51
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Villacorta-Atienza JA, Calvo Tapia C, Díez-Hermano S, Sánchez-Jiménez A, Lobov S, Krilova N, Murciano A, López-Tolsa GE, Pellón R, Makarov VA. Static internal representation of dynamic situations reveals time compaction in human cognition. J Adv Res 2020; 28:111-125. [PMID: 33364049 PMCID: PMC7753960 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2020.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction The human brain has evolved under the constraint of survival in complex dynamic situations. It makes fast and reliable decisions based on internal representations of the environment. Whereas neural mechanisms involved in the internal representation of space are becoming known, entire spatiotemporal cognition remains a challenge. Growing experimental evidence suggests that brain mechanisms devoted to spatial cognition may also participate in spatiotemporal information processing. Objectives The time compaction hypothesis postulates that the brain represents both static and dynamic situations as purely static maps. Such an internal reduction of the external complexity allows humans to process time-changing situations in real-time efficiently. According to time compaction, there may be a deep inner similarity between the representation of conventional static and dynamic visual stimuli. Here, we test the hypothesis and report the first experimental evidence of time compaction in humans. Methods We engaged human subjects in a discrimination-learning task consisting in the classification of static and dynamic visual stimuli. When there was a hidden correspondence between static and dynamic stimuli due to time compaction, the learning performance was expected to be modulated. We studied such a modulation experimentally and by a computational model. Results The collected data validated the predicted learning modulation and confirmed that time compaction is a salient cognitive strategy adopted by the human brain to process time-changing situations. Mathematical modelling supported the finding. We also revealed that men are more prone to exploit time compaction in accordance with the context of the hypothesis as a cognitive basis for survival. Conclusions The static internal representation of dynamic situations is a human cognitive mechanism involved in decision-making and strategy planning to cope with time-changing environments. The finding opens a new venue to understand how humans efficiently interact with our dynamic world and thrive in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Antonio Villacorta-Atienza
- B.E.E. Department, Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.,Institute of Interdisciplinary Mathematics, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Calvo Tapia
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Mathematics, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
| | - Sergio Díez-Hermano
- B.E.E. Department, Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
| | - Abel Sánchez-Jiménez
- B.E.E. Department, Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.,Institute of Interdisciplinary Mathematics, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
| | - Sergey Lobov
- Neural Network Technologies Lab, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - Nadia Krilova
- Neural Network Technologies Lab, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
| | - Antonio Murciano
- B.E.E. Department, Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
| | - Gabriela E López-Tolsa
- Department of Basic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, National Distance Education University, Spain
| | - Ricardo Pellón
- Department of Basic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, National Distance Education University, Spain
| | - Valeri A Makarov
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Mathematics, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.,Neural Network Technologies Lab, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
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52
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Yilmaz Balban M, Cafaro E, Saue-Fletcher L, Washington MJ, Bijanzadeh M, Lee AM, Chang EF, Huberman AD. Human Responses to Visually Evoked Threat. Curr Biol 2020; 31:601-612.e3. [PMID: 33242389 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2020.11.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Vision is the primary sense humans use to evaluate and respond to threats. Understanding the biological underpinnings of the human threat response has been hindered by lack of realistic in-lab threat paradigms. We established an immersive virtual reality (VR) platform to simultaneously measure behavior, physiological state, and neural activity from the human brain using chronically implanted electrodes. Subjects with high anxiety showed increased visual scanning in response to threats as compared to healthy controls. In both healthy and anxious subjects, the amount of scanning behavior correlated with the magnitude of physiological arousal, suggesting that visual scanning behavior is directly linked to internal state. Intracranial electroencephalography (iEEG) recordings from three subjects suggested that high-frequency gamma activity in the insula positively correlates with physiological arousal induced by visual threats and that low-frequency theta activity in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) negatively correlates with physiological arousal induced by visual threats. These findings reveal a key role of eye movements and suggest that distinct insula and OFC activation dynamics may be important for detecting and adjusting human stress in response to visually perceived threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melis Yilmaz Balban
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Erin Cafaro
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Lauren Saue-Fletcher
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Marlon J Washington
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Maryam Bijanzadeh
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - A Moses Lee
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Edward F Chang
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Andrew D Huberman
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; BioX, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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53
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Hur J, Smith JF, DeYoung KA, Anderson AS, Kuang J, Kim HC, Tillman RM, Kuhn M, Fox AS, Shackman AJ. Anxiety and the Neurobiology of Temporally Uncertain Threat Anticipation. J Neurosci 2020; 40:7949-7964. [PMID: 32958570 PMCID: PMC7548695 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0704-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
When extreme, anxiety-a state of distress and arousal prototypically evoked by uncertain danger-can be debilitating. Uncertain anticipation is a shared feature of situations that elicit signs and symptoms of anxiety across psychiatric disorders, species, and assays. Despite the profound significance of anxiety for human health and wellbeing, the neurobiology of uncertain-threat anticipation remains unsettled. Leveraging a paradigm adapted from animal research and optimized for fMRI signal decomposition, we examined the neural circuits engaged during the anticipation of temporally uncertain and certain threat in 99 men and women. Results revealed that the neural systems recruited by uncertain and certain threat anticipation are anatomically colocalized in frontocortical regions, extended amygdala, and periaqueductal gray. Comparison of the threat conditions demonstrated that this circuitry can be fractionated, with frontocortical regions showing relatively stronger engagement during the anticipation of uncertain threat, and the extended amygdala showing the reverse pattern. Although there is widespread agreement that the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and dorsal amygdala-the two major subdivisions of the extended amygdala-play a critical role in orchestrating adaptive responses to potential danger, their precise contributions to human anxiety have remained contentious. Follow-up analyses demonstrated that these regions show statistically indistinguishable responses to temporally uncertain and certain threat anticipation. These observations provide a framework for conceptualizing anxiety and fear, for understanding the functional neuroanatomy of threat anticipation in humans, and for accelerating the development of more effective intervention strategies for pathological anxiety.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Anxiety-an emotion prototypically associated with the anticipation of uncertain harm-has profound significance for public health, yet the underlying neurobiology remains unclear. Leveraging a novel neuroimaging paradigm in a relatively large sample, we identify a core circuit responsive to both uncertain and certain threat anticipation, and show that this circuitry can be fractionated into subdivisions with a bias for one kind of threat or the other. The extended amygdala occupies center stage in neuropsychiatric models of anxiety, but its functional architecture has remained contentious. Here we demonstrate that its major subdivisions show statistically indistinguishable responses to temporally uncertain and certain threat. Collectively, these observations indicate the need to revise how we think about the neurobiology of anxiety and fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juyoen Hur
