

INTRODUCTION

Perseverance is an important component of human functioning. The main factors that allow people to achieve their goals are perseverance and the motivation for change. The concept of perseverance is not new, but most studies in this field do not define it precisely. Perseverance is a formal trait of behaviour determined by situational (external) and personality-related (internal) factors - a complexity which can cause problems when one tries to measure it.

METHODS

In this project, we present the Maze Test, a novel tool for testing perseverance. We discuss the theoretical foundations of the test, including the definition of perseverance, as well as the indicators on which this tool is based. We present the basic methodological properties of the test and report two studies which illustrate how it can be applied in practice: Study 1 - measurement of personality-conditioned perseverance, and Study 2 - measurement of situation-conditioned perseverance.

RESULTS

In Study 1, a significant weak correlation between the indicators of perseverance and the Big Five model personality traits was discovered. Neuroticism correlated negatively with the number of maze tasks solved and the Synthetic Indicator of Perseverance. Positive correlations were found for conscientiousness and agreeableness. In Study 2, mental simulations were observed to have a medium to high effect on the indicators of perseverance.

CONCLUSION

The tool presented in this study affords a new approach to perseverance. Based on an analysis of how the tasks were being solved by the subjects, we developed perseverance indicators which allow to view perseverance as a multidimensional construct. The tool has been designed for use in both laboratory tests and remote web tests. A major advantage of the tool is that it is available for general use free of charge.

Putting the Goal Back into Grit: Academic Goal Commitment, Grit, and Academic Achievement

Grit has recently been challenged for its weak predictive power and the incompleteness of its measurement. This study addressed these issues by taking a developmental, person-oriented approach to study academic-related goal commitment and grit and their effects on academic achievement. Using longitudinal data among Finnish eighth and ninth graders (n = 549, 59.4% female, age = 14-16), the longitudinal changes in grit and academic goal commitment profiles were investigated through latent profile and latent transition analyses. Four profiles were identified across two grades: High committed-persistent and moderate consistency (~17%), Moderate (~60%), Low committed-persistent and moderate-low consistency (~8%) and Extremely low committed-persistent and moderate-low consistency (~12%). The students in the High committed-persistent and moderate consistency profile had the highest academic achievement of all the profiles when controlled for gender, socioeconomic status, conscientiousness, and academic persistence. The results revealed that students' profiles changed between the eighth and ninth grades, with more than one-third of the High committed-persistent and moderate consistency adolescents dropping from this group. Further analysis showed that the profiles varied by educational aspiration, gender, and socioeconomic status. These findings imply that the combination of grit and academic goal commitment influences academic achievement; however, this combination is less common, unstable, and affected by internal and external factors. The study provided important implications on the weak grit effect and the ways to improve it.

Multivariable G-E interplay in the prediction of educational achievement

Polygenic scores are increasingly powerful predictors of educational achievement. It is unclear, however, how sets of polygenic scores, which partly capture environmental effects, perform jointly with sets of environmental measures, which are themselves heritable, in prediction models of educational achievement. Here, for the first time, we systematically investigate gene-environment correlation (rGE) and interaction (GxE) in the joint analysis of multiple genome-wide polygenic scores (GPS) and multiple environmental measures as they predict tested educational achievement (EA). We predict EA in a representative sample of 7,026 16-year-olds, with 20 GPS for psychiatric, cognitive and anthropometric traits, and 13 environments (including life events, home environment, and SES) measured earlier in life. Environmental and GPS predictors were modelled, separately and jointly, in penalized regression models with out-of-sample comparisons of prediction accuracy, considering the implications that their interplay had on model performance. Jointly modelling multiple GPS and environmental factors significantly improved prediction of EA, with cognitive-related GPS adding unique independent information beyond SES, home environment and life events. We found evidence for rGE underlying variation in EA (rGE = .38; 95% CIs = .30, .45). We estimated that 40% (95% CIs = 31%, 50%) of the polygenic scores effects on EA were mediated by environmental effects, and in turn that 18% (95% CIs = 12%, 25%) of environmental effects were accounted for by the polygenic model, indicating genetic confounding. Lastly, we did not find evidence that GxE effects significantly contributed to multivariable prediction. Our multivariable polygenic and environmental prediction model suggests widespread rGE and unsystematic GxE contributions to EA in adolescence.

