Experimental analysis of charge redistribution due to chemical bonding by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy

Imaging the potential distribution of individual charged impurities on graphene by low-energy electron holography

While imaging individual atoms can routinely be achieved in high resolution transmission electron microscopy, visualizing the potential distribution of individually charged adsorbates leading to a phase shift of the probing electron wave is still a challenging task. Low-energy electrons (30 - 250 eV) are sensitive to localized potential gradients. We employed low-energy electron holography to acquire in-line holograms of individual charged impurities on free-standing graphene. By applying an iterative phase retrieval reconstruction routine we recover the potential distribution of the localized charged impurities present on free-standing graphene.

Real-space mapping of electronic orbitals

Electronic states are responsible for most material properties, including chemical bonds, electrical and thermal conductivity, as well as optical and magnetic properties. Experimentally, however, they remain mostly elusive. Here, we report the real-space mapping of selected transitions between p and d states on the Ångström scale in bulk rutile (TiO2) using electron energy-loss spectrometry (EELS), revealing information on individual bonds between atoms. On the one hand, this enables the experimental verification of theoretical predictions about electronic states. On the other hand, it paves the way for directly investigating electronic states under conditions that are at the limit of the current capabilities of numerical simulations such as, e.g., the electronic states at defects, interfaces, and quantum dots.

Electric field imaging of single atoms

In scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), single atoms can be imaged by detecting electrons scattered through high angles using post-specimen, annular-type detectors. Recently, it has been shown that the atomic-scale electric field of both the positive atomic nuclei and the surrounding negative electrons within crystalline materials can be probed by atomic-resolution differential phase contrast STEM. Here we demonstrate the real-space imaging of the (projected) atomic electric field distribution inside single Au atoms, using sub-Å spatial resolution STEM combined with a high-speed segmented detector. We directly visualize that the electric field distribution (blurred by the sub-Å size electron probe) drastically changes within the single Au atom in a shape that relates to the spatial variation of total charge density within the atom. Atomic-resolution electric field mapping with single-atom sensitivity enables us to examine their detailed internal and boundary structures.

The ability of scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) to image single atoms is becoming increasingly sophisticated. Here, the authors use differential phase contrast STEM to map the atomic electric fields within single Au atoms and SrTiO₃ crystals, a step toward visualizing such intra- and interatomic electronic structure as chemical bonds.

Atomic Defects in Two-Dimensional Materials: From Single-Atom Spectroscopy to Functionalities in Opto-/Electronics, Nanomagnetism, and Catalysis

Two-dimensional layered graphene-like crystals including transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have received extensive research interest due to their diverse electronic, valleytronic, and chemical properties, with the corresponding optoelectronics and catalysis application being actively explored. However, the recent surge in two-dimensional materials science is accompanied by equally great challenges, such as defect engineering in large-scale sample synthesis. It is necessary to elucidate the effect of structural defects on the electronic properties in order to develop an application-specific strategy for defect engineering. Here, two aspects of the existing knowledge of native defects in two-dimensional crystals are reviewed. One is the point defects emerging in graphene and hexagonal boron nitride, as probed by atomically resolved electron microscopy, and their local electronic properties, as measured by single-atom electron energy-loss spectroscopy. The other will focus on the point defects in TMDs and their influence on the electronic structure, photoluminescence, and electric transport properties. This review of atomic defects in two-dimensional materials will offer a clear picture of the defect physics involved to demonstrate the local modulation of the electronic properties and possible benefits in potential applications in magnetism and catalysis.

Quantitative Agreement between Electron-Optical Phase Images of WSe_{2} and Simulations Based on Electrostatic Potentials that Include Bonding Effects

The quantitative analysis of electron-optical phase images recorded using off-axis electron holography often relies on the use of computer simulations of electron propagation through a sample. However, simulations that make use of the independent atom approximation are known to overestimate experimental phase shifts by approximately 10%, as they neglect bonding effects. Here, we compare experimental and simulated phase images for few-layer WSe_{2}. We show that a combination of pseudopotentials and all-electron density functional theory calculations can be used to obtain accurate mean electron phases, as well as improved atomic-resolution spatial distribution of the electron phase. The comparison demonstrates a perfect contrast match between experimental and simulated atomic-resolution phase images for a sample of precisely known thickness. The low computational cost of this approach makes it suitable for the analysis of large electronic systems, including defects, substitutional atoms, and material interfaces.