- Department of Psychology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | - Allegra S Anderson
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37240
| | - Jinyi Kuang
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Hyung Cho Kim
- Departments of Psychology
- Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program
| | | | - Manuel Kuhn
- Center for Depression, Anxiety and Stress Research, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts 02478
| | - Andrew S Fox
- Department of Psychology
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California 95616
| | - Alexander J Shackman
- Departments of Psychology
- Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program
- Maryland Neuroimaging Center, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742
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54
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Allen TA, Schreiber AM, Hall NT, Hallquist MN. From Description to Explanation: Integrating Across Multiple Levels of Analysis to Inform Neuroscientific Accounts of Dimensional Personality Pathology. J Pers Disord 2020; 34:650-676. [PMID: 33074057 PMCID: PMC7583665 DOI: 10.1521/pedi.2020.34.5.650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dimensional approaches to psychiatric nosology are rapidly transforming the way researchers and clinicians conceptualize personality pathology, leading to a growing interest in describing how individuals differ from one another. Yet, in order to successfully prevent and treat personality pathology, it is also necessary to explain the sources of these individual differences. The emerging field of personality neuroscience is well-positioned to guide the transition from description to explanation within personality pathology research. However, establishing comprehensive, mechanistic accounts of personality pathology will require personality neuroscientists to move beyond atheoretical studies that link trait differences to neural correlates without considering the algorithmic processes that are carried out by those correlates. We highlight some of the dangers we see in overpopulating personality neuroscience with brain-trait associational studies and offer a series of recommendations for personality neuroscientists seeking to build explanatory theories of personality pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nathan T. Hall
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University
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55
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Vieira JB, Schellhaas S, Enström E, Olsson A. Help or flight? Increased threat imminence promotes defensive helping in humans. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201473. [PMID: 32842931 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In humans and other mammals, defensive responses to danger vary with threat imminence, but it is unknown how those responses affect decisions to help conspecifics. Here, we manipulated threat imminence to investigate the impact of different defensive states on human helping behaviour. Ninety-eight healthy adult participants made trial-by-trial decisions about whether to help a co-participant avoid an aversive shock, at the risk of receiving a shock themselves. Helping decisions were prompted under imminent or distal threat, based on temporal distance to the moment of shock administration to the co-participant. Results showed that, regardless of how likely participants were to also receive a shock, they helped the co-participant more under imminent than distal threat. Reaction times and cardiac changes during the task supported the efficacy of the threat imminence manipulation in eliciting dissociable defensive states, with faster responses and increased heart rate during imminent compared to distal threats. Individual differences in empathic concern were specifically correlated with helping during imminent threats. These results suggest that defensive states driving active escape from immediate danger may also facilitate decisions to help others, potentially by engaging neurocognitive systems implicated in caregiving across mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana B Vieira
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Sabine Schellhaas
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Erik Enström
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Andreas Olsson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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56
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Sher LD, Geddie H, Olivier L, Cairns M, Truter N, Beselaar L, Essop MF. Chronic stress and endothelial dysfunction: mechanisms, experimental challenges, and the way ahead. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2020; 319:H488-H506. [PMID: 32618516 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00244.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although chronic stress is an important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) onset, the underlying mechanisms driving such pathophysiological complications remain relatively unknown. Here, dysregulation of innate stress response systems and the effects of downstream mediators are strongly implicated, with the vascular endothelium emerging as a primary target of excessive glucocorticoid and catecholamine action. Therefore, this review article explores the development of stress-related endothelial dysfunction by focusing on the following: 1) assessing the phenomenon of stress and complexities surrounding this notion, 2) discussing mechanistic links between chronic stress and endothelial dysfunction, and 3) evaluating the utility of various preclinical models currently employed to study mechanisms underlying the onset of stress-mediated complications such as endothelial dysfunction. The data reveal that preclinical models play an important role in our efforts to gain an increased understanding of mechanisms underlying stress-mediated endothelial dysfunction. It is our understanding that this provides a good foundation going forward, and we propose that further efforts should be made to 1) more clearly define the concept of stress and 2) standardize protocols of animal models with specific guidelines to better indicate the mental complications that are simulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucien Derek Sher
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Hannah Geddie
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Lukas Olivier
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Megan Cairns
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Nina Truter
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Leandrie Beselaar
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - M Faadiel Essop
- Centre for Cardio-Metabolic Research in Africa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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57
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Proximal threats promote enhanced acquisition and persistence of reactive fear-learning circuits. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:16678-16689. [PMID: 32601212 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2004258117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Physical proximity to a traumatic event increases the severity of accompanying stress symptoms, an effect that is reminiscent of evolutionarily configured fear responses based on threat imminence. Despite being widely adopted as a model system for stress and anxiety disorders, fear-conditioning research has not yet characterized how threat proximity impacts the mechanisms of fear acquisition and extinction in the human brain. We used three-dimensional (3D) virtual reality technology to manipulate the egocentric distance of conspecific threats while healthy adult participants navigated virtual worlds during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Consistent with theoretical predictions, proximal threats enhanced fear acquisition by shifting conditioned learning from cognitive to reactive fear circuits in the brain and reducing amygdala-cortical connectivity during both fear acquisition and extinction. With an analysis of representational pattern similarity between the acquisition and extinction phases, we further demonstrate that proximal threats impaired extinction efficacy via persistent multivariate representations of conditioned learning in the cerebellum, which predicted susceptibility to later fear reinstatement. These results show that conditioned threats encountered in close proximity are more resistant to extinction learning and suggest that the canonical neural circuitry typically associated with fear learning requires additional consideration of a more reactive neural fear system to fully account for this effect.