Our study investigates the complex interplay between genetic and environmental contributions underlying educational achievement (EA). Polygenic scores are becoming increasingly powerful predictors of EA. While emerging evidence indicates that polygenic scores are not pure measures of genetic predisposition, previous quantitative genetics findings indicate that measures of the environment are themselves heritable. In this regard it is unclear how such measures of individual predisposition jointly combine to predict EA. We investigate this question in a representative UK sample of 7,026 16-year-olds where we provide substantive results on gene-environment correlation and interaction underlying variation in EA. We show that polygenic score and environmental prediction models of EA overlap substantially. Polygenic scores effects on EA are partly accounted for by their correlation with environmental effects; similarly, environmental effects on EA are linked to polygenic scores effects. Nonetheless, jointly considering polygenic scores and measured environments significantly improves prediction of EA. We also find that, although correlation between polygenic scores and measured environments is substantial, interactions between them do not play a significant role in the prediction of EA. Our findings have relevance for genomic and environmental prediction models alike, as they show the way in which individuals’ genetic predispositions and environmental effects are intertwined. This suggests that both genetic and environmental effects must be taken into account in prediction models of complex behavioral traits such as EA.

The development of grit and growth mindset during adolescence

Individual differences in grit and growth mindset predict effort and achievement in the face of challenges, but little is known about how the two traits influence each other during adolescence. In the current investigation, we analyzed data on grit and growth mindset collected from 1667 adolescents and their teachers on four occasions over 2 academic years. In autoregressive cross-lagged models, grit predicted rank-order increases in growth mindset and growth mindset predicted rank-order increases in grit. These findings suggest that during adolescence, grit and growth mindset are distinct but mutually reinforcing.

Anxiety sensitivity and grit as mediators between childhood abuse and relapse risk for substance use

BACKGROUND

Childhood abuse is prevalent in those with substance use disorders (SUDs), and can lead to adverse consequences, including relapse to substance use following treatment.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether anxiety sensitivity (AS) and grit mediate associations between childhood abuse and substance use relapse risk.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Patients on an inpatient detoxification and stabilization unit seeking treatment for SUDs (N = 702).

METHODS

Participants were administered self-report measures assessing childhood physical and sexual abuse (CPA/CSA), AS, grit, and relapse risk. A parallel mediation model was used to investigate the association between childhood abuse and relapse risk as mediated by AS and grit.

RESULTS

Anxiety sensitivity was associated with greater relapse risk (β = 0.29, t = 8.24, p < 0.001). Indirect effects of CPA and CSA on relapse risk through AS were statistically significant (CPA: β = 0.05, 95 % C.I. = 0.02-0.08; CSA: β = 0.04, 95 % C.I. = 0.01-0.07), indicating AS significantly mediated effects of both CPA and CSA on relapse risk. Grit was not a mediator, however, higher grit score was significantly associated with decreased relapse risk (β = -0.17, t = -4.90, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Anxiety sensitivity may be an important construct linking child abuse to relapse risk. Although grit may not mediate the effect of child abuse on relapse risk, it may be clinically relevant to relapse risk. As this sample consisted of treatment-seeking adults, the generalizability of results to other populations is uncertain. Future studies should investigate interventions targeting these constructs in this population.

Pain Processing in Elite and High-Level Athletes Compared to Non-athletes

Background

Previous studies shows that elite and high-level athletes possess consistently higher pain tolerance to ischemic and cold pain stimulation compared to recreationally active. However, the data previously obtained within this field is sparse and with low consistency.

Purpose

The aim of the present study was to examine the difference in pain perception between elite and high-level endurance athletes (cross country skiers and runners), elite soccer players and non-athletes, as well to explore the impact of psychological factors on pain processing.

Methods

Seventy one healthy volunteers (33 females and 38 males) participated in the study. Soccer players (n = 17), cross country skiers (n = 12), and long-distance runners (n = 3) formed the athlete group, with 39 non-athletes as controls. Big-five personality traits, fear of pain and Grit (perseverance and passion for long-term goals) were measured prior to induction of experimental pain. Pain threshold and intensity was induced by a PC-controlled heat thermode and measured by a computerized visual analog scale. Pain tolerance was measured by the cold pressor test (CPT).