Facile preparation of sulphur-doped graphene quantum dots for ultra-high performance ultraviolet photodetectors

Sulphur-doped GQDs were prepared using a novel co-combustion method (T-X-J method), and ultra-high performance UV photodetectors based on S-GQDs were fabricated.

The Nature of Metastable AA' Graphite: Low Dimensional Nano- and Single-Crystalline Forms

Over the history of carbon, it is generally acknowledged that Bernal AB stacking of the sp² carbon layers is the unique crystalline form of graphite. The universal graphite structure is synthesized at 2,600~3,000 °C and exhibits a micro-polycrystalline feature. In this paper, we provide evidence for a metastable form of graphite with an AA' structure. The non-Bernal AA' allotrope of graphite is synthesized by the thermal- and plasma-treatment of graphene nanopowders at ~1,500 °C. The formation of AA' bilayer graphene nuclei facilitates the preferred texture growth and results in single-crystal AA' graphite in the form of nanoribbons (1D) or microplates (2D) of a few nm in thickness. Kinetically controlled AA' graphite exhibits unique nano- and single-crystalline feature and shows quasi-linear behavior near the K-point of the electronic band structure resulting in anomalous optical and acoustic phonon behavior.

Direct Intertube Cross-Linking of Carbon Nanotubes at Room Temperature

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have long been regarded as an efficient free radical scavenger because of the large-conjugation system in their electronic structures. Hence, despite abundant reports on CNT reacting with incoming free radical species, current research has not seen CNT itself displaying the chemical reactivity of free radicals. Here we show that reactive free radicals can in fact be generated on carbon nanotubes via reductive defluorination of highly fluorinated single-walled carbon nanotubes (FSWNTs). This finding not only enriches the current understanding of carbon nanotube chemical reactivity but also opens up new opportunities in CNT-based material design. For example, spacer-free direct intertube cross-linking of carbon nanotubes was previously achieved only under extremely high temperature and pressure or electron/ion beam irradiation. With the free radicals on defluorinated FSWNTs, the nanotubes containing multiple radicals on the sidewall can directly cross-link with each other under ambient temperature through intertube radical recombination. It is demonstrated that carbon nanotube fibers reinforced via direct cross-linking displays much improved mechanical properties.

Influence of oxygen on nitrogen-doped carbon nanofiber growth directly on nichrome foil

The synthesis of various nitrogen-doped (N-doped) carbon nanostructures has been significantly explored as an alternative material for energy storage and metal-free catalytic applications. Here, we reveal a direct growth technique of N-doped carbon nanofibers (CNFs) on flexible nichrome (NiCr) foil using melamine as a solid precursor. Highly reactive Cr plays a critical role in the nanofiber growth process on the metal alloy foil in an atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition (APCVD) process. Oxidation of Cr occurs in the presence of oxygen impurities, where Ni nanoparticles are formed on the surface and assist the growth of nanofibers. Energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) clearly show the transformation process of the NiCr foil surface with annealing in the presence of oxygen impurities. The structural change of NiCr foil assists one-dimensional (1D) CNF growth, rather than the lateral two-dimensional (2D) growth. The incorporation of distinctive graphitic and pyridinic nitrogen in the graphene lattice are observed in the synthesized nanofiber, owing to better nitrogen solubility. Our finding shows an effective approach for the synthesis of highly N-doped carbon nanostructures directly on Cr-based metal alloys for various applications.

Atomistic Interrogation of B-N Co-dopant Structures and Their Electronic Effects in Graphene

Chemical doping has been demonstrated to be an effective method for producing high-quality, large-area graphene with controlled carrier concentrations and an atomically tailored work function. The emergent optoelectronic properties and surface reactivity of carbon nanostructures are dictated by the microstructure of atomic dopants. Co-doping of graphene with boron and nitrogen offers the possibility to further tune the electronic properties of graphene at the atomic level, potentially creating p- and n-type domains in a single carbon sheet, opening a gap between valence and conduction bands in the 2-D semimetal. Using a suite of high-resolution synchrotron-based X-ray techniques, scanning tunneling microscopy, and density functional theory based computation we visualize and characterize B-N dopant bond structures and their electronic effects at the atomic level in single-layer graphene grown on a copper substrate. We find there is a thermodynamic driving force for B and N atoms to cluster into BNC structures in graphene, rather than randomly distribute into isolated B and N graphitic dopants, although under the present growth conditions, kinetics limit segregation of large B-N domains. We observe that the doping effect of these BNC structures, which open a small band gap in graphene, follows the B:N ratio (B > N, p-type; B < N, n-type; B═N, neutral). We attribute this to the comparable electron-withdrawing and -donating effects, respectively, of individual graphitic B and N dopants, although local electrostatics also play a role in the work function change.