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58
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How do different kinds of incidental emotions influence risk decision making? Biol Psychol 2020; 154:107920. [PMID: 32534902 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2020.107920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Incidental emotions, which are irrelevant to the ongoing decision, play a significant role in decision-making processes. In this study, we investigated the influence of specific incidental emotions on behavioral, psychological, and electrophysiological responses during the process of decision making. Participants finished a forced-choice gambling task, during which incidental emotions (anger/fear/happiness) were elicited by recalling emotional experiences. Behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) data were recorded in the experiment. Behavioral results showed that risk preference was weaker in the fearful condition than in the angry and happy conditions, but emotional feelings to outcome feedback were not influenced by incidental emotions. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) amplitude was larger in the fearful condition than in the angry, happy, and neutral conditions for large outcomes, whereas there was no difference between the four conditions for small outcomes. In addition, the influence of outcome magnitude (small/large) on the P3 amplitude was stronger in the fearful condition than in the angry, happy, and neutral conditions. We suggest that incidental fear elicits risk-avoidant behavior (manifested in behavioral choices), stronger motivation (manifested in the FRN amplitude) and cognitive resources (manifested in the P3 amplitude) for risky outcomes of decision making unconsciously (indicated by unchanged subjective emotional experiences). The current findings have expanded our understanding of the role of specific incidental emotions in decision making.
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59
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Fricke K, Vogel S. How interindividual differences shape approach-avoidance behavior: Relating self-report and diagnostic measures of interindividual differences to behavioral measurements of approach and avoidance. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 111:30-56. [PMID: 31954150 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Responding to stimuli in ambiguous environments is partially governed by approach-avoidance tendencies. Imbalances in these approach-avoidance behaviors are implicated in many mental disorders including anxiety disorders, phobias and substance use disorders. While factors biasing human behavior in approach-avoidance conflicts have been researched in numerous experiments, a much-needed comprehensive overview integrating those findings is missing. Here, we systematically searched the existing literature on individual differences in task-based approach-avoidance behavior and aggregated the current evidence for the effect of self-reported approach/avoidance traits, anxiety and anxiety disorders, specific phobias, depression, aggression, anger and psychopathy, substance use and related disorders, eating disorders and habits, trauma, acute stress and, finally, hormone levels (mainly testosterone, oxytocin). We highlight consistent findings, underrepresented research areas and unexpected results, and detail the amount of controversy between studies. We discuss potential reasons for ambiguous results in some research areas, offer practical advice for future studies and highlight potential variables such as task-related researcher decisions that may influence how interindividual differences and disorders drive automatic approach-avoidance biases in behavioral experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Fricke
- Department of Psychology, Medical School Hamburg, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Susanne Vogel
- Department of Psychology, Medical School Hamburg, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457, Hamburg, Germany
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60
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Daviu N, Füzesi T, Rosenegger DG, Rasiah NP, Sterley TL, Peringod G, Bains JS. Paraventricular nucleus CRH neurons encode stress controllability and regulate defensive behavior selection. Nat Neurosci 2020; 23:398-410. [PMID: 32066984 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-0591-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In humans and rodents, the perception of control during stressful events has lasting behavioral consequences. These consequences are apparent even in situations that are distinct from the stress context, but how the brain links prior stressful experience to subsequent behaviors remains poorly understood. By assessing innate defensive behavior in a looming-shadow task, we show that the initiation of an escape response is preceded by an increase in the activity of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus (CRHPVN neurons). This anticipatory increase is sensitive to stressful stimuli that have high or low levels of outcome control. Specifically, experimental stress with high outcome control increases CRHPVN neuron anticipatory activity, which increases escape behavior in an unrelated context. By contrast, stress with no outcome control prevents the emergence of this anticipatory activity and decreases subsequent escape behavior. These observations indicate that CRHPVN neurons encode stress controllability and contribute to shifts between active and passive innate defensive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Núria Daviu
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Tamás Füzesi
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.,CSM Optogenetics Core Facility, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - David G Rosenegger
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Neilen P Rasiah
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Toni-Lee Sterley
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Govind Peringod
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jaideep S Bains
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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61
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Mobbs D, Headley DB, Ding W, Dayan P. Space, Time, and Fear: Survival Computations along Defensive Circuits. Trends Cogn Sci 2020; 24:228-241. [PMID: 32029360 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Naturalistic observations show that decisions to avoid or escape predators occur at different spatiotemporal scales and that they are supported by different computations and neural circuits. At their extremes, proximal threats are addressed by a limited repertoire of reflexive and myopic actions, reflecting reduced decision and state spaces and model-free (MF) architectures. Conversely, distal threats allow increased information processing supported by model-based (MB) operations, including affective prospection, replay, and planning. However, MF and MB computations are often intertwined, and under conditions of safety the foundations for future effective reactive execution can be laid through MB instruction of MF control. Together, these computations are associated with distinct population codes embedded within a distributed defensive circuitry whose goal is to determine and realize the best policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean Mobbs
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd, HSS 228-77, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Neural Systems Program at the California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd, HSS 228-77, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.