Results

Elite and high-level athletes had increased pain tolerance, higher heat pain thresholds, and reported lower pain intensity to thermal stimulation. Endurance athletes (cross country skiers and long-distance runners) had better tolerance for cold pain compared to both soccer-players and non-athletes. Furthermore, endurance athletes reported lower pain intensity compared to non-athletes, whereas both endurance athletes and soccer players had higher heat pain thresholds compared to non-athletes. Fear of Pain was the only psychological trait that had an impact on all pain measures.

Conclusion

The present findings suggest that sports with long durations of physically intense activity, leveling aerobic capacity, are associated with increased ability to tolerate pain and that the amount of training hours has an impact on this tolerance. However, the small sample size implies that the results from this study should be interpreted with caution.

Non-attachment and happiness: mediating versus moderating roles of grit personality

Background

Studies have revealed that grit personality and non-attachment are positively associated with happiness. Grittier people are happier while they persist in pursuing their long-term goal, whereas non-attached people are hap-pier as they are not clinging onto any object. These contrasting findings seem to suggest that the two concepts may have some relevancies. Accordingly, this study aims to use the mediator and moderator models to exam-ine whether grit personality either moderates or mediates the effects of non-attachment on happiness.

Participants and procedure

Three hundred sixty undergraduates were recruited by the purposive sampling method to participate in a survey. They needed to fill in the Short Grit Scale, Non-Attachment Scale and Subjective Happiness Scale.

Results

The results showed that non-attachment is positively associated with a component of grit; that only persever-ance of efforts, but not consistency of interest, was positively associated with non-attachment. In addition, per-severance of efforts mediates rather than moderates the effects of non-attachment on happiness.

Conclusions

The findings suggesting that non-attached people are happier does not mean they detach from life. They are able to work with perseverance on their long-term goals, but they do not attach to the outcome of their goals. The findings provide further conceptual clarification of grit personality and non-attachment and further infor-mation to educators and program managers while designing programs to improve happiness.

Ordinary extraordinary: Elusive group differences in personality and psychological difficulties between STEM-gifted adolescents and their peers

Background

Individual differences in personality, behavioural, and academic outcomes of gifted adolescents remain under‐explored.

Aims

The present study directly compared selected and unselected adolescents on multiple measures of personality, behavioural strengths and difficulties, and achievement.

Sample

Nine hundred seventy‐three adolescents selected for high performance in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematical (STEM) fields (M = 15.23; SD = 1.11), and one thousand two hundred sixty‐one unselected adolescents (M = 15.07; SD = 1.18) participated in the study.

Methods

Participants completed self‐report measures that assess the Big Five, the Dark Triad, and Behavioural Strengths and Difficulties. Demographic information and academic achievement in Maths and Russian were also obtained.

Results

The observed differences in personality and behaviour traits between selected and unselected samples were negligible as measured by ANOVAs. The selected sample had on average slightly lower scores on conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, and subclinical narcissism, partial Eta Squared (ES) = [.01 to .05]; slightly lower scores on prosocial behaviour; and slightly higher scores on internalizing and externalizing problems, ES = [.01 to .04]. The selected group also showed higher Year and Examination grades (ES = .05 and .23, respectively). However, MANOVA results showed larger differences between samples (ES = .15).

Conclusion

Our results showed no pronounced differences between selected and unselected samples in any trait apart from examination performance. However, multivariate results suggest greater overall differences. These results suggest that high‐achieving individuals may be characterized by specific combinations of personality and behavioural traits.

Longitudinal Invariance Analysis of the Short Grit Scale in Chinese Young Adults

The current study examined the longitudinal measurement invariance (LMI) of the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S) in a survey sample of Chinese young adults (N = 233, 48.9% male, mean age = 19.36 years, SD = 0.90 years) who completed the Grit-S twice over a 3-month interval. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the LMI of the Grit-S across time. Results showed that the Grit-S has strict longitudinal invariance (i.e., equality of factor patterns, factor loadings, item intercepts, and item uniqueness for all items) over time. Additionally, the internal consistency indices of the Grit-S were acceptable across time, the stability coefficients over time were moderate, and latent factor means did not differ significantly across time. In sum, these findings suggest that the Grit-S has satisfactory longitudinal properties when used in Chinese young adults.

