A gene loop containing the floral repressor FLC is disrupted in the early phase of vernalization

Dynamic regulation of chromatin topology and transcription by inverted repeat-derived small RNAs in sunflower

Transposable elements (TEs) are extremely abundant in complex plant genomes. siRNAs of 24 nucleotides in length control transposon activity in a process that involves de novo methylation of targeted loci. Usually, these epigenetic modifications trigger nucleosome condensation and a permanent silencing of the affected loci. Here, we show that a TE-derived inverted repeat (IR) element, inserted near the sunflower HaWRKY6 locus, dynamically regulates the expression of the gene by altering chromatin topology. The transcripts of this IR element are processed into 24-nt siRNAs, triggering DNA methylation on its locus. These epigenetic marks stabilize the formation of tissue-specific loops in the chromatin. In leaves, an intragenic loop is formed, blocking HaWRKY6 transcription. While in cotyledons (Cots), formation of an alternative loop, encompassing the whole HaWRKY6 gene, enhances transcription of the gene. The formation of this loop changes the promoter directionality, reducing IR transcription, and ultimately releasing the loop. Our results provide evidence that TEs can act as active and dynamic regulatory elements within coding loci in a mechanism that combines RNA silencing, epigenetic modification, and chromatin remodeling machineries.

3D genome organization: a role for phase separation and loop extrusion?

In eukaryotes, genomic information is encoded in chromosomes, which occupy distinct territories within the nucleus. Inside these territories, chromosomes are folded in a hierarchical set of topological structures, called compartments, topologically associated domains and loops. Phase separation and loop extrusion are the mechanisms indicated to mediate the 3D organization of the genome, and gene activity and epigenetic marks determine the activity level of the formed chromatin domains. The main difference between plants and animals may be the absence of canonical insulator elements in plants. Comparison across plant species indicates that the identification of chromatin domains is affected by genome size, gene density, and the linear distribution of genes and transposable elements.

Review: Chromatin organization in plant and animal stem cell maintenance

Stem cells have self-renewal capacity and can differentiate into specialized cell types. Although the origin, form and differentiated destinations of stem cells differ between animals and plants, they are regulated by similar epigenetic mechanisms during differentiation. There is increasing evidence that the three-dimensional (3D) genome organization plays important roles in gene expression regulation during stem cell differentiation. In plant cells, however, studies related to chromatin interaction in gene expression regulation are just beginning and will be a hot topic in the future. In this review, we summarized the similarities of plant and animal stem cell niches and their function in stem cell maintenance, the roles of chromatin conformation changes in regulating gene expression and recent findings about chromatin organization in plant cells at genome-wide and loci-specific levels.

A spatiotemporally regulated transcriptional complex underlies heteroblastic development of leaf hairs in Arabidopsis thaliana

Heteroblasty refers to a phenomenon that a plant produces morphologically or functionally different lateral organs in an age-dependent manner. In the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the production of trichomes (epidermal leaf hairs) on the abaxial (lower) side of leaves is a heteroblastic mark for the juvenile-to-adult transition. Here, we show that the heteroblastic development of abaxial trichomes is regulated by a spatiotemporally regulated complex comprising the leaf abaxial fate determinant (KAN1) and the developmental timer (miR172-targeted AP2-like proteins). We provide evidence that a short-distance chromatin loop brings the downstream enhancer element into close association with the promoter elements of GL1, which encodes a MYB transcription factor essential for trichome initiation. During juvenile phase, the KAN1-AP2 repressive complex binds to the downstream sequence of GL1 and represses its expression through chromatin looping. As plants age, the gradual reduction in AP2-like protein levels leads to decreased amount of the KAN1-AP2 complex, thereby licensing GL1 expression and the abaxial trichome initiation. Our results thus reveal a novel molecular mechanism by which a heteroblastic trait is governed by integrating age and leaf polarity cue in plants.

PERPETUAL FLOWERING2 coordinates the vernalization response and perennial flowering in Arabis alpina

The floral repressor APETALA2 (AP2) in Arabidopsis regulates flowering through the age pathway. The AP2 ortholog in the alpine perennial Arabis alpina, PERPETUAL FLOWERING 2 (PEP2), was previously reported to control flowering through the vernalization pathway via enhancing the expression of another floral repressor PERPETUAL FLOWERING 1 (PEP1), the ortholog of Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). However, PEP2 also regulates flowering independently of PEP1. To characterize the function of PEP2, we analyzed the transcriptomes of pep2 and pep1 mutants. The majority of differentially expressed genes were detected between pep2 and the wild type or between pep2 and pep1, highlighting the importance of the PEP2 role that is independent of PEP1. Here, we demonstrate that PEP2 activity prevents the up-regulation of the A. alpina floral meristem identity genes FRUITFUL (AaFUL), LEAFY (AaLFY), and APETALA1 (AaAP1), ensuring floral commitment during vernalization. Young pep2 seedlings respond to vernalization, suggesting that PEP2 regulates the age-dependent response to vernalization independently of PEP1. The major role of PEP2 through the PEP1-dependent pathway takes place after vernalization, when it facilitates PEP1 activation both in the main shoot apex and in axillary branches. These multiple roles of PEP2 in the vernalization response contribute to the A. alpina life cycle.

FRIGIDA establishes a local chromosomal environment for FLOWERING LOCUS C mRNA production

FRIGIDA (FRI) upregulates the expression of the potent floral repressor FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) to confer the winter-annual growth habit in Arabidopsis thaliana: accelerated transition to flowering after prolonged cold exposure (vernalization). Here, we show that FRI, histone acetyltransferases, the histone methyltransferase COMPASS-like and other chromatin modifiers are part of a FRI-containing supercomplex enriched in a region around the FLC transcription start site (TSS) to promote its expression. Several FRI partners are also enriched in a 3' region flanking FLC and, together with FRI, they function to increase the frequency of physical association of the region around TSS with the 3' region and promote the expression of both sense FLC and antisense non-coding RNAs. Our results show that the FRI supercomplex establishes a local chromosomal environment at FLC with active chromatin modifications and topology to promote transcriptional activation, fast elongation and efficient pre-messenger RNA splicing, leading to a high-level production of FLC mRNAs.