Mapping Atomic Orbitals with the Transmission Electron Microscope: Images of Defective Graphene Predicted from First-Principles Theory

Transmission electron microscopy has been a promising candidate for mapping atomic orbitals for a long time. Here, we explore its capabilities by a first-principles approach. For the example of defected graphene, exhibiting either an isolated vacancy or a substitutional nitrogen atom, we show that three different kinds of images are to be expected, depending on the orbital character. To judge the feasibility of visualizing orbitals in a real microscope, the effect of the optics' aberrations is simulated. We demonstrate that, by making use of energy filtering, it should indeed be possible to map atomic orbitals in a state-of-the-art transmission electron microscope.

Tuning Chemical Potential Difference across Alternately Doped Graphene p-n Junctions for High-Efficiency Photodetection

Being atomically thin, graphene-based p-n junctions hold great promise for applications in ultrasmall high-efficiency photodetectors. It is well-known that the efficiency of such photodetectors can be improved by optimizing the chemical potential difference of the graphene p-n junction. However, to date, such tuning has been limited to a few hundred millielectronvolts. To improve this critical parameter, here we report that using a temperature-controlled chemical vapor deposition process, we successfully achieved modulation-doped growth of an alternately nitrogen- and boron-doped graphene p-n junction with a tunable chemical potential difference up to 1 eV. Furthermore, such p-n junction structure can be prepared on a large scale with stable, uniform, and substitutional doping and exhibits a single-crystalline nature. This work provides a feasible method for synthesizing low-cost, large-scale, high efficiency graphene p-n junctions, thus facilitating their applications in optoelectronic and energy conversion devices.

Atomic resolved phase map of monolayer MoS2 retrieved by spherical aberration-corrected transport of intensity equation

An atomic resolution phase map, which enables us to observe charge distribution or magnetic properties at an atomic scale, has been pointed out to be retrieved by transport of intensity equation (TIE) when taking two atomic-resolved transmission electron microscope (TEM) images of small defocus difference. In this work, we firstly obtained the atomic-resolved phase maps of an exfoliated molybdenum disulfide sheet using spherical aberration-corrected transmission electron microscope. We successfully observed 60° grain boundary of mechanically exfoliated monolayer molybdenum disulfide sheet. The relative phase shift of a single molybdenum atomic column to the column consisting of two sulfur atoms was obtained to be about 0.01 rad on average, which was about half lower than the simulated TIE phase map, indicating that the individual atomic sites can be distinguished qualitatively. The appropriate condition for retrieving atomic-resolved TIE phase maps was briefly discussed.

Metal-free Nanoporous Carbon as a Catalyst for Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 to CO and CH4

S-doped and dual S,N-doped polymer-derived carbons were studied as electrocatalysts for the reduction of CO2. Higher Faradaic efficiencies for conversion to CO and CH4 were obtained for S,N-doped carbon than its S-doped counterpart. The former showed a maximum Faradaic efficiency of 11.3% for CO and 0.18% for CH4 formation. The S,N-nanoporous carbon was better at decreasing the overpotential of the reduction process. The pyridinic nitrogen groups were found to be actively participating in binding CO2. The quaternary nitrogen and thiophenic groups were also involved in the reduction process. It is proposed that the positively charged sites on the carbon atoms, adjacent to pyridinic nitrogen, stabilize the CO2(.-) and COOH* intermediates, promoting the formation of CO. The surface basicity of the catalysts improved the CO2 reduction selectivity when competing with H2 evolution. N2 adsorption measurements suggested that ultra-micropores enhance the reduction of CO2 to CH4.

TiC2: a new two-dimensional sheet beyond MXenes

MXenes are attracting attention due to their rich chemistry and intriguing properties. Here a new type of metal-carbon-based sheet composed of transition metal centers and C2 dimers rather than individual C atom is designed. Taking the Ti system as a test case, density functional theory calculations combined with a thermodynamic analysis uncover the thermal and dynamic stability of the sheet, as well as a metallic band structure, anisotropic Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, a high heat capacity, and a large Debye stiffness. Moreover, the TiC2 sheet has an excellent Li storage capacity with a small migration barrier, a lower mass density compared with standard MXenes, and better chemical stability as compared to the MXene Ti2C sheet. When Ti is replaced with other transition metal centers, diverse new MC2 sheets containing C=C dimers can be formed, the properties of which merit further investigation.