Cognitive ability and education: How behavioural genetic research has advanced our knowledge and understanding of their association

Cognitive ability and educational success predict positive outcomes across the lifespan, from higher earnings to better health and longevity. The shared positive outcomes associated with cognitive ability and education are emblematic of the strong interconnections between them. Part of the observed associations between cognitive ability and education, as well as their links with wealth, morbidity and mortality, are rooted in genetic variation. The current review evaluates the contribution of decades of behavioural genetic research to our knowledge and understanding of the biological and environmental basis of the association between cognitive ability and education. The evidence reviewed points to a strong genetic basis in their association, observed from middle childhood to old age, which is amplified by environmental experiences. In addition, the strong stability and heritability of educational success are not driven entirely by cognitive ability. This highlights the contribution of other educationally relevant noncognitive characteristics. Considering both cognitive and noncognitive skills as well as their biological and environmental underpinnings will be fundamental in moving towards a comprehensive, evidence-based model of education.

Passion or Perseverance? The Effect of Perceived Autonomy Support and Grit on Academic Performance in College Students

Background: Individuals who possess passion and perseverance to extensively work and study through challenges and adversity to achieve a set of goals are likely to reach higher achievement compared to others who lack similar facets. However, an under-researched question lingers over the effect of teacher-induced behaviors on academic outcomes such as grades and performance. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between teacher-induced autonomy support and student academic performance considering the mediating effect of basic psychological needs satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, and grit as two-independent factors. Methods: A convenience sample of 474 Sports Science students (M_age = 21.83 years; SD = 3.91) participated in the study. All participants completed a multi-section survey assessing the variables under analysis. Results: The measurement and structural model displayed acceptable fit, hence direct and indirect effects were examined among the variables of interest. Basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation seem to display a mediating role between perceived autonomy support and academic performance, through perseverance. Contrarily, grit-passion did not exhibit a significant indirect effect. Conclusions: Current results shed new insights on how perseverance can shape student motivation and school success considering the autonomy support induced by teachers.

New wine in an old bottle? A facet-level perspective on the added value of Grit over BFI-2 Conscientiousness

There is emerging consensus that Grit's two facets-perseverance of effort and consistency of interest-are best understood as facets of the Big Five dimension of Conscientiousness. However, an in-depth investigation on whether Grit's facet offer any added value over more established facets of Conscientiousness is absent from the literature. In the present study, we investigated whether Grit's facets are empirically distinguishable from three facets of Conscientiousness as conceived in the well-validated Big-Five Inventory 2 (BFI-2), namely, Organization, Responsibility, Productiveness. Moreover, we investigated whether Grit's facets show different (and possibly stronger) associations than the facets of Conscientiousness with a broad set of external criteria (age, educational attainment, monthly income, life satisfaction, mental and physical health, fluid and crystallized intelligence); as well as whether the criterion correlations of Grit's facets are incremental over Conscientiousness. Findings from two latent-variable models in a large and diverse sample (N = 1,244) indicated that the facets of Grit showed moderate to strong relationships related to each other and to the three Conscientiousness facets of the BFI-2 (.41 ≤ r ≤ .94). Grit-Perseverance was almost indistinguishable from the Productiveness facet of Conscientiousness, whereas Grit-Consistency appeared to capture something unique beyond the Conscientiousness facets. The relationships with external criteria of Grit's facets were similar in direction and size to those of the Conscientiousness facets. The results give further purchase to the view that Grit's facets can be subsumed under the Conscientiousness domain.

Investigating the association between family connectedness and self-control in adolescence in a genetically sensitive design

Family connectedness is key for the development of self-control in early and middle childhood. But is family connectedness still important during the transitional phase of adolescence, when adolescents demand more independence from their parents and rely more on their peers? The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between family connectedness and self-control, and whether it still holds in adolescence using a genetically sensitive design. Data were used from a large sample of twins aged 14 (N = 11,260) and aged 16 (N = 8175), all enrolled in the Netherlands Twin Register. We applied bivariate twin models and monozygotic twin difference models to investigate the association between family connectedness and self-control and to unravel to what extent genetic and environmental factors explain this association. The results showed that more family connectedness is significantly related to better self-control in adolescence, albeit with a small effect size. Twin analyses revealed that this association was mainly explained by common genetic factors and that the effects of environmental factors were small. The current findings confirm the role of family connectedness in adolescent self-control. Importantly, however, the results demonstrate that phenomena we see within families seem the product of parent and children sharing the same genes rather than being exclusively attributable to environmental processes.