Entering the Next Dimension: Plant Genomes in 3D

After linear sequences of genomes and epigenomic landscape data, the 3D organization of chromatin in the nucleus is the next level to be explored. Different organisms present a general hierarchical organization, with chromosome territories at the top. Chromatin interaction maps, obtained by chromosome conformation capture (3C)-based methodologies, for eight plant species reveal commonalities, but also differences, among them and with animals. The smallest structures, found in high-resolution maps of the Arabidopsis genome, are single genes. Epigenetic marks (histone modification and DNA methylation), transcriptional activity, and chromatin interaction appear to be correlated, and whether structure is the cause or consequence of the function of interacting regions is being actively investigated.

Role of TAF15b in transcriptional regulation of autonomous pathway for flowering

The autonomous pathway promotes flowering by repressing a major flowering repressor, FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). Approximately 30 genes are involved in this pathway, and several of them are related to RNA processing; however, the molecular basis of the transcriptional regulation of FLC is yet to be understood. Recently, we discovered a new autonomous pathway gene, TATA-binding protein-associated factor 15b (TAF15b), which has a RNA recognition motif (RRM) and represses the level of FLC transcripts. TAF15b regulates the expression of FLC by directly interacting with RNA polymerase II (Pol II) at the transcription start sites on both the sense and antisense strands of the FLC locus. In addition to the transcriptional regulation in the nucleus, TAF15b accumulates in processing bodies (p-bodies), which are cytoplasmic RNA granules involved in translational repression, during heat stress. Here we discuss the implications of our findings and suggest a dual role of TAF15b in both transcriptional and translational regulation.

A chromatin loop represses WUSCHEL expression in Arabidopsis

WUSCHEL (WUS) is critical for plant meristem maintenance and determinacy in Arabidopsis, and the regulation of its spatiotemporal expression patterns is complex. We previously found that AGAMOUS (AG), a key MADS-domain transcription factor in floral organ identity and floral meristem determinacy, can directly suppress WUS expression through the recruitment of the Polycomb group (PcG) protein TERMINAL FLOWER 2 (TFL2, also known as LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN 1, LHP1) at the WUS locus; however, the mechanism by which WUS is repressed remains unclear. Here, using chromosome conformation capture (3C) and chromatin immunoprecipitation 3C, we found that two specific regions flanking the WUS gene body bound by AG and TFL2 form a chromatin loop that is directly promoted by AG during flower development in a manner independent of the physical distance and sequence content of the intervening region. Moreover, AG physically interacts with TFL2, and TFL2 binding to the chromatin loop is dependent on AG. Transgenic and CRISPR/Cas9-edited lines showed that the WUS chromatin loop represses gene expression by blocking the recruitment of RNA polymerase II at the locus. The findings uncover the WUS chromatin loop as another regulatory mechanism controlling WUS expression, and also shed light on the factors required for chromatin conformation change and their recruitment.

Allele-specific repression of Sox2 through the long non-coding RNA Sox2ot

The transcription factor Sox2 controls the fate of pluripotent stem cells and neural stem cells. This gatekeeper function requires well-regulated Sox2 levels. We postulated that Sox2 regulation is partially controlled by the Sox2 overlapping long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) gene Sox2ot. Here we show that the RNA levels of Sox2ot and Sox2 are inversely correlated during neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Through allele-specific enhanced transcription of Sox2ot in mouse Sox2eGFP knockin ESCs we demonstrate that increased Sox2ot transcriptional activity reduces Sox2 RNA levels in an allele-specific manner. Enhanced Sox2ot transcription, yielding lower Sox2 RNA levels, correlates with a decreased chromatin interaction of the upstream regulatory sequence of Sox2 and the ESC-specific Sox2 super enhancer. Our study indicates that, in addition to previously reported in trans mechanisms, Sox2ot can regulate Sox2 by an allele-specific mechanism, in particular during development.

A Compendium of Methods to Analyze the Spatial Organization of Plant Chromatin

The long linear chromosomes of eukaryotic organisms are tightly packed into the nucleus of the cell. Beyond a first organization into nucleosomes and higher-order chromatin fibers, the positioning of nuclear DNA within the three-dimensional space of the nucleus plays a critical role in genome function and gene expression. Different techniques have been developed to assess nanoscale chromatin organization, nuclear position of genomic regions or specific chromatin features and binding proteins as well as higher-order chromatin organization. Here, I present an overview of imaging and molecular techniques applied to study nuclear architecture in plants, with special attention to the related protocols published in the "Plant Chromatin Dynamics" edition from Methods in Molecular Biology.

RNA Immunoprecipitation Protocol to Identify Protein-RNA Interactions in Arabidopsis thaliana

The role of RNA-binding proteins in the regulation of epigenetic processes has received increasing attention in the past decades. In particular noncoding RNAs have been shown to play a role in chromatin loop formation, recruitment of chromatin modifiers and RNA-dependent DNA methylation. In plants, the identification of specific RNA-protein interactions is now rising, facilitated by the development of specific approaches for plant tissues. Here, we present a simple one-day RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) protocol adapted for Arabidopsis, suited for the identification of RNAs that are associated with a protein-of-interest in planta.