| | - Drew B Headley
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University - Newark, 197 University Avenue, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Weilun Ding
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd, HSS 228-77, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Peter Dayan
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; The University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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62
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Dissociable neural systems for unconditioned acute and sustained fear. Neuroimage 2020; 216:116522. [PMID: 31926280 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Fear protects organisms by increasing vigilance and preparedness, and by coordinating survival responses during life-threatening encounters. The fear circuit must thus operate on multiple timescales ranging from preparatory sustained alertness to acute fight-or-flight responses. Here we studied the brain basis of sustained and acute fear using naturalistic functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) enabling analysis of different time-scales of fear responses. Subjects (N = 37) watched feature-length horror movies while their hemodynamic brain activity was measured with fMRI. Time-variable intersubject correlation (ISC) was used to quantify the reliability of brain activity across participants, and seed-based phase synchronization was used for characterizing dynamic connectivity. Subjective ratings of fear were used to assess how synchronization and functional connectivity varied with emotional intensity. These data suggest that acute and sustained fear are supported by distinct neural pathways, with sustained fear amplifying mainly sensory responses, and acute fear increasing activity in brainstem, thalamus, amygdala and cingulate cortices. Sustained fear increased ISC in regions associated with acute fear, and also amplified functional connectivity within this network. The results were replicated in an independent experiment with a different subject sample and stimulus movie. The functional interplay between cortical networks involved in sustained anticipation of, and acute response to, threat involves a complex and dynamic interaction that depends on the proximity of threat, and the need to employ threat appraisals and vigilance for decision making and response selection.
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63
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Yoo SBM, Tu JC, Piantadosi ST, Hayden BY. The neural basis of predictive pursuit. Nat Neurosci 2020; 23:252-259. [PMID: 31907436 PMCID: PMC7007341 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-019-0561-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
It remains unclear whether and, if so, how nonhuman animals make on-the-fly predictions during pursuit. Here we used a novel laboratory pursuit task that incentivizes the prediction of future prey positions. We trained three macaques to perform a joystick-controlled pursuit task in which prey follow intelligent escape algorithms. Subjects aimed toward the likely future positions of the prey, which indicated that they generate internal predictions and use these to guide behavior. We then developed a generative model that explains real-time pursuit trajectories and showed that our subjects use prey position, velocity and acceleration to make predictions. We identified neurons in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex whose responses track these three variables. These neurons multiplexed prediction-related variables with a distinct and explicit representation of the future position of the prey. Our results provide a clear demonstration that the brain can explicitly represent future predictions and highlight the critical role of anterior cingulate cortex for future-oriented cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seng Bum Michael Yoo
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Jiaxin Cindy Tu
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Steven T Piantadosi
- Department of Psychology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Benjamin Yost Hayden
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Center for Neuroengineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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64
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Multivoxel pattern analysis reveals dissociations between subjective fear and its physiological correlates. Mol Psychiatry 2020; 25:2342-2354. [PMID: 31659269 PMCID: PMC7515839 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0520-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
In studies of anxiety and other affective disorders, objectively measured physiological responses have commonly been used as a proxy for measuring subjective experiences associated with pathology. However, this commonly adopted "biosignal" approach has recently been called into question on the grounds that subjective experiences and objective physiological responses may dissociate. We performed machine-learning-based analyses on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data to assess this issue in the case of fear. Although subjective fear and objective physiological responses were correlated in general, the respective whole-brain multivoxel decoders for the two measures were different. Some key brain regions such as the amygdala and insula appear to be primarily involved in the prediction of physiological reactivity, whereas some regions previously associated with metacognition and conscious perception, including some areas in the prefrontal cortex, appear to be primarily predictive of the subjective experience of fear. The present findings are in support of the recent call for caution in assuming a one-to-one mapping between subjective sufferings and their putative biosignals, despite the clear advantages in the latter's being objectively and continuously measurable in physiological terms.
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65
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Lefler Y, Campagner D, Branco T. The role of the periaqueductal gray in escape behavior. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2019; 60:115-121. [PMID: 31864105 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2019.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Escape behavior is a defensive action deployed by animals in response to imminent threats. In mammalian species, a variety of different brain circuits are known to participate in this crucial survival behavior. One of these circuits is the periaqueductal gray, a midbrain structure that can command a variety of instinctive behaviors. Recent experiments using modern systems neuroscience techniques have begun to elucidate the specific role of the periaqueductal gray in controlling escape. These have shown that periaqueductal gray neurons are crucial units for gating and commanding the initiation of escape, specifically activated in situations of imminent, escapable threat. In addition, it is becoming clear that the periaqueductal gray integrates brain-wide information that can modulate escape initiation to generate flexible defensive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaara Lefler
- UCL Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, London W1T 4JG, UK
| | - Dario Campagner
- UCL Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, London W1T 4JG, UK; UCL Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, London W1T 4JG, UK
| | - Tiago Branco
- UCL Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, London W1T 4JG, UK.