Grit (effortful persistence) can be measured with a short scale, shows little variation across socio-demographic subgroups, and is associated with career success and career engagement

Grit (effortful persistence) has received considerable attention as a personality trait relevant for success and performance. However, critics have questioned grit’s construct validity and criterion validity. Here we report on two studies that contribute to the debate surrounding the grit construct. Study 1 (N = 6,230) examined the psychometric properties of a five-item grit scale, covering mainly the perseverance facet, in a large and representative sample of German adults. Moreover, it investigated the distribution of grit across sociodemographic subgroups (age groups, genders, educational strata, employment statuses). Multiple-group measurement models demonstrated that grit showed full metric, but only partial scalar, invariance across all sociodemographic subgroups. Sociodemographic differences in the levels of grit emerged for age, education, and employment status but were generally small. Study 2 investigated how grit relates to career success (income, job prestige, job satisfaction) and career engagement (working overtime, participation in continuing professional development courses, attitudes toward lifelong learning) in an employed subsample (n = 2,246). When modeled as a first-order factor, grit was incrementally associated with all indicators of career success and especially of career engagement (.08 ≤ β ≤ .75)—over and above cognitive ability and sociodemographic characteristics. When modeled as a residual facet of conscientiousness, grit largely retained its criterion validity for success but only partly for engagement (–.14 ≤ β ≤ .61). Our findings offer qualified support for the psychometric quality of the short grit scale and suggest that grit may provide some added value in predicting career outcomes. We critically discuss these findings while highlighting that grit hardly differs from established facets of conscientiousness such as industriousness/perseverance.

Grit bei Adoleszenten: eine „neue“ leistungsthematisch-motivationale Eigenschaft?

Zusammenfassung. Untersucht wurde das „neue“ Persönlichkeitskonstrukt „Grit“, das die zwei korrelierten Primärfaktoren „beharrliche Anstrengungsbereitschaft“ („Perseverance of Effort“, PE) und „konsistentes Interesse“ („Constistency of Interest“, CI) in einem Wert zusammenfasst. Grit soll nach Duckworth (2016) Erfolg in Schule, Hochschule, Beruf und Leben besser als Intelligenz und klassische Persönlichkeitsvariablen vorhersagen. Credé, Tynan und Harms (2017) bezweifelten als Resultat ihrer Metaanalyse die hierarchische Grit-Struktur, die behauptete starke Vorhersagekraft für akademische Leistungen konnten sie nicht bestätigen. Weiterhin wurde eine sehr hohe Korrelation von PE mit Gewissenhaftigkeit ermittelt. Bisherige Studien stammen hauptsächlich aus individualistisch orientierten Gesellschaften. Deshalb wurde Grit in einer kollektivistisch orientierten Kultur (China) untersucht ( N = 533, Alter: M = 15.16 Jahre, SD = 0.64). Zusätzlich erhoben wir Gewissenhaftigkeit, schulische Selbstwirksamkeit und schulisches Selbstkonzept. Das Mittel der schulischen Fachleistungspunkte wurde berechnet. Die Gesamtstichprobe wurde in zwei randomisierte Substichproben geteilt. Explorative Hauptkomponentenanalysen (Substichprobe 1: n 1 = 200) und konfirmatorische Faktorenanalysen (Substichprobe 2: n 2 = 333) der Grit-Items erbrachten zwei unkorrelierte Dimensionen, PE und CI. PE korrelierte sehr hoch mit Gewissenhaftigkeit ( r = .73, doppelt schrumpfungskorrigiert: r ∞, ∞ = .90). Die Beziehungen von PE zu Selbstwirksamkeit und Selbstkonzept waren hoch ( r = .55 bzw. r = .58), zur Schulleistung sehr niedrig ( r = .08). CI hing nur mit Selbstwirksamkeit bzw. Selbstkonzept schwach zusammen ( r = –.13 bzw. r = –.15), nicht mit Gewissenhaftigkeit ( r = .01) und dem Durchschnitt der Schulleistungspunkte ( r = –.02). Alles zusammen begründet Zweifel an Grit als „neues“ und valides leistungsbezogen-motivationales Persönlichkeitsmerkmal – zumindest bei chinesischen Adoleszenten.