Technical Review: A Hitchhiker's Guide to Chromosome Conformation Capture

The introduction of chromosome conformation capture (3C) technologies boosted the field of 3D-genome research and significantly enhanced the available toolset to study chromosomal architecture. 3C technologies not only offer increased resolution compared to the previously dominant cytological approaches but also allow the simultaneous study of genome-wide 3D chromatin contacts, thereby enabling a candidate-free perspective on 3D-genome architecture. Since its introduction in 2002, 3C technologies evolved rapidly and now constitute a collection of tools, each with their strengths and pitfalls with respect to specific research questions. This chapter aims at guiding 3C novices through the labyrinth of potential applications of the various family members, hopefully providing a valuable basis for choosing the appropriate strategy for different research questions.

3C in Maize and Arabidopsis

With Chromosome Conformation Capture (3C), the relative interaction frequency of one chromosomal fragment with another can be determined. The technique is especially suited for unraveling the 3D organization of specific loci when focusing on aspects such as enhancer-promoter interactions or other topological conformations of the genome. 3C has been extensively used in animal systems, among others providing insight into gene regulation by distant cis-regulatory elements. In recent years, the 3C technique has been applied in plant research. However, the complexity of plant tissues prevents direct application of existing protocols from animals. Here, we describe an adapted protocol suitable for plant tissues, especially Arabidopsis thaliana and Zea mays.

Unraveling the Complex Epigenetic Mechanisms that Regulate Gene Activity

Our understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms that regulate gene expression has been largely increased in recent years by the development and refinement of different techniques. This has revealed that gene transcription is highly influenced by epigenetic mechanisms, i.e., those that do not involve changes in the genome sequence, but rather in nuclear architecture, chromosome conformation and histone and DNA modifications. Our understanding of how these different levels of epigenetic regulation interact with each other and with classical transcription-factor based gene regulation to influence gene transcription has just started to emerge. This review discusses the latest advances in unraveling the complex interactions between different types of epigenetic regulation and transcription factor activity, with special attention to the approaches that can be used to study these interactions.

TAF15b, involved in the autonomous pathway for flowering, represses transcription of FLOWERING LOCUS C

TATA-binding protein-associated factors (TAFs) are general transcription factors within the transcription factor IID (TFIID) complex, which recognizes the core promoter of genes. In addition to their biochemical function, it is known that several TAFs are involved in the regulation of developmental processes. In this study, we found that TAF15b affects flowering time, especially through the autonomous pathway (AP) in Arabidopsis. The mutant taf15b shows late flowering compared with the wild type plant during both long and short days, and vernalization accelerates the flowering time of taf15b. In addition, taf15b shows strong upregulation of FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC), a flowering repressor in Arabidopsis, and the flc taf15b double mutant completely offsets the late flowering of taf15b, indicating that TAF15b is a typical AP gene. The taf15b mutant also shows increased transcript levels of COOLAIR, an antisense transcript of FLC. Consistently, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analyses showed that the TAF15b protein is enriched around both sense and antisense transcription start sites of the FLC locus. In addition, co-immunoprecipitation showed that TAF15b interacts with RNA polymerase II (Pol II), while ChIP showed increased enrichment of the phosphorylated forms, both serine 2 (Ser2) and Ser5, of the C-terminal domain of Pol II at the FLC locus, which is indicative of transcriptional elongation. Finally, taf15b showed higher enrichment of the active histone marker, H3K4me3, on FLC chromatin. Taken together, our results suggest that TAF15b affects flowering time through transcriptional repression of FLC in Arabidopsis.

Disruption of an RNA-binding hinge region abolishes LHP1-mediated epigenetic repression

In this study, Berry et al. investigated the functions of the different domains of LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN 1 (LHP1) in Arabidopsis. They show that LHP1 binds RNA in vitro through the intrinsically disordered hinge region and show that both the hinge region and H3K27me3 recognition facilitate LHP1 localization and H3K27me3 maintenance.

Epigenetic maintenance of gene repression is essential for development. Polycomb complexes are central to this memory, but many aspects of the underlying mechanism remain unclear. LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN 1 (LHP1) binds Polycomb-deposited H3K27me3 and is required for repression of many Polycomb target genes in Arabidopsis. Here we show that LHP1 binds RNA in vitro through the intrinsically disordered hinge region. By independently perturbing the RNA-binding hinge region and H3K27me3 (trimethylation of histone H3 at Lys27) recognition, we found that both facilitate LHP1 localization and H3K27me3 maintenance. Disruption of the RNA-binding hinge region also prevented formation of subnuclear foci, structures potentially important for epigenetic repression.

Structural dissection of an interaction between transcription initiation and termination factors implicated in promoter-terminator cross-talk

Functional cross-talk between the promoter and terminator of a gene has long been noted. Promoters and terminators are juxtaposed to form gene loops in several organisms, and gene looping is thought to be involved in transcriptional regulation. The general transcription factor IIB (TFIIB) and the C-terminal domain phosphatase Ssu72, essential factors of the transcription preinitiation complex and the mRNA processing and polyadenylation complex, respectively, are important for gene loop formation. TFIIB and Ssu72 interact both genetically and physically, but the molecular basis of this interaction is not known. Here we present a crystal structure of the core domain of TFIIB in two new conformations that differ in the relative distance and orientation of the two cyclin-like domains. The observed extraordinary conformational plasticity may underlie the binding of TFIIB to multiple transcription factors and promoter DNAs that occurs in distinct stages of transcription, including initiation, reinitiation, and gene looping. We mapped the binding interface of the TFIIB-Ssu72 complex using a series of systematic, structure-guided in vitro binding and site-specific photocross-linking assays. Our results indicate that Ssu72 competes with acidic activators for TFIIB binding and that Ssu72 disrupts an intramolecular TFIIB complex known to impede transcription initiation. We also show that the TFIIB-binding site on Ssu72 overlaps with the binding site of symplekin, a component of the mRNA processing and polyadenylation complex. We propose a hand-off model in which Ssu72 mediates a conformational transition in TFIIB, accounting for the role of Ssu72 in transcription reinitiation, gene looping, and promoter-terminator cross-talk.