N-doped zeolite-templated carbon as a metal-free electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction

Nitrogen-doped zeolite-templated carbon having 3-dimensionally microporous structure exhibited low surface work function and high catalytic performance for oxygen reduction.

Computation in electron microscopy

Some uses of the computer and computation in high-resolution transmission electron microscopy are reviewed. The theory of image calculation using Bloch wave and multislice methods with and without aberration correction is reviewed and some applications are discussed. The inverse problem of reconstructing the specimen structure from an experimentally measured electron microscope image is discussed. Some future directions of software development are given.

Stability, electronic structure and magnetic properties of vacancy and nonmetallic atom-doped buckled arsenene: first-principles study

A doping C, Si, O and S can induce the magnetic moments of 1.0μ_Bin buckled arsenene, while the substitutional doping of H, F, B, N and P can not produce the magnetism.

Structural and Chemical Dynamics of Pyridinic-Nitrogen Defects in Graphene

High density and controllable nitrogen doping in graphene is a critical issue to realize high performance graphene-based devices. In this paper, we demonstrate an efficient method to selectively produce graphitic-N and pyridinic-N defects in graphene by using the mixture plasma of ozone and nitrogen. The atomic structure, electronic structure, and dynamic behavior of these nitrogen defects are systematically studied at the atomic level by using a scanning transmission electron microscopy. The pyridinic-N exhibits higher chemical activity and tends to trap a series of transition metal atoms (Mg, Al, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, and Fe) as individual atoms.

Ultrasensitive gas detection of large-area boron-doped graphene

Heteroatom doping is an efficient way to modify the chemical and electronic properties of graphene. In particular, boron doping is expected to induce a p-type (boron)-conducting behavior to pristine (nondoped) graphene, which could lead to diverse applications. However, the experimental progress on atomic scale visualization and sensing properties of large-area boron-doped graphene (BG) sheets is still very scarce. This work describes the controlled growth of centimeter size, high-crystallinity BG sheets. Scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy are used to visualize the atomic structure and the local density of states around boron dopants. It is confirmed that BG behaves as a p-type conductor and a unique croissant-like feature is frequently observed within the BG lattice, which is caused by the presence of boron-carbon trimers embedded within the hexagonal lattice. More interestingly, it is demonstrated for the first time that BG exhibits unique sensing capabilities when detecting toxic gases, such as NO2 and NH3, being able to detect extremely low concentrations (e.g., parts per trillion, parts per billion). This work envisions that other attractive applications could now be explored based on as-synthesized BG.

Charge transfer and electronic doping in nitrogen-doped graphene

Understanding the modification of the graphene’s electronic structure upon doping is crucial for enlarging its potential applications. We present a study of nitrogen-doped graphene samples on SiC(000) combining angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The comparison between tunneling and angle-resolved photoelectron spectra reveals the spatial inhomogeneity of the Dirac energy shift and that a phonon correction has to be applied to the tunneling measurements. XPS data demonstrate the dependence of the N 1s binding energy of graphitic nitrogen on the nitrogen concentration. The measure of the Dirac energy for different nitrogen concentrations reveals that the ratio usually computed between the excess charge brought by the dopants and the dopants’ concentration depends on the latter. This is supported by a tight-binding model considering different values for the potentials on the nitrogen site and on its first neighbors.

Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Boron and Nitrogen co-doped Reduced Graphene Oxide for the Protection of Electromagnetic Radiation in Ku-Band

The electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding of reduced graphene oxide (MRG), B-doped MRG (B-MRG), N-doped MRG (N-MRG), and B-N co-doped MRG (B-N-MRG) have been studied in the Ku-band frequency range (12.8-18 GHz). We have developed a green, fast, and cost-effective microwave assisted route for synthesis of doped MRG. B-N-MRG shows high electrical conductivity in comparison to MRG, B-MRG and N-MRG, which results better electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding ability. The co-doping of B and N significantly enhances the electrical conductivity of MRG from 21.4 to 124.4 Sm(-1) because N introduces electrons and B provides holes in the system and may form a nanojunction inside the material. Their temperature-dependent electrical conductivity follows 2D-variable range hopping (2D-VRH) and Efros-Shklovskii-VRH (ES-VRH) conduction model in a low temperature range (T<50 K). The spatial configuration of MRG after doping of B and N enhances the space charge polarization, natural resonance, dielectric polarization, and trapping of EM waves by internal reflection leading to a high EMI shielding of -42 dB (∼99.99% attenuation) compared to undoped MRG (-28 dB) at a critical thickness of 1.2 mm. Results suggest that the B-N-MRG has great potential as a candidate for a new type of EMI shielding material useful in aircraft, defense industries, communication systems, and stealth technology.