Longitudinal Associations Between Grit, Academic Outcomes, and Residency Match Rates Among Pharmacy Students

Objective. To characterize Grit-S scores in pharmacy students, determine whether Grit-S scores change within individual pharmacy students and cohorts over time, and investigate the relationship between Grit-S scores, academic outcomes, and professional outcomes. Methods. A survey was conducted in fall 2016 and again in fall 2017 to determine Grit-S scores in first- through fourth-year pharmacy students. Participant demographic variables, grade point average (GPA), advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE) ratings, and residency match results were collected. Results. Over the study period, 852 survey responses were completed by 85% of students surveyed. The mean Grit-S scores of each cohort ranged from 3.5 to 3.7 (on a 5-point scale with 5 representing the highest level of grit). Underrepresented minorities had slightly higher Grit-S scores and first-generation college students had slightly lower Grit-S scores. Two hundred eighty-seven students responded to both the 2016 and 2017 surveys. Among these paired responses, small but significant changes in individual Grit-S scores over time that varied in direction and magnitude by school year were noted. Higher Grit-S scores were not associated with higher GPA or superior APPE performance, nor were they predictive of a student matching to a postgraduate pharmacy residency. Conclusion. Significant associations between grit and measures of academic or professional achievement were not detected in this pharmacy student cohort. The presence of small but significant changes in Grit-S scores over time, in the absence of any intervention, has implications that further research should be conducted in this area.

Genetics and Learning: How the Genes Influence Educational Attainment

The brain is the organ of thought. The word thought is defined as the act of thinking about or considering something: an idea or opinion, or a set of ideas about a particular subject. It implicitly includes the processes of learning. Mental functions, including most if not all aspects of human behavior, such as those related to learning, arise from the activity of the brain. Neural connections that generate and support mental functions are formed throughout life, which enables lifelong learning of new concepts and skills. Both brain formation and function, as well as neural plasticity, are influenced by the activity of a variety of genes and also by epigenetic modifications, which contribute to the regulation of gene expression by adapting it to environmental conditions. In this review, aimed especially at education professionals, I discuss the genetic and epigenetic contributions to mental aspects related to learning processes in terms of heritability. I will argue that, despite most if not all aspects related to learning having a clear genetic background, innate abilities can be enhanced or diminished through educational processes. Thus, the importance of education, in the context of the inheritability of learning processes, will be discussed. The conclusion I draw is that, despite the relatively high genetic heritability shown in most brain processes associated with learning, educational practices are a key contributor to student development, allowing genetically based skills to be enhanced or alternatively diminished. Therefore one of the main goals of education in a changing an uncertain world should be to form adaptable and versatile people who can, and want to, make the most of their capabilities. Thus, knowledge derived from genetics and epigenetics, as well as from neuroscience, should be used to enhance education professionals’ understanding of the biological origins of differences in mental capabilities, thereby empowering them with the possibility to adopt more respectful and flexible educational practices to attain the goal mentioned above.

The impact of the Great Recession on educational pursuits in adulthood in the US

Economic downturns are known to spark periods of increased enrolment in traditional educational pursuits. The current study leverages 30-year longitudinal data from the Longitudinal Study of American Life (LSAL; N=1,556) to examine individual characteristics and experiences in adolescence, just prior to the Great Recession, and during it, to understand why some individuals chose to pursue new education or training in response to the recession whereas others did not. Indicators from adolescence include measures of self-esteem, locus of control, persistence, achievement in mathematics and achievement in science and were collected from 1987 to 1993. inclusive. Pre-recession indicators include level of education, occupational and marital status and were collected in 2007. Indicators of the impact of the recession were collected retrospectively in 2014 and include whether a job was lost, whether work hours were reduced, and whether there was difficulty making rent/mortgage payments. Binary logistic regression identified persistence in adolescence, pre-recession education level, reporting reduced hours and difficulty paying rent/mortgage during the recession as associated with the likelihood of pursuing new education during the recession. A follow-up analysis investigated whether the pursuit of additional education/training in response to the recession predicted the likelihood of being employed in 2017. Results indicate that obtaining new education during the recession was associated with later employment status, but the significance and direction of the effect depends on pre-recession education level. Implications of this longitudinal, life course analysis are discussed in addition to recommendation for future directions.