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66
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Rosén J, Kastrati G, Reppling A, Bergkvist K, Åhs F. The effect of immersive virtual reality on proximal and conditioned threat. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17407. [PMID: 31758051 PMCID: PMC6874534 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53971-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Virtual reality lets the user be immersed in a 3-dimensional environment, which can enhance certain emotional responses to stimuli relative to experiencing them on a flat computer screen. We here tested whether displaying two different types of threats in immersive virtual reality enhanced threat related autonomic responses measured by skin conductance responses (SCRs). We studied innate and learned threat responses because these types of threats have been shown to depend on different neural circuits in animals. Therefore, it is possible that immersive virtual reality may modulate one of these threats but not the other. Innate threat responses were provoked by the sudden appearance of characters at proximal egocentric distance, which were compared to the sudden appearance of distant characters (proximal threat). Learned threat responses were studied by conditioning two of the characters to an electric shock (conditioned threat) and contrasting SCRs to these characters with SCRs to two other characters that were never paired with shock. We found that displaying stimuli in immersive virtual reality enhanced proximal threat responses but not conditioned threat responses. Findings show that immersive virtual reality can enhance an innate type of threat responses without affecting a learned threat response, suggesting that separate neural pathways serve these threat responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörgen Rosén
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Granit Kastrati
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Aksel Reppling
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Klas Bergkvist
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Åhs
- Department of Psychology and Social Work, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
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67
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Milton AL. Fear not: recent advances in understanding the neural basis of fear memories and implications for treatment development. F1000Res 2019; 8:F1000 Faculty Rev-1948. [PMID: 31824654 PMCID: PMC6880271 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.20053.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Fear is a highly adaptive emotion that has evolved to promote survival and reproductive fitness. However, maladaptive expression of fear can lead to debilitating stressor-related and anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Although the neural basis of fear has been extensively researched for several decades, recent technological advances in pharmacogenetics and optogenetics have allowed greater resolution in understanding the neural circuits that underlie fear. Alongside conceptual advances in the understanding of fear memory, this increased knowledge has clarified mechanisms for some currently available therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder and has identified new potential treatment targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L. Milton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
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68
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Seymour B. Pain: A Precision Signal for Reinforcement Learning and Control. Neuron 2019; 101:1029-1041. [PMID: 30897355 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.01.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Since noxious stimulation usually leads to the perception of pain, pain has traditionally been considered sensory nociception. But its variability and sensitivity to a broad array of cognitive and motivational factors have meant it is commonly viewed as inherently imprecise and intangibly subjective. However, the core function of pain is motivational-to direct both short- and long-term behavior away from harm. Here, we illustrate that a reinforcement learning model of pain offers a mechanistic understanding of how the brain supports this, illustrating the underlying computational architecture of the pain system. Importantly, it explains why pain is tuned by multiple factors and necessarily supported by a distributed network of brain regions, recasting pain as a precise and objectifiable control signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Seymour
- Center for Information and Neural Networks, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, 1-4 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK.
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69
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Satpute AB, Lindquist KA. The Default Mode Network's Role in Discrete Emotion. Trends Cogn Sci 2019; 23:851-864. [PMID: 31427147 PMCID: PMC7281778 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Emotions are often assumed to manifest in subcortical limbic and brainstem structures. While these areas are clearly important for representing affect (e.g., valence and arousal), we propose that the default mode network (DMN) is additionally important for constructing discrete emotional experiences (of anger, fear, disgust, etc.). Findings from neuroimaging studies, invasive electrical stimulation studies, and lesion studies support this proposal. Importantly, our framework builds on a constructionist theory of emotion to explain how instances involving diverse physiological and behavioral patterns can be conceptualized as belonging to the same emotion category. We argue that this ability requires abstraction (from concrete features to broad mental categories), which the DMN is well positioned to support, and we make novel predictions from our proposed framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay B Satpute
- Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Kristen A Lindquist
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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70
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Marquart GD, Tabor KM, Bergeron SA, Briggman KL, Burgess HA. Prepontine non-giant neurons drive flexible escape behavior in zebrafish. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000480. [PMID: 31613896 PMCID: PMC6793939 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many species execute ballistic escape reactions to avoid imminent danger. Despite fast reaction times, responses are often highly regulated, reflecting a trade-off between costly motor actions and perceived threat level. However, how sensory cues are integrated within premotor escape circuits remains poorly understood. Here, we show that in zebrafish, less precipitous threats elicit a delayed escape, characterized by flexible trajectories, which are driven by a cluster of 38 prepontine neurons that are completely separate from the fast escape pathway. Whereas neurons that initiate rapid escapes receive direct auditory input and drive motor neurons, input and output pathways for delayed escapes are indirect, facilitating integration of cross-modal sensory information. These results show that rapid decision-making in the escape system is enabled by parallel pathways for ballistic responses and flexible delayed actions and defines a neuronal substrate for hierarchical choice in the vertebrate nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory D. Marquart
- Division of Developmental Biology, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- Neuroscience and Cognitive Science Program, University of Maryland, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kathryn M. Tabor
- Division of Developmental Biology, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sadie A. Bergeron
- Division of Developmental Biology, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kevin L. Briggman
- Circuit Dynamics and Connectivity Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Harold A. Burgess
- Division of Developmental Biology, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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71
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Wang H, Chen J, Xu X, Sun WJ, Chen X, Zhao F, Luo MH, Liu C, Guo Y, Xie W, Zhong H, Bai T, Tian Y, Mao Y, Ye C, Tao W, Li J, Farzinpour Z, Li J, Zhou JN, Wang K, He J, Chen L, Zhang Z. Direct auditory cortical input to the lateral periaqueductal gray controls sound-driven defensive behavior. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000417. [PMID: 31469831 PMCID: PMC6742420 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Threatening sounds can elicit a series of defensive behavioral reactions in animals for survival, but the underlying neural substrates are not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate a previously unexplored neural pathway in mice that projects directly from the auditory cortex (ACx) to the lateral periaqueductal gray (lPAG) and controls noise-evoked defensive behaviors. Electrophysiological recordings showed that the lPAG could be excited by a loud noise that induced an escape-like behavior. Trans-synaptic viral tracing showed that a great number of glutamatergic neurons, rather than GABAergic neurons, in the lPAG were directly innervated by those in layer V of the ACx. Activation of this pathway by optogenetic manipulations produced a behavior in mice that mimicked the noise-evoked escape, whereas inhibition of the pathway reduced this behavior. Therefore, our newly identified descending pathway is a novel neural substrate for noise-evoked escape and is involved in controlling the threat-related behavior. Threatening sounds can evoke a defensive behavior in animals to avoid potential harm. This study identifies a novel neural pathway in mice that projects directly from the auditory cortex to the lateral periaqueductal gray and controls defense-like behaviors evoked by a loud noise, supporting the notion that such behaviors are controlled by multiple neural circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Wang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Jiahui Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Xiaotong Xu
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Wen-Jian Sun
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Fei Zhao
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Min-Hua Luo
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Chunhua Liu
- Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yiping Guo
- Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wen Xie
- Department of Psychology, Anhui Mental Health Center, Hefei, China
| | - Hui Zhong
- Department of Psychology, Anhui Mental Health Center, Hefei, China
| | - Tongjian Bai
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Yanghua Tian
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Yu Mao
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Chonghuan Ye
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Wenjuan Tao
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Jie Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Zahra Farzinpour
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Juan Li
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Jiang-Ning Zhou
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Kai Wang
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jufang He
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- * E-mail: (ZZ); (LC)
| | - Zhi Zhang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- * E-mail: (ZZ); (LC)
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72
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Abstract
Modern decision neuroscience offers a powerful and broad account of human behaviour using computational techniques that link psychological and neuroscientific approaches to the ways that individuals can generate near-optimal choices in complex controlled environments. However, until recently, relatively little attention has been paid to the extent to which the structure of experimental environments relates to natural scenarios, and the survival problems that individuals have evolved to solve. This situation not only risks leaving decision-theoretic accounts ungrounded but also makes various aspects of the solutions, such as hard-wired or Pavlovian policies, difficult to interpret in the natural world. Here, we suggest importing concepts, paradigms and approaches from the fields of ethology and behavioural ecology, which concentrate on the contextual and functional correlates of decisions made about foraging and escape and address these lacunae.