A cautionary note on the use of chromosome conformation capture in plants

BACKGROUND

The chromosome conformation capture (3C) technique is a method to study chromatin interactions at specific genomic loci. Initially established for yeast the 3C technique has been adapted to plants in recent years in order to study chromatin interactions and their role in transcriptional gene regulation. As the plant scientific community continues to implement this technology, a discussion on critical controls, validations steps and interpretation of 3C data is essential to fully benefit from 3C in plants.

RESULTS

Here we assess the reliability and robustness of the 3C technique for the detection of chromatin interactions in Arabidopsis. As a case study, we applied this methodology to the genomic locus of a floral integrator gene SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS1 (SOC1), and demonstrate the need of several controls and standard validation steps to allow a meaningful interpretation of 3C data. The intricacies of this promising but challenging technique are discussed in depth.

CONCLUSIONS

The 3C technique offers an interesting opportunity to study chromatin interactions at a resolution infeasible by microscopy. However, for interpretation of 3C interaction data and identification of true interactions, 3C technology demands a stringent experimental setup and extreme caution.

Profiling Developmentally and Environmentally Controlled Chromatin Reprogramming

Dynamic reshuffling of the chromatin landscape is a recurrent theme orchestrated in many, if not all, plant developmental transitions and adaptive responses. Spatiotemporal variations of the chromatin properties on regulatory genes and on structural genomic elements trigger the establishment of distinct transcriptional contexts, which in some instances can epigenetically be inherited. Studies on plant cell plasticity during the differentiation of stem cells, including gametogenesis, or the specialization of vegetative cells in various organs, as well as the investigation of allele-specific gene regulation have long been impaired by technical challenges in generating specific chromatin profiles in complex or hardly accessible cell populations. Recent advances in increasing the sensitivity of genome-enabled technologies and in the isolation of specific cell types have allowed for overcoming such limitations. These developments hint at multilevel regulatory events ranging from nucleosome accessibility and composition to higher order chromatin organization and genome topology. Uncovering the large extent to which chromatin dynamics and epigenetic processes influence gene expression is therefore not surprisingly revolutionizing current views on plant molecular genetics and (epi)genomics as well as their perspectives in eco-evolutionary biology. Here, we introduce current methodologies to probe genome-wide chromatin variations for which protocols are detailed in this book chapter, with an emphasis on the plant model species Arabidopsis.

Arabidopsis SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex binds both promoters and terminators to regulate gene expression

ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes are important regulators of gene expression in Eukaryotes. In plants, SWI/SNF-type complexes have been shown critical for transcriptional control of key developmental processes, growth and stress responses. To gain insight into mechanisms underlying these roles, we performed whole genome mapping of the SWI/SNF catalytic subunit BRM in Arabidopsis thaliana, combined with transcript profiling experiments. Our data show that BRM occupies thousands of sites in Arabidopsis genome, most of which located within or close to genes. Among identified direct BRM transcriptional targets almost equal numbers were up- and downregulated upon BRM depletion, suggesting that BRM can act as both activator and repressor of gene expression. Interestingly, in addition to genes showing canonical pattern of BRM enrichment near transcription start site, many other genes showed a transcription termination site-centred BRM occupancy profile. We found that BRM-bound 3΄ gene regions have promoter-like features, including presence of TATA boxes and high H3K4me3 levels, and possess high antisense transcriptional activity which is subjected to both activation and repression by SWI/SNF complex. Our data suggest that binding to gene terminators and controlling transcription of non-coding RNAs is another way through which SWI/SNF complex regulates expression of its targets.

Modular function of long noncoding RNA, COLDAIR, in the vernalization response

The long noncoding RNA COLDAIR is necessary for the repression of a floral repressor FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) during vernalization in Arabidopsis thaliana. The repression of FLC is mediated by increased enrichment of Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) and subsequent trimethylation of Histone H3 Lysine 27 (H3K27me3) at FLC chromatin. In this study we found that the association of COLDAIR with chromatin occurs only at the FLC locus and that the central region of the COLDAIR transcript is critical for this interaction. A modular motif in COLDAIR is responsible for the association with PRC2 in vitro, and the mutations within the motif that reduced the association of COLDAIR with PRC2 resulted in vernalization insensitivity. The vernalization insensitivity caused by mutant COLDAIR was rescued by the ectopic expression of the wild-type COLDAIR. Our study reveals the molecular framework in which COLDAIR lncRNA mediates the PRC2-mediated repression of FLC during vernalization.

The FLC Locus: A Platform for Discoveries in Epigenetics and Adaptation

Our understanding of the detailed molecular mechanisms underpinning adaptation is still poor. One example for which mechanistic understanding of regulation has converged with studies of life history variation is Arabidopsis thaliana FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). FLC determines the need for plants to overwinter and their ability to respond to prolonged cold in a process termed vernalization. This review highlights how molecular analysis of vernalization pathways has revealed important insight into antisense-mediated chromatin silencing mechanisms that regulate FLC. In turn, such insight has enabled molecular dissection of the diversity in vernalization across natural populations of A. thaliana. Changes in both cotranscriptional regulation and epigenetic silencing of FLC are caused by noncoding polymorphisms at FLC. The FLC locus is therefore providing important concepts for how noncoding transcription and chromatin regulation influence gene expression and how these mechanisms can vary to underpin adaptation in natural populations.

