51
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Pallavicini C, Cavanna F, Zamberlan F, de la Fuente LA, Ilksoy Y, Perl YS, Arias M, Romero C, Carhart-Harris R, Timmermann C, Tagliazucchi E. Neural and subjective effects of inhaled N,N-dimethyltryptamine in natural settings. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:406-420. [PMID: 33567945 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120981384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND N,N-dimethyltryptamine is a short-acting psychedelic tryptamine found naturally in many plants and animals. Few studies to date have addressed the neural and psychological effects of N,N-dimethyltryptamine alone, either administered intravenously or inhaled in freebase form, and none have been conducted in natural settings. AIMS Our primary aim was to study the acute effects of inhaled N,N-dimethyltryptamine in natural settings, focusing on questions tuned to the advantages of conducting field research, including the effects of contextual factors (i.e. "set" and "setting"), the possibility of studying a comparatively large number of subjects, and the relaxed mental state of participants consuming N,N-dimethyltryptamine in familiar and comfortable settings. METHODS We combined state-of-the-art wireless electroencephalography with psychometric questionnaires to study the neural and subjective effects of naturalistic N,N-dimethyltryptamine use in 35 healthy and experienced participants. RESULTS We observed that N,N-dimethyltryptamine significantly decreased the power of alpha (8-12 Hz) oscillations throughout all scalp locations, while simultaneously increasing power of delta (1-4 Hz) and gamma (30-40 Hz) oscillations. Gamma power increases correlated with subjective reports indicative of some features of mystical-type experiences. N,N-dimethyltryptamine also increased global synchrony and metastability in the gamma band while decreasing those measures in the alpha band. CONCLUSIONS Our results are consistent with previous studies of psychedelic action in the human brain, while at the same time the results suggest potential electroencephalography markers of mystical-type experiences in natural settings, thus highlighting the importance of investigating these compounds in the contexts where they are naturally consumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Pallavicini
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Fundación para la lucha contra las enfermedades neurológicas de la infancia (FLENI), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Federico Cavanna
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Fundación para la lucha contra las enfermedades neurológicas de la infancia (FLENI), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Federico Zamberlan
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura A de la Fuente
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yayla Ilksoy
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Yonatan S Perl
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mauricio Arias
- Hospital General de Agudos Donación Francisco Santojanni, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Celeste Romero
- Centro de Estudios de la Cultura Cannábica (CECCa), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | - Enzo Tagliazucchi
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA - CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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52
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Agin-Liebes G, Haas TF, Lancelotta R, Uthaug MV, Ramaekers JG, Davis AK. Naturalistic Use of Mescaline Is Associated with Self-Reported Psychiatric Improvements and Enduring Positive Life Changes. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:543-552. [PMID: 33860184 PMCID: PMC8033766 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mescaline is a naturally occurring psychoactive alkaloid that has been used as a sacrament by Indigenous populations in spiritual ritual and healing ceremonies for millennia. Despite promising early preliminary research and favorable anecdotal reports, there is limited research investigating mescaline's psychotherapeutic potential. We administered an anonymous online questionnaire to adults (N = 452) reporting use of mescaline in naturalistic settings about mental health benefits attributed to mescaline. We assessed respondents' self-reported improvements in depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and alcohol and drug use disorders (AUD and DUD). Of the respondents reporting histories of these clinical conditions, most (68-86%) reported subjective improvement following their most memorable mescaline experience. Respondents who reported an improvement in their psychiatric conditions reported significantly higher ratings of acute psychological factors including mystical-type, psychological insight, and ego dissolution effects compared to those who did not report improvements (Cohen's d range 0.7 - 1.5). Many respondents (35-50%) rated the mescaline experience as the single or top five most spiritually significant or meaningful experience(s) of their lives. Acute experiences of psychological insight during their mescaline experience were associated with increased odds of reporting improvement in depression, anxiety, AUD and DUD. Additional research is needed to corroborate these preliminary findings and to rigorously examine the efficacy of mescaline for psychiatric treatment in controlled, longitudinal clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle Agin-Liebes
- Department
of Psychiatry, University of California,
San Francisco, 1001 Potrero
Ave., San Francisco, California 94110, United States,Zuckerberg
San Francisco General Hospital, 1001 Potrero Ave., Bldg. 80, San Francisco, California 94110, United States,Tel.: 646-641-2000.