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73
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Le TM, Zhornitsky S, Wang W, Ide J, Zhang S, Li CSR. Posterior Cingulate Cortical Response to Active Avoidance Mediates the Relationship between Punishment Sensitivity and Problem Drinking. J Neurosci 2019; 39:6354-6364. [PMID: 31189577 PMCID: PMC6687909 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0508-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Many people drink to alleviate negative affect, reflecting an avoidance strategy which can lead to alcohol misuse. Individuals with heightened sensitivity to punishment (SP) are especially susceptible to problem drinking via this maladaptive coping mechanism. As imaging studies have largely focused on sensation-seeking traits and approach behavior, the neural substrates underlying behavioral avoidance as well as their relationship with punishment sensitivity and alcohol use remain unclear. Here, we examined in humans the cerebral correlates of response inhibition to avoid a penalty in relation to both problem drinking and SP, as evaluated by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test and the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, respectively. Seventy nondependent female and male drinkers performed a reward go/no-go task with approximately two-thirds go and one-third no-go trials. Correct go and no-go responses were rewarded, and incorrect responses were punished. The results showed that SP and Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test scores were both positively correlated with brain activations during response inhibition, and these activations overlapped in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). Thus, the PCC may represent a shared neural substrate for avoidance, punishment sensitivity, and problem drinking. Mediation analyses further suggested that PCC response to avoidance completely and bidirectionally mediated the relationship between SP and hazardous alcohol use. These findings substantiated the role of the PCC in behavioral avoidance and its link to problem drinking in punishment-sensitive nondependent drinkers.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Many people drink to alleviate negative affect, reflecting an avoidance strategy that can lead to alcohol misuse. Individuals with heightened punishment sensitivity (SP) trait are particularly vulnerable to this maladaptive coping mechanism. The current study examined the neural substrates underlying behavioral avoidance and their relationship with SP and problem drinking. Using a reward go/no-go task, we showed both SP and drinking severity were positively correlated with the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) activation during action inhibition. Thus, the PCC may represent a shared neural substrate for avoidance behavior, punishment sensitivity, and problem drinking. Further, PCC response to avoidance mediated the relationship between SP and alcohol use. These findings substantiated the neural processes linking avoidance tendency to alcohol misuse in punishment-sensitive drinkers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Chiang-Shan R Li
- Department of Psychiatry, and
- Department of Neuroscience, and
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
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74
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Velasco ER, Florido A, Milad MR, Andero R. Sex differences in fear extinction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 103:81-108. [PMID: 31129235 PMCID: PMC6692252 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite the exponential increase in fear research during the last years, few studies have included female subjects in their design. The need to include females arises from the knowledge gap of mechanistic processes underlying the behavioral and neural differences observed in fear extinction. Moreover, the exact contribution of sex and hormones in relation to learning and behavior is still largely unknown. Insights from this field could be beneficial as fear-related disorders are twice as prevalent in women compared to men. Here, we review an up-to-date summary of animal and human studies in adulthood that report sex differences in fear extinction from a structural and functional approach. Furthermore, we describe how these factors could contribute to the observed sex differences in fear extinction during normal and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Velasco
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - A Florido
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - M R Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA
| | - R Andero
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Corporació Sanitaria Parc Taulí, Sabadell, Spain; Department of Psychobiology and Methodology of Health Sciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain.