Cell-Size-Dependent Transcription of FLC and Its Antisense Long Non-coding RNA COOLAIR Explain Cell-to-Cell Expression Variation

Single-cell quantification of transcription kinetics and variability promotes a mechanistic understanding of gene regulation. Here, using single-molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization and mathematical modeling, we dissect cellular RNA dynamics for Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). FLC expression quantitatively determines flowering time and is regulated by antisense (COOLAIR) transcription. In cells without observable COOLAIR expression, we quantify FLC transcription initiation, elongation, intron processing, and lariat degradation, as well as mRNA release from the locus and degradation. In these heterogeneously sized cells, FLC mRNA number increases linearly with cell size, resulting in a large cell-to-cell variability in transcript level. This variation is accounted for by cell-size-dependent, Poissonian FLC mRNA production, but not by large transcriptional bursts. In COOLAIR-expressing cells, however, antisense transcription increases with cell size and contributes to FLC transcription decreasing with cell size. Our analysis therefore reveals an unexpected role for antisense transcription in modulating the scaling of transcription with cell size.

The quest for epigenetic regulation underlying unisexual flower development in Cucumis melo

BACKGROUND

Melon (Cucumis melo) is an important vegetable crop from the Cucurbitaceae family and a reference model specie for sex determination, fruit ripening and vascular fluxes studies. Nevertheless, the nature and role of its epigenome in gene expression regulation and more specifically in sex determination remains largely unknown.

RESULTS

We have investigated genome wide H3K27me3 and H3K9ac histone modifications and gene expression dynamics, in five melon organs. H3K9ac and H3K27me3 were mainly distributed along gene-rich regions and constrained to gene bodies. H3K9ac was preferentially located at the TSS, whereas H3K27me3 distributed uniformly from TSS to TES. As observed in other species, H3K9ac and H3K27me3 correlated with high and low gene expression levels, respectively. Comparative analyses of unisexual flowers pointed out sex-specific epigenetic states of TFs involved in ethylene response and flower development. Chip-qPCR analysis of laser dissected carpel and stamina primordia, revealed sex-specific histone modification of MADS-box genes. Using sex transition mutants, we demonstrated that the female promoting gene, CmACS11, represses the expression of the male promoting gene CmWIP1 via deposition of H3K27me3.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reveal the organ-specific landscapes of H3K9ac and H3K27me3 in melon. Our results also provide evidence that the sex determination genes recruit histone modifiers to orchestrate unisexual flower development in monoecious species.

Emerging roles of chromatin in the maintenance of genome organization and function in plants

Chromatin is not a uniform macromolecular entity; it contains different domains characterized by complex signatures of DNA and histone modifications. Such domains are organized both at a linear scale along the genome and spatially within the nucleus. We discuss recent discoveries regarding mechanisms that establish boundaries between chromatin states and nuclear territories. Chromatin organization is crucial for genome replication, transcriptional silencing, and DNA repair and recombination. The replication machinery is relevant for the maintenance of chromatin states, influencing DNA replication origin specification and accessibility. Current studies reinforce the idea of intimate crosstalk between chromatin features and processes involving DNA transactions.

Nonrandom domain organization of the Arabidopsis genome at the nuclear periphery

The nuclear space is not a homogeneous biochemical environment. Many studies have demonstrated that the transcriptional activity of a gene is linked to its positioning within the nuclear space. Following the discovery of lamin-associated domains (LADs), which are transcriptionally repressed chromatin regions, the nonrandom positioning of chromatin at the nuclear periphery and its biological relevance have been studied extensively in animals. However, it remains unknown whether comparable chromatin organizations exist in plants. Here, using a strategy using restriction enzyme-mediated chromatin immunoprecipitation, we present genome-wide identification of nonrandom domain organization of chromatin at the peripheral zone of Arabidopsis thaliana nuclei. We show that in various tissues, 10%-20% of the regions on the chromosome arms are anchored at the nuclear periphery, and these regions largely overlap between different tissues. Unlike LADs in animals, the identified domains in plants are not gene-poor or A/T-rich. These domains are enriched with silenced protein-coding genes, transposable element genes, and heterochromatic marks, which collectively define a repressed environment. In addition, these domains strongly correlate with our genome-wide chromatin interaction data set (Hi-C) by largely explaining the patterns of chromatin compartments, revealed on Hi-C maps. Moreover, our results reveal a spatial compartment of different DNA methylation pathways that regulate silencing of transposable elements, where the CHH methylation of transposable elements located at the nuclear periphery and in the interior are preferentially mediated by CMT2 and DRM methyltransferases, respectively. Taken together, the results demonstrate functional partitioning of the Arabidopsis genome in the nuclear space.

Chromosome conformation capture-based studies reveal novel features of plant nuclear architecture

Nuclear genome organization has recently received increasing attention due to its manifold functions in basic nuclear processes, such as replication, transcription, and the maintenance of genome integrity. Using technologies based on chromosome conformation capture, such as Hi-C, we now have the possibility to study the three-dimensional organization of the genome at unprecedented resolution, shedding light onto a previously unexplored level of nuclear architecture. In plants, research in this field is still in its infancy but a number of publications provided first insights into basic principles of nuclear genome organization and the factors that influence it. Apart from general aspects, newly discovered three-dimensional conformations, such as the KNOT, raise special interest on how nuclear organization may influence the function of the genome in previously unexpected ways.

Vernalization-Triggered Intragenic Chromatin Loop Formation by Long Noncoding RNAs

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) affect gene regulation through structural and regulatory interactions with associated proteins. The Polycomb complex often binds to lncRNAs in eukaryotes, and an lncRNA, COLDAIR, associates with Polycomb to mediate silencing of the floral repressor FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) during the process of vernalization in Arabidopsis. Here, we identified an additional Polycomb-binding lncRNA, COLDWRAP. COLDWRAP is derived from the repressed promoter of FLC and is necessary for the establishment of the stable repressed state of FLC by vernalization. Both COLDAIR and COLDWRAP are required to form a repressive intragenic chromatin loop at the FLC locus by vernalization. Our results indicate that vernalization-mediated Polycomb silencing is coordinated by lncRNAs in a cooperative manner to form a stable repressive chromatin structure.