Nitrogen Doping Enables Covalent-Like π-π Bonding between Graphenes

The neighboring layers in bilayer (and few-layer) graphenes of both AA and AB stacking motifs are known to be separated at a distance corresponding to van der Waals (vdW) interactions. In this Letter, we present for the first time a new aspect of graphene chemistry in terms of a special chemical bonding between the giant graphene "molecules". Through rigorous theoretical calculations, we demonstrate that the N-doped graphenes (NGPs) with various doping levels can form an unusual two-dimensional (2D) π-π bonding in bilayer NGPs bringing the neighboring NGPs to significantly reduced interlayer separations. The interlayer binding energies can be enhanced by up to 50% compared to the pristine graphene bilayers that are characterized by only vdW interactions. Such an unusual chemical bonding arises from the π-π overlap across the vdW gap while the individual layers maintain their in-plane π-conjugation and are accordingly planar. The existence of the resulting interlayer covalent-like bonding is corroborated by electronic structure calculations and crystal orbital overlap population (COOP) analyses. In NGP-based graphite with the optimal doping level, the NGP layers are uniformly stacked and the 3D bulk exhibits metallic characteristics both in the in-plane and along the stacking directions.

Enhanced Shubnikov-De Haas Oscillation in Nitrogen-Doped Graphene

N-doped graphene displays many interesting properties compared with pristine graphene, which makes it a potential candidate in many applications. Here, we report that the Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) oscillation effect in graphene can be enhanced by N-doping. We show that the amplitude of the SdH oscillation increases with N-doping and reaches around 5k Ω under a field of 14 T at 10 K for highly N-doped graphene, which is over 1 order of magnitude larger than the value found for pristine graphene devices with the same geometry. Moreover, in contrast to the well-established standard Lifshitz-Kosevich theory, the amplitude of the SdH oscillation decreases linearly with increasing temperature and persists up to a temperature of 150 K. Our results also show that the magnetoresistance (MR) in N-doped graphene increases with increasing temperature. Our results may be useful for the application of N-doped graphene in magnetic devices.

A matter of quantum voltages

Voltages inside matter are relevant to crystallization, materials science, biology, catalysis, and aqueous chemistry. The variation of voltages in matter can be measured by experiment, however, modern supercomputers allow the calculation of accurate quantum voltages with spatial resolutions of bulk systems well beyond what can currently be measured provided a sufficient level of theory is employed. Of particular interest is the Mean Inner Potential (V(o))--the spatial average of these quantum voltages referenced to the vacuum. Here we establish a protocol to reliably evaluate V(o) from quantum calculations. Voltages are very sensitive to the distribution of electrons and provide metrics to understand interactions in condensed phases. In the present study, we find excellent agreement with measurements of V(o) for vitrified water and salt crystals and demonstrate the impact of covalent and ionic bonding as well as intermolecular/atomic interactions. Certain aspects in this regard are highlighted making use of simple model systems/approximations. Furthermore, we predict V(o) as well as the fluctuations of these voltages in aqueous NaCl electrolytes and characterize the changes in their behavior as the resolution increases below the size of atoms.

Nitrogen segregation in nanocarbons

We explore the behaviour of nitrogen doping in carbon nanomaterials, notably graphene, nanotubes, and carbon thin films. This is initially via a brief review of the literature, followed by a series of atomistic density functional calculations. We show that at low concentrations, substitutional nitrogen doping in the sp(2)-C graphenic basal plane is favoured, however once the nitrogen concentration reaches a critical threshold there is a transition towards the formation of the more thermodynamically-favoured nitrogen terminated 'zigzag' type edges. These can occur either via formation of finite patches (polycyclic aromatic azacarbons), strips of sp(2) carbon with zigzag nitrogen edges, or internal nitrogen-terminated hole edges within graphenic planes. This transition to edge formation is especially favoured when the nitrogen can be partially functionalised with, e.g. hydrogen. By comparison with available literature results, notably from electron energy loss spectroscopy and X-ray spectroscopy, the current results suggest that much of the nitrogen believed to be incorporated into carbon nanoobjects is instead likely to be present terminating the edges of carbonaceous impurities attached to nanoobject's surface. By comparison to nitrogen-doped tetrahedrally amorphous carbon, we suggest that this transition at around 10-20% nitrogen concentration and above towards sp(2) coordination via internal nitrogen-terminated edge formation may be a general property of nitrogen-doped carbon materials.