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75
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Korn CW, Bach DR. Minimizing threat via heuristic and optimal policies recruits hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. Nat Hum Behav 2019; 3:733-745. [PMID: 31110338 PMCID: PMC6629544 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-019-0603-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Jointly minimizing multiple threats over extended time horizons enhances survival. Consequently, many tests of approach-avoidance conflicts incorporate multiple threats for probing corollaries of animal and human anxiety. To facilitate computations necessary for threat minimization, the human brain may concurrently harness multiple decision policies and associated neural controllers, but it is unclear which. We combine a task that mimics foraging under predation with behavioural modelling and functional neuroimaging. Human choices rely on immediate predator probability-a myopic heuristic policy-and on the optimal policy, which integrates all relevant variables. Predator probability relates positively and the associated choice uncertainty relates negatively to activations in the anterior hippocampus, amygdala and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The optimal policy is positively associated with dorsomedial prefrontal cortex activity. We thus provide a decision-theoretic outlook on the role of the human hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex in resolving approach-avoidance conflicts relevant for anxiety and integral for survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph W Korn
- Computational Psychiatry Research, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics; Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Institute for Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Dominik R Bach
- Computational Psychiatry Research, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics; Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging and Max-Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing, University College London, London, UK
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76
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Vieira JB, Pierzchajlo SR, Mitchell DGV. Neural correlates of social and non-social personal space intrusions: Role of defensive and peripersonal space systems in interpersonal distance regulation. Soc Neurosci 2019; 15:36-51. [PMID: 31151372 DOI: 10.1080/17470919.2019.1626763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Personal space regulation ensures the maintenance of a margin of safety between the individual and the surrounding world. However, little is known about the specific neural mechanisms implicated in regulating the distance from conspecifics versus non-social stimuli. Here, we investigated the neural correlates of personal space intrusions by social versus non-social stimuli. Thirty volunteers underwent fMRI scanning while viewing approaching or withdrawing faces (Social) and insects/arachnids (Non-social). Preferred distance to the stimuli was assessed behaviourally in a computerized task, and in real life. Results showed that approaching social and non-social stimuli of varying threat levels elicited activation of frontoparietal regions previously linked to peripersonal space, as well as of the midbrain periaqueductal gray, suggesting the engagement of defensive mechanisms by personal space intrusions. However, functional connectivity patterns of the midbrain differed for social and non-social stimuli, with enhanced coupling with the premotor cortex to approaching social stimuli. Additionally, connectivity strength between the midbrain and the premotor cortex was associated with preferred interpersonal distance. These findings highlight a common defensive architecture implicated in personal space regulation to social and non-social stimuli, and the specific neural mechanisms involved in regulating the distance from conspecifics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana B Vieira
- Brain and Mind Institute, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Stephen R Pierzchajlo
- Brain and Mind Institute, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
| | - Derek G V Mitchell
- Brain and Mind Institute, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada.,Department of Psychology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
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77
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Fung BJ, Qi S, Hassabis D, Daw N, Mobbs D. Slow escape decisions are swayed by trait anxiety. Nat Hum Behav 2019; 3:702-708. [PMID: 31110337 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-019-0595-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Theoretical models distinguish between neural responses elicited by distal threats and those evoked by more immediate threats1-3. Specifically, slower 'cognitive' fear responses towards distal threats involve a network of brain regions including the ventral hippocampus (vHPC) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), while immediate 'reactive' fear responses rely on regions such as the periaqueductal grey4,5. However, it is unclear how anxiety and its neural substrates relate to these distinct defensive survival circuits. We tested whether individual differences in trait anxiety would impact escape behaviour and neural responses to slow and fast attacking predators: conditions designed to evoke cognitive and reactive fear, respectively. Behaviourally, we found that trait anxiety was not related to escape decisions for fast threats, but individuals with higher trait anxiety escaped earlier during slow threats. Functional magnetic resonance imaging showed that when subjects faced slow threats, trait anxiety positively correlated with activity in the vHPC, mPFC, amygdala and insula. Furthermore, the strength of functional coupling between two components of the cognitive circuit-the vHPC and mPFC-was correlated with the degree of trait anxiety. This suggests that anxiety predominantly affects cognitive fear circuits that are involved in volitional strategic escape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen J Fung
- Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Song Qi
- Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | | | - Nathaniel Daw
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Dean Mobbs
- Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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George DT, Ameli R, Koob GF. Periaqueductal Gray Sheds Light on Dark Areas of Psychopathology. Trends Neurosci 2019; 42:349-360. [PMID: 30955857 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2019.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Neurons in the periaqueductal gray (PAG) integrate negative emotions with the autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune systems to facilitate responses to threat. Modern functional track tracing in animals and optogenetic and chemogenetic techniques show that the PAG is a rich substrate for the integration of active and passive responses to threat. In humans, the same regions of the PAG that give rise to adaptive anger/fight, fear/panic, depression/shutdown, pain, and predatory behaviors in response to challenging situations or overwhelming threats can become activated pathologically, resulting in symptoms that resemble those of psychiatric disorders. This review coalesces human and animal studies to link PAG neuropathways to specific elements of psychiatric diagnoses. The insights gained from this overview may eventually lead to new therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T George
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Rezvan Ameli
- National Institute of Mental Health and NIH Clinical Center, Pain and Palliative Care Service, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - George F Koob
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA; National Institute on Drug Abuse, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Evans DA, Stempel AV, Vale R, Branco T. Cognitive Control of Escape Behaviour. Trends Cogn Sci 2019; 23:334-348. [PMID: 30852123 PMCID: PMC6438863 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2019.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
When faced with potential predators, animals instinctively decide whether there is a threat they should escape from, and also when, how, and where to take evasive action. While escape is often viewed in classical ethology as an action that is released upon presentation of specific stimuli, successful and adaptive escape behaviour relies on integrating information from sensory systems, stored knowledge, and internal states. From a neuroscience perspective, escape is an incredibly rich model that provides opportunities for investigating processes such as perceptual and value-based decision-making, or action selection, in an ethological setting. We review recent research from laboratory and field studies that explore, at the behavioural and mechanistic levels, how elements from multiple information streams are integrated to generate flexible escape behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic A Evans
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - A Vanessa Stempel
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Ruben Vale
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK; These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Tiago Branco
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, UCL, London, UK.
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80
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Predator-Prey Interactions in the Anthropocene: Reconciling Multiple Aspects of Novelty. Trends Ecol Evol 2019; 34:616-627. [PMID: 30902358 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2019.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Ecological novelty, when conditions deviate from a historical baseline, is increasingly common as humans modify habitats and communities across the globe. Our ability to anticipate how novelty changes predator-prey interactions will likely hinge upon the explicit evaluation of multiple forms of novelty, rather than a focus on single forms of novelty (e.g., invasive predators or climate change). We provide a framework to assess how multiple forms of novelty can act, alone or in concert, on components shared by all predator-prey interactions (the predation sequence). Considering how novelty acts throughout the predation sequence could improve our understanding of predator-prey interactions in an increasingly novel world, identify important knowledge gaps, and guide conservation decisions in the Anthropocene.