Big Five personality traits and allostatic load in midlife

Objective: To examine the cross-sectional associations of Big Five personality traits with midlife allostatic load, including the role of sex, socio-demographic factors and health-related behaviours. Design: Cross-sectional analyses of 5512 members of the Copenhagen Aging and Midlife Biobank, aged 49-63 years, 69% men. Main outcome measure: Allostatic load (AL) based on 14 biomarkers representing the inflammatory, cardiovascular and metabolic system. Results: Due to significant sex × trait interactions, analyses were stratified by sex. Openness and Conscientiousness were inversely associated with AL in both sexes, and Extraversion was positively associated with AL in men. Adjusting for socio-demographic factors significantly attenuated the association of Openness in both sexes and of Extraversion in men, for whom the inverse association of Agreeableness with AL was strengthened. Further adjusting for health-related behaviours, the Conscientiousness-AL association was attenuated but remained significant, and Agreeableness remained significantly associated with AL in men. Conclusion: Results imply that higher levels of Agreeableness (in men) and Conscientiousness are associated with lower levels of AL above and beyond socio-demographic factors and health-related behaviours. The study further contributes by demonstrating the relevance of sex × trait and trait × trait interactions in the personality-health literature.

Genetic Structure of IQ, Phonemic Decoding Skill, and Academic Achievement

The aim of this study was to examine whether phonemic decoding skill (deficits of which characterize dyslexia) shares genetic and/or environmental covariance with scholastic abilities independent of general intelligence. Non-word reading ability, verbal and non-verbal IQ, and standardized academic achievement (Queensland Core Skills Test; QCST) were measured in Australian twins (up to 876 twin pairs and 80 singleton twins). Multivariate genetic analysis showed the presence of a general genetic factor, likely reflecting crystallized ability, which accounted for 45-76% of phenotypic variance in QCST scores, 62% of variance in Verbal IQ, 23% of variance in Performance IQ, and 19% of variance in phonological reading ability. The phonemic decoding genetic factor (explaining 48% of variance in phonemic decoding) was negatively associated with mathematical achievement scores (0.4%). Shared effects of common environment did not explain the relationship between reading ability and academic achievement beyond those also influencing IQ. The unique environmental reading factor (accounting for 26% of variance) influenced academic abilities related to written expression. Future research will need to address whether these reading-specific genetic and unique environment relationships arise from causal effects of reading on scholastic abilities, or whether both share a common influence, such as pleiotropic genes/environmental factors.

Toward a Work Motivation Conceptualization of Grit in Organizations

Despite its widespread media acclaim and recognition as a strategic imperative, the role of grit in organizational research remains unclear. This ambiguity resulted from inconsistent empirical findings, thus triggering a pessimistic outlook for the construct across disciplines. To address these issues, we suggest that such confusion and lack of construct and predictive validity stem from not only methodological issues but also a lack of theoretical sophistication. In this article, we address methodological issues, focusing mainly on construct and criterion-related validity, by showing how traditional definitional components of grit are absent in existing measures. Next, we address theoretical issues impeding progress by developing a new work motivation conceptualization of the construct. To do so, we focus primarily on noncognitive ability, purpose-driven long-term goal setting, and task strategy (i.e., short-term goal) adaptation. Finally, we develop an organizing framework examining how, and under what conditions, work-related goal setting manifests, highlighting grit’s distinction from other historically related constructs. Coupled with the assumption that individuals hold higher order organizational goals toward which they are passionate, our organizing framework includes feedback mechanisms accounting for grit’s developmental properties over time. Finally, we acknowledge significant areas for future research and potential practical implications.

Grit as Predictor of Entrepreneurship and Self-Employment in Spain

Extending the growing literature on the role of grit in different life domains, this research explores the relationship between grit and involvement in entrepreneurship. The research highlights the role of personal income and satisfaction with one’s current financial situation as moderators of the relationship between grit and entrepreneurial behavior. Using a large representative sample of Spanish young adults and controlling for a number of potential confounding variables, we find that grit is modestly negatively related to the probability of involvement in entrepreneurship. As predicted, however, this relationship is qualified by both income and satisfaction with current financial situation, though in opposite directions and more weakly for satisfaction with financial status. Gritty individuals with higher levels of income are more prone to become entrepreneurs than gritty individuals with lower levels of income. Gritty individuals with lower levels of satisfaction with their financial situation are more likely to set up a business or become self-employed.