Long Noncoding RNAs in Plants

The eukaryotic genomes are pervasively transcribed. In addition to protein-coding RNAs, thousands of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) modulate key molecular and biological processes. Most lncRNAs are found in the nucleus and associate with chromatin, but lncRNAs can function in both nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments. Emerging work has found that many lncRNAs regulate gene expression and can affect genome stability and nuclear domain organization both in plant and in the animal kingdom. Here, we describe the major plant lncRNAs and how they act, with a focus on research in Arabidopsis thaliana and our emerging understanding of lncRNA functions in serving as molecular sponges and decoys, functioning in regulation of transcription and silencing, particularly in RNA-directed DNA methylation, and in epigenetic regulation of flowering time.

Mutually exclusive sense-antisense transcription at FLC facilitates environmentally induced gene repression

Antisense transcription through genic regions is pervasive in most genomes; however, its functional significance is still unclear. We are studying the role of antisense transcripts (COOLAIR) in the cold-induced, epigenetic silencing of Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC), a regulator of the transition to reproduction. Here we use single-molecule RNA FISH to address the mechanistic relationship of FLC and COOLAIR transcription at the cellular level. We demonstrate that while sense and antisense transcripts can co-occur in the same cell they are mutually exclusive at individual loci. Cold strongly upregulates COOLAIR transcription in an increased number of cells and through the mutually exclusive relationship facilitates shutdown of sense FLC transcription in cis. COOLAIR transcripts form dense clouds at each locus, acting to influence FLC transcription through changed H3K36me3 dynamics. These results may have general implications for other loci showing both sense and antisense transcription.

Control of Chromatin Structure by Long Noncoding RNA

Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) is a pivotal factor regulating various aspects of genome activity. Genome regulation via DNA methylation and post-translational histone modifications is a well-documented function of lncRNA in plants, fungi, and animals. Here, we summarize evidence showing that lncRNA also controls chromatin structure, including nucleosome positioning and chromosome looping. We focus on data from plant experimental systems, discussed in the context of other eukaryotes. We explain the mechanisms of lncRNA-controlled chromatin remodeling and the implications of the functional interplay between noncoding transcription and several different chromatin remodelers. We propose that the unique properties of RNA make it suitable for controlling chromatin modifications and structure.

Genome-wide analysis of chromatin packing in Arabidopsis thaliana at single-gene resolution

The three-dimensional packing of the genome plays an important role in regulating gene expression. We have used Hi-C, a genome-wide chromatin conformation capture (3C) method, to analyze Arabidopsis thaliana chromosomes dissected into subkilobase segments, which is required for gene-level resolution in this species with a gene-dense genome. We found that the repressive H3K27me3 histone mark is overrepresented in the promoter regions of genes that are in conformational linkage over long distances. In line with the globally dispersed distribution of RNA polymerase II in A. thaliana nuclear space, actively transcribed genes do not show a strong tendency to associate with each other. In general, there are often contacts between 5' and 3' ends of genes, forming local chromatin loops. Such self-loop structures of genes are more likely to occur in more highly expressed genes, although they can also be found in silent genes. Silent genes with local chromatin loops are highly enriched for the histone variant H3.3 at their 5' and 3' ends but depleted of repressive marks such as heterochromatic histone modifications and DNA methylation in flanking regions. Our results suggest that, different from animals, a major theme of genome folding in A. thaliana is the formation of structural units that correspond to gene bodies.

Put your 3D glasses on: plant chromatin is on show

The three-dimensional organization of the eukaryotic nucleus and its chromosomal conformation have emerged as important features in the complex network of mechanisms behind gene activity and genome connectivity dynamics, which can be evidenced in the regionalized chromosomal spatial distribution and the clustering of diverse genomic regions with similar expression patterns. The development of chromatin conformation capture (3C) techniques has permitted the elucidation of commonalities between the eukaryotic phyla, as well as important differences among them. The growing number of studies in the field performed in plants has shed light on the structural and regulatory features of these organisms. For instance, it has been proposed that plant chromatin can be arranged into different conformations such as Rabl, Rosette-like, and Bouquet, and that both short- and long-range chromatin interactions occur in Arabidopsis. In this review, we compile the current knowledge about chromosome architecture characteristics in plants, as well as the molecular events and elements (including long non-coding RNAs, histone and DNA modifications, chromatin remodeling complexes, and transcription factors) shaping the genome three-dimensional conformation. Furthermore, we discuss the developmental outputs of genome topology-mediated gene expression regulation. It is becoming increasingly clear that new tools and techniques with higher resolution need to be developed and implemented in Arabidopsis and other model plants in order to better understand chromosome architecture dynamics, from an integrative perspective with other fields of plant biology such as development, stress biology, and finally agriculture.

Parental epigenetic asymmetry of PRC2-mediated histone modifications in the Arabidopsis endosperm

Parental genomes in the endosperm are marked by differential DNA methylation and are therefore epigenetically distinct. This epigenetic asymmetry is established in the gametes and maintained after fertilization by unknown mechanisms. In this manuscript, we have addressed the key question whether parentally inherited differential DNA methylation affects de novo targeting of chromatin modifiers in the early endosperm. Our data reveal that polycomb-mediated H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) is preferentially localized to regions that are targeted by the DNA glycosylase DEMETER (DME), mechanistically linking DNA hypomethylation to imprinted gene expression. Our data furthermore suggest an absence of de novo DNA methylation in the early endosperm, providing an explanation how DME-mediated hypomethylation of the maternal genome is maintained after fertilization. Lastly, we show that paternal-specific H3K27me3-marked regions are located at pericentromeric regions, suggesting that H3K27me3 and DNA methylation are not necessarily exclusive marks at pericentromeric regions in the endosperm.