Dopant segregation in polycrystalline monolayer graphene

Heterogeneity in dopant concentration has long been important to the electronic properties in chemically doped materials. In this work, we experimentally demonstrate that during the chemical vapor deposition process, in contrast to three-dimensional polycrystals, the substitutional nitrogen atoms avoid crystal grain boundaries and edges over micron length scales while distributing uniformly in the interior of each grain. This phenomenon is universally observed independent of the details of the growth procedure such as temperature, pressure, substrate, and growth precursor.

Determining charge state of graphene vacancy by noncontact atomic force microscopy and first-principles calculations

Graphene vacancies are engineered for novel functionalities, however, the charge state of these defects, the key parameter that is vital to charge transfer during chemical reactions and carrier scattering, is generally unknown. Here, we carried out atomic resolution imaging of graphene vacancy defects created by Ar plasma using noncontact atomic force microscopy, and made the first determination of their charge state by local contact potential difference measurements. Combined with density functional theory calculations, we show that graphene vacancies are typically positively charged, with size-dependent charge states that are not necessarily integer-valued. These findings provide new insights into carrier scattering by vacancy defects in graphene, as well as its functionalization for chemical sensing and catalysis, and underline the tunability of these functions by controlling the size of vacancy defect.

Raman spectroscopy and in situ Raman spectroelectrochemistry of isotopically engineered graphene systems

CONSPECTUS: The special properties of graphene offer immense opportunities for applications to many scientific fields, as well as societal needs, beyond our present imagination. One of the important features of graphene is the relatively simple tunability of its electronic structure, an asset that extends the usability of graphene even further beyond present experience. A direct injection of charge carriers into the conduction or valence bands, that is, doping, represents a viable way of shifting the Fermi level. In particular, electrochemical doping should be the method of choice, when higher doping levels are desired and when a firm control of experimental conditions is needed. In this Account, we focus on the electrochemistry of graphene in combination with in situ Raman spectroscopy, that is, in situ Raman spectroelectrochemistry. Such a combination of methods is indeed very powerful, since Raman spectroscopy not only can readily monitor the changes in the doping level but also can give information on eventual stress or disorder in the material. However, when Raman spectroscopy is employed, one of its main strengths lies in the utilization of isotope engineering during the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) growth of the graphene samples. The in situ Raman spectroelectrochemical study of multilayered systems with smartly designed isotope compositions in individual layers can provide a plethora of knowledge about the mutual interactions (i) between the graphene layers themselves, (ii) between graphene layers and their directly adjacent environment (e.g., substrate or electrolyte), and (iii) between graphene layers and their extended environment, which is separated from the layer by a certain number of additional graphene layers. In this Account, we show a few examples of such studies, from monolayer to two-layer and three-layer specimens and considering both turbostratic and AB interlayer ordering. Furthermore, the concept and the method can be extended further beyond the three-layer systems, for example, to heterostructures containing other 2-D materials beyond graphene. Despite a great deal of important results being unraveled so far through the in situ spectroelectrochemistry of graphene based systems, many intriguing challenges still lie immediately ahead. For example, apart from the aforementioned 2-D heterostructures, a substantial effort should be put into a more detailed exploration of misoriented (twisted) bilayer or trilayer graphenes. Marching from the oriented, AB-stacked to AA-stacked, bilayers, every single angular increment of the twist between the layers creates a new system in terms of its electronic properties. Mapping those properties and interlayer interactions dependent on the twist angle represents a sizable task, yet the reward might be the path toward the realization of various types of advanced devices. And last but not least, understanding the electrochemistry of graphene paves the way toward a controlled and targeted functionalization of graphene through redox reactions, especially when equipped with the possibility of an instantaneous monitoring of the thus introduced changes to the electronic structure of the system.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of graphitic carbon nanomaterials doped with heteroatoms

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is one of the best tools for studying the chemical modification of surfaces, and in particular the distribution and bonding of heteroatom dopants in carbon nanomaterials such as graphene and carbon nanotubes. Although these materials have superb intrinsic properties, these often need to be modified in a controlled way for specific applications. Towards this aim, the most studied dopants are neighbors to carbon in the periodic table, nitrogen and boron, with phosphorus starting to emerge as an interesting new alternative. Hundreds of studies have used XPS for analyzing the concentration and bonding of dopants in various materials. Although the majority of works has concentrated on nitrogen, important work is still ongoing to identify its precise atomic bonding configurations. In general, care should be taken in the preparation of a suitable sample, consideration of the intrinsic photoemission response of the material in question, and the appropriate spectral analysis. If this is not the case, incorrect conclusions can easily be drawn, especially in the assignment of measured binding energies into specific atomic configurations. Starting from the characteristics of pristine materials, this review provides a practical guide for interpreting X-ray photoelectron spectra of doped graphitic carbon nanomaterials, and a reference for their binding energies that are vital for compositional analysis via XPS.