Mapping self-report questionnaires for socio-emotional characteristics: What do they measure?

Abstract Whereas the structure of individual differences in many social and emotional attributes is well understood in adults, much less work has been done in children and adolescents. The main goals of this research were to specify the major content domains that are assessed across multiple socioemotional instruments (self-esteem, grit, self-efficacy, strengths and difficulties, Big Five) in research in the United States and Europe, to test them in a less developed context with considerable educational challenges (Brazilian schools). We selected the five most promising instruments and studied their structure at the item level in a large sample of Brazilian school students (N = 3,023). The extracted factors to capture the major domains of child differences represented in these instruments closely resembled the Big Five personality dimensions. We discuss the contribution of our findings to the assessment of socio-emotional skills in education research, as well as limitations of the current study, and suggestions for future research.

"Same but different": Associations between multiple aspects of self-regulation, cognition, and academic abilities

Self-regulation describes the ability to control both behaviors and internal states against a backdrop of conflicting or distracting situations, drives, or impulses. In the cognitive psychology tradition, individual differences in self-regulation are commonly measured with performance-based tests of executive functioning, whereas in the personality psychology tradition, individual differences in self-regulation are typically assessed with report-based measures of impulse control, sustained motivation, and perseverance. The goal of this project was (a) to comprehensively examine the structure of associations between multiple self-regulatory constructs stemming from the cognitive and personality psychology traditions; (b) to estimate how these constructs, individually and collectively, related to mathematics and reading ability beyond psychometric measures of processing speed and fluid intelligence; and (c) to estimate the extent to which genetic and environmental factors mediated the observed associations. Data were available for 1,019 child participants from the Texas Twin Project (M age = 10.79, range = 7.8-15.5). Results highlighted the differentiation among cognitive and personality aspects of self-regulation, both at observed and genetic levels. After accounting for processing speed and fluid intelligence, EF remained a significant predictor of reading and mathematics ability. Educationally relevant measures of personality-particularly an openness factor representing curiosity and intellectual self-concept-incrementally contributed to individual differences in reading ability. Collectively, measures of cognition, self-regulation, and other educationally relevant aspects of personality accounted for the entirety of genetic variance in mathematics and reading ability. The current findings point to the important independent role that each construct plays in academic settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Overstating the Role of Environmental Factors in Success: A Cautionary Note

Several currently popular areas of research—brain training, mind-set, grit, deliberate practice, and the bilingual advantage—are premised on the idea that environmental factors are the overwhelming determinants of success in real-world pursuits. Here, we describe the major claims from each of these areas of research and discuss evidence for these claims, particularly focusing on meta-analyses. We suggest that overemphasizing the malleability of abilities and other traits can have negative consequences for individuals, science, and society. We conclude with a call for balanced appraisals of the available evidence concerning this issue, to reflect current scientific discrepancies and thereby enable informed individual decisions and collective policies.

Why grit requires perseverance and passion to positively predict performance

Prior studies linking grit-defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals-to performance are beset by contradictory evidence. As a result, commentators have increasingly declared that grit has limited effects. We propose that this inconsistent evidence has occurred because prior research has emphasized perseverance and ignored, both theoretically and empirically, the critical role of passion, which we define as a strong feeling toward a personally important value/preference that motivates intentions and behaviors to express that value/preference. We suggest that combining the grit scale-which only captures perseverance-with a measure that assesses whether individuals attain desired levels of passion will predict performance. We first metaanalyzed 127 studies (n = 45,485) that used the grit scale and assessed performance, and found that effect sizes are larger in studies where participants were more passionate for the performance domain. Second, in a survey of employees matched to supervisor-rated job performance (n = 422), we found that the combination of perseverance, measured through the grit scale, and passion attainment, measured through a new scale, predicted higher performance. A final study measured perseverance and passion attainment in a sample of students (n = 248) and linked these to their grade-point average (GPA), finding that the combination of perseverance and passion attainment predicted higher GPAs in part through increased immersion. The present results help resolve the mixed evidence of grit's relationship with performance by highlighting the important role that passion plays in predicting performance. By adequately measuring both perseverance and passion, the present research uncovers grit's true predictive power.