Time-dependent stabilization of the +1 nucleosome is an early step in the transition to stable cold-induced repression of FLC

In vernalized Arabidopsis, the extent of FLC repression and promotion of flowering are correlated with the length of winter (low temperature exposure), but how plants measure the duration of winter is unknown. Repression of FLC occurs in two phases: establishment and maintenance. This study investigates the early events in the transition between establishment and maintenance of repression. Initial repression was rapid but transient; within 24 h of being placed at low temperatures FLC transcription was reduced by 40% and repression was complete after 5 days in the cold. The extent to which repression was maintained depended on the length of the cold treatment. Occupancy of the +1 nucleosome in FLC chromatin increased in a time-dependent manner over a 4-week low temperature treatment concomitant with decreased histone acetylation and increased trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3). Mutant analyses showed that increased nucleosome occupancy occurred independent of histone deacetylation and increased H3K27me3, suggesting that it is an early step in the switch between transient and stable repression. Both altered histone composition and deacetylation contributed to increased nucleosome occupancy. The time-dependency of the steps required for the switch between transient and stable repression suggests that the duration of winter is measured by the chromatin state at FLC. A chromatin-based switch is consistent with finding that each FLC allele in a cell undergoes this transition independently.

JACALIN-LECTIN LIKE1 Regulates the Nuclear Accumulation of GLYCINE-RICH RNA-BINDING PROTEIN7, Influencing the RNA Processing of FLOWERING LOCUS C Antisense Transcripts and Flowering Time in Arabidopsis

Lectins selectively recognize sugars or glycans for defense in living cells, but less is known about their roles in the development process and the functional network with other factors. Here, we show that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) JACALIN-LECTIN LIKE1 (AtJAC1) functions in flowering time control. Loss of function of AtJAC1 leads to precocious flowering, whereas overexpression of AtJAC1 causes delayed flowering. AtJAC1 influences flowering through regulation of the key flowering repressor gene FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). Genetic analysis revealed that AtJAC1's function is mostly dependent on GLYCINE-RICH RNA-BINDING PROTEIN7 (GRP7), an upstream regulator of FLC. Biochemical and cell biological data indicated that AtJAC1 interacted physically with GRP7 specifically in the cytoplasm. AtJAC1 influences the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of GRP7, with predominant nuclear localization of GRP7 when AtJAC1 function is lost but retention of GRP7 in the cytoplasm when AtJAC1 is overexpressed. A temporal inducible assay suggested that AtJAC1's regulation of flowering could be compromised by the nuclear accumulation of GRP7. In addition, GRP7 binds to the antisense precursor messenger RNA of FLC through a conserved RNA motif. Loss of GRP7 function leads to the elevation of total FLC antisense transcripts and reduced proximal-distal polyadenylation ratio, as well as histone methylation changes in the FLC gene body region and increased total functional sense FLC transcript. Attenuating the direct binding of GRP7 with competing artificial RNAs leads to changes of FLC antisense precursor messenger RNA processing and flowering transition. Taken together, our study indicates that AtJAC1 coordinates with GRP7 in shaping plant development through the regulation of RNA processing in Arabidopsis.

A SWI/SNF Chromatin Remodelling Protein Controls Cytokinin Production through the Regulation of Chromatin Architecture

Chromatin architecture determines transcriptional accessibility to DNA and consequently gene expression levels in response to developmental and environmental stimuli. Recently, chromatin remodelers such as SWI/SNF complexes have been recognized as key regulators of chromatin architecture. To gain insight into the function of these complexes during root development, we have analyzed Arabidopsis knock-down lines for one sub-unit of SWI/SNF complexes: BAF60. Here, we show that BAF60 is a positive regulator of root development and cell cycle progression in the root meristem via its ability to down-regulate cytokinin production. By opposing both the deposition of active histone marks and the formation of a chromatin regulatory loop, BAF60 negatively regulates two crucial target genes for cytokinin biosynthesis (IPT3 and IPT7) and one cell cycle inhibitor (KRP7). Our results demonstrate that SWI/SNF complexes containing BAF60 are key factors governing the equilibrium between formation and dissociation of a chromatin loop controlling phytohormone production and cell cycle progression.

Long non-coding RNAs and their functions in plants

Eukaryotic genomes encode thousands of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), which play important roles in essential biological processes. Although lncRNAs function in the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments, most of them occur in the nucleus, often in association with chromatin. Indeed, many lncRNAs have emerged as key regulators of gene expression and genome stability. Emerging evidence also suggests that lncRNAs may contribute to the organization of nuclear domains. This review briefly summarizes the major types of eukaryotic lncRNAs and provides examples of their mechanisms of action, with focus on plant lncRNAs, mainly in Arabidopsis thaliana, and describes current advances in our understanding of the mechanisms of lncRNA action and the roles of lncRNAs in RNA-dependent DNA methylation and in the regulation of flowering time.

Molecular memories in the regulation of seasonal flowering: from competence to cessation

Plants commit to flowering based on endogenous and exogenous information that they can remember across mitotic cell divisions. Here, we review how signal perception and epigenetic memory converge at key integrator genes, and we show how variation in their regulatory circuits supports the diversity of plant lifestyles.

Genome architecture: from linear organisation of chromatin to the 3D assembly in the nucleus

The genetic information is stored in the eukaryotic nucleus in the form of chromatin. This is a macromolecular entity that includes genomic DNA and histone proteins that form nucleosomes, plus a large variety of chromatin-associated non-histone proteins. Chromatin is structurally and functionally organised at various levels. One reveals the linear topography of DNA, histones and their post-translational modifications and non-histone proteins along each chromosome. This level provides regulatory information about the association of genomic elements with particular signatures that have been used to define chromatin states. Importantly, these chromatin states correlate with structural and functional genomic features. Another regulatory layer is established at the level of the 3D organisation of chromatin within the nucleus, which has been revealed clearly as non-random. Instead, a variety of intra- and inter-chromosomal genomic domains with specific epigenetic and functional properties has been identified. In this review, we discuss how the recent advances in genomic approaches have contributed to our understanding of these two levels of genome architecture. We have emphasised our analysis with the aim of integrating information available for yeast, Arabidopsis, Drosophila, and mammalian cells. We consider that this comparative study helps define common and unique features in each system, providing a basis to better understand the complexity of genome organisation.