| | - Trevor F. Haas
- University
of California, Davis, School of Medicine, 4610 X Street, Sacramento, California 95817, United States,Department
of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University
of Southern California, 3620 McClintock Ave., Los Angeles, California 90089-0001, United States
| | - Rafael Lancelotta
- Habituating
to Wholeness, LLC, 6500 W 13th Ave, Lakewood, Colorado 80214, United States
| | - Malin V. Uthaug
- Department
of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229, Maastricht, Limburg 6200
MD, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- Department
of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229, Maastricht, Limburg 6200
MD, The Netherlands
| | - Alan K. Davis
- College
of Social Work, The Ohio State University, 1947 College Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States,Center
for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins University, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United
States,Tel.: 614-292-5251.
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53
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Payne JE, Chambers R, Liknaitzky P. Combining Psychedelic and Mindfulness Interventions: Synergies to Inform Clinical Practice. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:416-423. [PMID: 33860171 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelic and mindfulness interventions have been shown to improve mental ill-health and wellbeing, with a range of clinical processes and effects in common. However, each appear to contain specific challenges in the context of mental health treatment. In this Perspective, we focus on a set of distinct affordances, "useful differences", within psychedelic and mindfulness interventions that might address common challenges within the other intervention. Accordingly, we propose a set of applied synergies, indicating specific ways in which these two promising interventions might be combined for greater benefit. Metaphorically, on the journey toward mental health and wellbeing, we propose that psychedelic treatments may serve the role of Compass (initiating, motivating, and steering the course of mindfulness practice), with mindfulness interventions serving the role of Vehicle (integrating, deepening, generalizing, and maintaining the novel perspectives and motivation instigated by psychedelic experience). We outline a set of testable hypotheses and future research associated with the synergistic action of psychedelic and mindfulness interventions toward improved clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake E Payne
- Centre for Mental Health, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Victoria 3122, Australia
| | - Richard Chambers
- Mindfulness Programs, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Paul Liknaitzky
- Turner Institute, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Department of Psychiatry, School of Clinical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
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54
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Révész D, Ona G, Rossi GN, Rocha JM, Dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC, Alcázar-Córcoles MÁ, Bouso JC. Cross-Sectional Associations Between Lifetime Use of Psychedelic Drugs and Psychometric Measures During the COVID-19 Confinement: A Transcultural Study. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:687546. [PMID: 34220590 PMCID: PMC8242180 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.687546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: One of the main public health strategies adopted at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic consisted of implementing strict lockdowns to stop the transmission of the virus. Despite being an effective measure, the confinement and the associated social isolation create a stressful, potentially lengthy situations that has been proven to have several psychological consequences. Given the potential benefits that certain psychedelic drugs have shown for the treatment of psychological disorders, this study aimed to assess the impact of lifetime psychedelic drug use on mental health in relation to the first strict lockdown adopted by various countries (April-July 2020). Methods: Subjects completed an online survey that inquired about sociodemographic factors, activities, and lifestyle factors during confinement, as well as health and mental health related factors. Subjects were asked about their lifetime use of psychedelic drugs (MDMA, ayahuasca, psilocybin-containing mushrooms, LSD, peyote, San Pedro, Bufo alvarius or 5-MeO-DMT, and others), being classified as regular users (more than once per 6 months), occasional users, or non-users. The survey included psychometric tests used to assess psychological distress, peritraumatic stress, social support, psychopathological symptoms, and personality. Linear regressions were performed with psychedelic drug users as the independent variable and psychometric factors as the outcomes, while correcting for age, gender, language, religion, spirituality, and use of non-psychedelic drugs. Results: The study included 2,974 English, Portuguese, and Spanish speakers (497 regular users of psychedelic drugs, 606 occasional users, and 1,968 non-users). On average, respondents were 36 years old and 70% were female. Psychedelic drug users, especially regular ones, reported less psychological distress, less peritraumatic stress, and more social support. Regarding personality measures, psychedelic drug users scored higher on the novelty-seeking and self-transcendence scales, and lower on cooperativeness. Conclusion: Our findings showed that regular users of psychedelic drugs had less psychological stress and some personality differences when compared to occasional users and non-users. This suggests that either the use of psychedelics might be a protective factor itself or people with certain previous traits are more prone to frequently using psychedelic drugs. Future prospective longitudinal research should investigate the underlying processes observed in this study to develop consistent hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dóra Révész