Implantation and atomic-scale investigation of self-interstitials in graphene

Crystallographic defects play a key role in determining the properties of crystalline materials. The new class of two-dimensional materials, foremost graphene, have enabled atomically resolved studies of defects, such as vacancies,1-4 grain boundaries,(5-7) dislocations,(8,9) and foreign atom substitutions.(10-14) However, atomic resolution imaging of implanted self-interstitials has so far been reported neither in any three-dimensional nor in any two-dimensional material. Here, we deposit extra carbon into single-layer graphene at soft landing energies of ∼ 1 eV using a standard carbon coater. We identify all the self-interstitial dimer structures theoretically predicted earlier,(15-17) employing 80 kV aberration-corrected high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. We demonstrate accumulation of the interstitials into larger aggregates and dislocation dipoles, which we predict to have strong local curvature by atomistic modeling, and to be energetically favorable configurations as compared to isolated interstitial dimers. Our results contribute to the basic knowledge on crystallographic defects and lay out a pathway into engineering the properties of graphene by pushing the crystal into a state of metastable supersaturation.

Transmission electron microscopy of thiol-capped Au clusters on C: Structure and electron irradiation effects

High-resolution transmission electron microscopy is used to study interactions between thiol-capped Au clusters and amorphous C support films. The morphologies of the clusters are found to depend both on their size and on the local structure of the underlying C. When the C is amorphous, larger Au clusters are crystalline, while smaller clusters are typically disordered. When the C is graphitic, the Au particles adopt either elongated shapes that maximize their contact with the edge of the C film or planar arrays when they contain few Au atoms. We demonstrate the influence of electron beam irradiation on the structure, shape and stability of the Au clusters, as well as on the formation of holes bounded by terraces of graphitic lamellae in the underlying C.

How Much N-Doping Can Graphene Sustain?

Doped, substituted, or alloyed graphene is an attractive candidate for use as a tunable element of future nanomechanical and optoelectronic devices. Here we use the density functional theory, density functional tight binding, cluster expansion, and molecular dynamics to investigate the thermal stability and electronic properties of a binary 2D alloy of graphitic carbon and nitrogen (C(1-x)N(x)). The stability range naturally begins from graphene and must end before x = 1, where pure nitrogen rather forms molecular gas. This poses a compelling question of what highest x < 1 still permits stable 2D hexagonal lattice. Such upper limit on the nitrogen concentration that is achievable in a stable alloy can be found based on the phonon and molecular dynamics calculations. The stability switchover is predicted to between x = 1/3 (33.3%) and x = 3/8 (37.5%), and no stable hexagonal lattice two-dimensional CN alloys can exist at the N concentration of x = 3/8 (37.5%) and higher.

A first-principles study on the magnetic properties of nonmetal atom doped phosphorene monolayers

Substitutional doping of C, O, Si, S and Se atoms can induce the magnetic moment in phosphorene monolayers.

Charge transfer, bonding conditioning and solvation effect in the activation of the oxygen reduction reaction on unclustered graphitic-nitrogen-doped graphene

Under certain conditions and on specific sites the monodentate associative chemisorption of molecular oxygen on graphitic-nitrogen-doped graphene would be favorable.

Atomic electric fields revealed by a quantum mechanical approach to electron picodiffraction

By focusing electrons on probes with a diameter of 50 pm, aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) is currently crossing the border to probing subatomic details. A major challenge is the measurement of atomic electric fields using differential phase contrast (DPC) microscopy, traditionally exploiting the concept of a field-induced shift of diffraction patterns. Here we present a simplified quantum theoretical interpretation of DPC. This enables us to calculate the momentum transferred to the STEM probe from diffracted intensities recorded on a pixel array instead of conventional segmented bright-field detectors. The methodical development yielding atomic electric field, charge and electron density is performed using simulations for binary GaN as an ideal model system. We then present a detailed experimental study of SrTiO3 yielding atomic electric fields, validated by comprehensive simulations. With this interpretation and upgraded instrumentation, STEM is capable of quantifying atomic electric fields and high-contrast imaging of light atoms.