Red Light-Mediated Degradation of CONSTANS by the E3 Ubiquitin Ligase HOS1 Regulates Photoperiodic Flowering in Arabidopsis

The regulation of CONSTANS (CO) gene expression is crucial to accurately measure changes in daylength, which influences flowering time in Arabidopsis thaliana. CO expression is under both transcriptional and posttranslational control mechanisms. We previously showed that the E3 ubiquitin ligase HIGH EXPRESSION OF OSMOTICALLY RESPONSIVE GENES1 (HOS1) physically interacts with CO in Arabidopsis. This interaction is required to precisely modulate the timing of CO accumulation and, consequently, to maintain low levels of FLOWERING LOCUS T expression during the first part of the day. The data presented here demonstrate that HOS1 is involved in the red light-mediated degradation of CO that takes place in the early stages of the daylight period. Our results show that phytochrome B (phyB) is able to regulate flowering time, acting in the phloem companion cells, as previously described for CO and HOS1. Moreover, we reveal that phyB physically interacts with HOS1 and CO, indicating that the three proteins may be present in a complex in planta that is required to coordinate a correct photoperiodic response in Arabidopsis.

Chromatin in 3D: progress and prospects for plants

Methods that use high-throughput sequencing have begun to reveal features of the three-dimensional structure of genomes at a resolution that goes far beyond that of traditional microscopy. Integration of these methods with other molecular tools has advanced our knowledge of both global and local chromatin packing in plants, and has revealed how patterns of chromatin packing correlate with the genomic and epigenomic landscapes. This update reports recent progress made in this area in plants, and suggests new research directions.

Gene looping facilitates TFIIH kinase-mediated termination of transcription

TFIIH is a general transcription factor with kinase and helicase activities. The kinase activity resides in the Kin28 subunit of TFIIH. The role of Kin28 kinase in the early steps of transcription is well established. Here we report a novel role of Kin28 in the termination of transcription. We show that RNAPII reads through a termination signal upon kinase inhibition. Furthermore, the recruitment of termination factors towards the 3′ end of a gene was compromised in the kinase mutant, thus confirming the termination defect. A concomitant decrease in crosslinking of termination factors near the 5′ end of genes was also observed in the kinase-defective mutant. Simultaneous presence of termination factors towards both the ends of a gene is indicative of gene looping; while the loss of termination factor occupancy from the distal ends suggest the abolition of a looped gene conformation. Accordingly, CCC analysis revealed that the looped architecture of genes was severely compromised in the Kin28 kinase mutant. In a looping defective sua7-1 mutant, even the enzymatically active Kin28 kinase could not rescue the termination defect. These results strongly suggest a crucial role of Kin28 kinase-dependent gene looping in the termination of transcription in budding yeast.

Flowering Locus C's Lessons: Conserved Chromatin Switches Underpinning Developmental Timing and Adaptation

Analysis of how seasonal cues influence the timing of the floral transition has revealed many important principles for how epigenetic regulation can integrate a variety of environmental cues with developmental signals. The study of the pathways that necessitate overwintering in plants and their ability to respond to prolonged cold (the vernalization requirement and response pathways) has elaborated different chromatin regulatory pathways and the involvement of noncoding RNAs. The major target of these vernalization pathways in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) is Flowering Locus C (FLC). A relatively simple picture of FLC regulation is emerging of a few core complexes and mechanisms that antagonize each other's actions. This balance provides a fine degree of control that has nevertheless permitted evolution of a wide range of natural variation in vernalization in Arabidopsis. Similar simple routes of adaptation may underlie life history variation between species.

One, Two, Three: Polycomb Proteins Hit All Dimensions of Gene Regulation

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins contribute to the formation and maintenance of a specific repressive chromatin state that prevents the expression of genes in a particular space and time. Polycomb repressive complexes (PRCs) consist of several PcG proteins with specific regulatory or catalytic properties. PRCs are recruited to thousands of target genes, and various recruitment factors, including DNA-binding proteins and non-coding RNAs, are involved in the targeting. PcG proteins contribute to a multitude of biological processes by altering chromatin features at different scales. PcG proteins mediate both biochemical modifications of histone tails and biophysical modifications (e.g., chromatin fiber compaction and three-dimensional (3D) chromatin conformation). Here, we review the role of PcG proteins in nuclear architecture, describing their impact on the structure of the chromatin fiber, on chromatin interactions, and on the spatial organization of the genome in nuclei. Although little is known about the role of plant PcG proteins in nuclear organization, much is known in the animal field, and we highlight similarities and differences in the roles of PcG proteins in 3D gene regulation in plants and animals.

Roles and activities of chromatin remodeling ATPases in plants

Chromatin remodeling ATPases and their associated complexes can alter the accessibility of the genome in the context of chromatin by using energy derived from the hydrolysis of ATP to change the positioning, occupancy and composition of nucleosomes. In animals and plants, these remodelers have been implicated in diverse processes ranging from stem cell maintenance and differentiation to developmental phase transitions and stress responses. Detailed investigation of their roles in individual processes has suggested a higher level of selectivity of chromatin remodeling ATPase activity than previously anticipated, and diverse mechanisms have been uncovered that can contribute to the selectivity. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the roles and activities of chromatin remodeling ATPases in plants.