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81
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Pain-Related Fear-Dissociable Neural Sources of Different Fear Constructs. eNeuro 2019; 5:eN-NWR-0107-18. [PMID: 30627654 PMCID: PMC6325558 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0107-18.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fear of pain demonstrates significant prognostic value regarding the development of persistent musculoskeletal pain and disability. Its assessment often relies on self-report measures of pain-related fear by a variety of questionnaires. However, based either on “fear of movement/(re)injury/kinesiophobia,” “fear avoidance beliefs,” or “pain anxiety,” pain-related fear constructs plausibly differ while it is unclear how specific the questionnaires are in assessing these different constructs. Furthermore, the relationship of pain-related fear to other anxiety measures such as state or trait anxiety remains ambiguous. Advances in neuroimaging such as machine learning on brain activity patterns recorded by functional magnetic resonance imaging might help to dissect commonalities or differences across pain-related fear constructs. We applied a pattern regression approach in 20 human patients with nonspecific chronic low back pain to reveal predictive relationships between fear-related neural pattern information and different pain-related fear questionnaires. More specifically, the applied multiple kernel learning approach allowed the generation of models to predict the questionnaire scores based on a hierarchical ranking of fear-related neural patterns induced by viewing videos of activities potentially harmful for the back. We sought to find evidence for or against overlapping pain-related fear constructs by comparing the questionnaire prediction models according to their predictive abilities and associated neural contributors. By demonstrating evidence of nonoverlapping neural predictors within fear-processing regions, the results underpin the diversity of pain-related fear constructs. This neuroscientific approach might ultimately help to further understand and dissect psychological pain-related fear constructs.
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Thome J, Densmore M, Koppe G, Terpou B, Théberge J, McKinnon MC, Lanius RA. Back to the Basics: Resting State Functional Connectivity of the Reticular Activation System in PTSD and its Dissociative Subtype. CHRONIC STRESS (THOUSAND OAKS, CALIF.) 2019; 3:2470547019873663. [PMID: 32440600 PMCID: PMC7219926 DOI: 10.1177/2470547019873663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brainstem and midbrain neuronal circuits that control innate, reflexive responses and arousal are increasingly recognized as central to the neurobiological framework of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The reticular activation system represents a fundamental neuronal circuit that plays a critical role not only in generating arousal but also in coordinating innate, reflexive responding. Accordingly, the present investigation aims to characterize the resting state functional connectivity of the reticular activation system in PTSD and its dissociative subtype. METHODS We investigated patterns of resting state functional connectivity of a central node of the reticular activation system, namely, the pedunculopontine nuclei, among individuals with PTSD (n = 77), its dissociative subtype (PTSD+DS; n = 48), and healthy controls (n = 51). RESULTS Participants with PTSD and PTSD+DS were characterized by within-group pedunculopontine nuclei resting state functional connectivity to brain regions involved in innate threat processing and arousal modulation (i.e., midbrain, amygdala, ventromedial prefrontal cortex). Critically, this pattern was most pronounced in individuals with PTSD+DS, as compared to both control and PTSD groups. As compared to participants with PTSD and controls, individuals with PTSD+DS showed enhanced pedunculopontine nuclei resting state functional connectivity to the amygdala and the parahippocampal gyrus as well as to the anterior cingulate and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. No group differences emerged between PTSD and control groups. In individuals with PTSD+DS, state derealization/depersonalization was associated with reduced resting state functional connectivity between the left pedunculopontine nuclei and the anterior nucleus of the thalamus. Altered connectivity in these regions may restrict the thalamo-cortical transmission necessary to integrate internal and external signals at a cortical level and underlie, in part, experiences of depersonalization and derealization. CONCLUSIONS The present findings extend the current neurobiological model of PTSD and provide emerging evidence for the need to incorporate brainstem structures, including the reticular activation system, into current conceptualizations of PTSD and its dissociative subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Thome
- Department of Psychiatry, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Theoretical Neuroscience,
Central
Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical
Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry,
Central
Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical
Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Maria Densmore
- Department of Psychiatry, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Imaging Division,
Lawson
Health Research Institute, London, Ontario,
Canada
| | - Georgia Koppe
- Department of Theoretical Neuroscience,
Central
Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical
Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry,
Central
Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical
Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Braeden Terpou
- Department of Psychiatry, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jean Théberge
- Department of Psychiatry, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Imaging Division,
Lawson
Health Research Institute, London, Ontario,
Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics,
Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Margaret C. McKinnon
- Homewood Research Institute, Guelph,
Ontario, Canada
- Mood Disorder Programs, St. Joseph's
Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral
Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ruth A. Lanius
- Department of Psychiatry, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Imaging Division,
Lawson
Health Research Institute, London, Ontario,
Canada
- Department of Neuroscience, Western
University, London, Ontario, Canada
- Homewood Research Institute, Guelph,
Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
The natural world presents a myriad of dangers that can threaten an organism's survival. This diversity of threats is matched by a set of universal and species specific defensive behaviors which are often subsumed under the emotions of fear and anxiety. A major issue in the field of affective science, however, is that these emotions are often conflated and scientists fail to reflect the ecological conditions that gave rise to them. I attempt to clarify these semantic issues by describing the link between ethologically defined defensive strategies and fear. This in turn, provides a clearer differentiation between fears, the contexts that evoke them and how they are organized within defensive survival circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean Mobbs
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences and Computation and Neural Systems Program at the California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, HSS 228-77, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
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