Stability and spectroscopy of single nitrogen dopants in graphene at elevated temperatures

Single nitrogen (N) dopants in graphene are investigated using atomic-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) combined with electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). Using an in situ heating holder at 500 °C provided us with clean graphene surfaces, and we demonstrate that isolated N substitutional atoms remain localized and stable in the graphene lattice even during local sp(2) bond reconstruction. The high stability of isolated N dopants enabled us to acquire 2D EELS maps with simultaneous ADF-STEM images to map out the local bonding variations. We show that a substitutional N dopant causes changes in the EELS of the carbon (C) atoms it is directly bonded to. An upshift in the π* peak of the C K-edge EELS of ∼0.5 eV is resolved and supported by density functional theory simulations.

Direct in situ observations of single Fe atom catalytic processes and anomalous diffusion at graphene edges

Single-atom catalysts are of great interest because of their high efficiency. In the case of chemically deposited sp(2) carbon, the implementation of a single transition metal atom for growth can provide crucial insight into the formation mechanisms of graphene and carbon nanotubes. This knowledge is particularly important if we are to overcome fabrication difficulties in these materials and fully take advantage of their distinct band structures and physical properties. In this work, we present atomically resolved transmission EM in situ investigations of single Fe atoms at graphene edges. Our in situ observations show individual iron atoms diffusing along an edge either removing or adding carbon atoms (viz., catalytic action). The experimental observations of the catalytic behavior of a single Fe atom are in excellent agreement with supporting theoretical studies. In addition, the kinetics of Fe atoms at graphene edges are shown to exhibit anomalous diffusion, which again, is in agreement with our theoretical investigations.

Atomic configuration of nitrogen-doped single-walled carbon nanotubes

Having access to the chemical environment at the atomic level of a dopant in a nanostructure is crucial for the understanding of its properties. We have performed atomically resolved electron energy-loss spectroscopy to detect individual nitrogen dopants in single-walled carbon nanotubes and compared with first-principles calculations. We demonstrate that nitrogen doping occurs as single atoms in different bonding configurations: graphitic-like and pyrrolic-like substitutional nitrogen neighboring local lattice distortion such as Stone-Thrower-Wales defects. We also show that the largest fraction of nitrogen amount is found in poly aromatic species that are adsorbed on the surface of the nanotube walls. The stability under the electron beam of these nanotubes has been studied in two different cases of nitrogen incorporation content and configuration. These findings provide key information for the applications of these nanostructures.

Solving protein nanocrystals by cryo-EM diffraction: multiple scattering artifacts

The maximum thickness permissible within the single-scattering approximation for the determination of the structure of perfectly ordered protein microcrystals by transmission electron diffraction is estimated for tetragonal hen-egg lysozyme protein crystals using several approaches. Multislice simulations are performed for many diffraction conditions and beam energies to determine the validity domain of the required single-scattering approximation and hence the limit on crystal thickness. The effects of erroneous experimental structure factor amplitudes on the charge density map for lysozyme are noted and their threshold limits calculated. The maximum thickness of lysozyme permissible under the single-scattering approximation is also estimated using R-factor analysis. Successful reconstruction of density maps is found to result mainly from the use of the phase information provided by modeling based on the protein data base through molecular replacement (MR), which dominates the effect of poor quality electron diffraction data at thicknesses larger than about 200 Å. For perfectly ordered protein nanocrystals, a maximum thickness of about 1000 Å is predicted at 200 keV if MR can be used, using R-factor analysis performed over a subset of the simulated diffracted beams. The effects of crystal bending, mosaicity (which has recently been directly imaged by cryo-EM) and secondary scattering are discussed. Structure-independent tests for single-scattering and new microfluidic methods for growing and sorting nanocrystals by size are reviewed.

Polycrystalline graphene and other two-dimensional materials

Graphene, a single atomic layer of graphitic carbon, has attracted intense attention because of its extraordinary properties that make it a suitable material for a wide range of technological applications. Large-area graphene films, which are necessary for industrial applications, are typically polycrystalline - that is, composed of single-crystalline grains of varying orientation joined by grain boundaries. Here, we present a review of the large body of research reported in the past few years on polycrystalline graphene. We discuss its growth and formation, the microscopic structure of grain boundaries and their relations to other types of topological defect such as dislocations. The Review further covers electronic transport, optical and mechanical properties pertaining to the characterizations of grain boundaries, and applications of polycrystalline graphene. We also discuss research, still in its infancy, performed on other two-dimensional materials such as transition metal dichalcogenides, and offer perspectives for future directions of research.