- Center of Research on Psychological and Somatic Disorders (CoRPS), Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands
| | - Genís Ona
- ICEERS-International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service, Barcelona, Spain.,Medical Anthropology Research Center (MARC), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Giordano N Rossi
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Juliana M Rocha
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Rafael G Dos Santos
- ICEERS-International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jaime E C Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Miguel Á Alcázar-Córcoles
- Department of Biological and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Autonomous University of Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - José C Bouso
- ICEERS-International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service, Barcelona, Spain.,Medical Anthropology Research Center (MARC), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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55
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Davis AK, Xin Y, Sepeda ND, Garcia-Romeu A, Williams MT. Increases in Psychological Flexibility Mediate Relationship Between Acute Psychedelic Effects and Decreases in Racial Trauma Symptoms Among People of Color. CHRONIC STRESS (THOUSAND OAKS, CALIF.) 2021; 5:24705470211035607. [PMID: 34377878 PMCID: PMC8342866 DOI: 10.1177/24705470211035607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous research showed acute psychedelic effects were associated with decreases in racial trauma (RT) symptoms among black, indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC). Among samples comprised primarily of white participants, positive outcomes of psychedelic experiences have been mediated by increases in psychological flexibility. Therefore, we examined whether changes in psychological flexibility from before to after a psychedelic experience mediated the relationship between acute psychedelic effects and changes in RT symptoms among BIPOC. METHODS This cross-sectional online survey study included 313 BIPOC (mean age = 33.1; SD = 11.2; female = 57%). A multiple linear regression analysis was used to examine the association between acute psychedelic effects and decreases in RT symptoms in a nonclinical setting; a path analysis was used to explore whether changes in psychological flexibility mediated this relationship. RESULTS Acute insight and challenging effects were significantly (p < .001) associated with decreases in RT symptoms following a psychedelic experience. Increases in psychological flexibility partially mediated relationships between greater intensity of psychological insight and less intensity of challenging experiences and decreases in RT symptoms (ps<.001). CONCLUSION This research suggests psychedelics confer potential benefits in decreasing RT symptoms among BIPOC and psychological flexibility may be an important mediator of these effects. Future research should test this hypothesis in a longitudinal clinical trial among BIPOC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan K. Davis
- The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Johns Hopkins School of
Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yitong Xin
- The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Monnica T. Williams
- University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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56
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Mollaahmetoglu OM, Keeler J, Ashbullby KJ, Ketzitzidou-Argyri E, Grabski M, Morgan CJA. "This Is Something That Changed My Life": A Qualitative Study of Patients' Experiences in a Clinical Trial of Ketamine Treatment for Alcohol Use Disorders. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:695335. [PMID: 34483991 PMCID: PMC8415567 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.695335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The therapeutic benefits of ketamine have been demonstrated for a variety of psychiatric disorders. However, the role of ketamine induced psychoactive experiences in mediating the therapeutic effects is unclear. Despite the growing quantitative research on the efficacy of ketamine treatment, very few studies examined participant experiences of ketamine infusions in a treatment setting. Aims: The current study aimed to examine participant experiences of ketamine infusions and how these relate to therapeutic mechanisms in a clinical trial setting. Methods: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 12 participants who received up to three ketamine infusions (0.8 mg/kg) as part of a Phase II double blind, randomised controlled trial. The interviews explored participants' acute experiences of ketamine infusions, experiences of psychotherapy/education, and the lasting effects of the trial. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis. Results: Six key themes were identified. (1) Participants reported multifaceted motivations for trial participation. (2) The set and setting was found to be influential in determining acute ketamine experiences. The acute ketamine experiences included: (3) the inherent contradictions of the experience (e.g., dissociation vs feelings of connection), (4) rapidly fluctuating and changing experiences, (5) meaningful, mystical and spiritual experiences. Finally, the final theme (6) relates to the transformational effects of the infusions and the trial. Conclusion: Provided in a supportive and professional environment, ketamine treatment led to a significant change in relationship with alcohol. Ketamine induced ego dissolution and dissociation were reported to be related to the transformational effects on relationship with alcohol. The extent to which the acute psychoactive effects of ketamine mediate therapeutic effects on drinking outcomes remain to be investigated in the trial data. The acute effects of ketamine reported by our participants transcend its traditional conceptualisation as a "dissociative anaesthetic"; therefore, we suggest the development or use of new measures alongside ketamine infusions to fully capture the spectrum of these effects which may be crucial in its therapeutic and transformative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Merve Mollaahmetoglu
- Psychology Department, Psychopharmacology and Addiction Research Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Johanna Keeler
- Psychology Department, Psychopharmacology and Addiction Research Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine J Ashbullby
- Psychology Department, Psychopharmacology and Addiction Research Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Eirini Ketzitzidou-Argyri
- Psychology Department, Psychopharmacology and Addiction Research Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Meryem Grabski
- Psychology Department, Psychopharmacology and Addiction Research Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom.,Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Celia J A Morgan
- Psychology Department, Psychopharmacology and Addiction Research Centre, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
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57
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Argento E, Christie D, Mackay L, Callon C, Walsh Z. Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy After COVID-19: The Therapeutic Uses of Psilocybin and MDMA for Pandemic-Related Mental Health Problems. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:716593. [PMID: 34552518 PMCID: PMC8450400 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.716593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Argento
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Devon Christie
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Lindsay Mackay
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Cody Callon
- British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Zach Walsh
- British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
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58
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Healy CJ, Lee KA, D’Andrea W. Using Psychedelics With Therapeutic Intent Is Associated With Lower Shame and Complex Trauma Symptoms in Adults With Histories of Child Maltreatment. CHRONIC STRESS (THOUSAND OAKS, CALIF.) 2021; 5:24705470211029881. [PMID: 34291179 PMCID: PMC8278461 DOI: 10.1177/24705470211029881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Child maltreatment negatively affects the formation of internal schemata of self and other during development, leading to negative adaptations in self-concept and social cognition. Clinical reports suggest the efficacy of psychedelics in treating the psychopathological sequelae of child maltreatment. Altering maladaptive schemata of self and other implicated in negative self-concept and impaired social cognition may be a central mechanism for reducing posttraumatic stress symptoms. AIMS This study aims to assess whether psychedelic use moderates the relationships between child maltreatment and self-concept, social cognition, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. METHOD An online survey was completed by 166 participants and included measures of maltreatment exposure and severity, history of intentional therapeutic psychedelic use, posttraumatic stress symptoms, internalized shame, and facial emotion recognition. RESULTS Child maltreatment significantly correlated with posttraumatic stress symptoms (r = .26 and r = .20, p < .01) and internalized shame (r = .18, p < .05). Of all maltreatment subtypes, emotional abuse and neglect most strongly correlated with complex trauma symptoms (r = .32, p < .001) and internalized shame (r = .31, p < .001). Participants with a history of intentional therapeutic psychedelic use reported significantly lower complex trauma symptoms (d = 0.33, p < .05) and internalized shame (d = 0.35, p < .05) despite similar histories of maltreatment. Differences in complex trauma symptoms (d = 0.66, p < .01) and internalized shame (d = 0.80, p < .001) were largest for participants with a history of more than 5 occasions of intentional therapeutic psychedelic use. A history of more than 5 occasions of intentional therapeutic psychedelic use significantly moderated the relationship between emotional abuse and neglect and complex trauma symptoms (p < .01). No associations were found between maltreatment or psychedelic use and facial emotion recognition. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrate that using psychedelic drugs with therapeutic intent is associated with lower levels of complex trauma symptoms and internalized shame in individuals with histories of child maltreatment. Psychedelic use may have therapeutic benefit in treating the posttraumatic sequelae of child maltreatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. J. Healy
- Department of Psychology, The New School for Social Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kellie Ann Lee
- Department of Psychology, The New School for Social Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Wendy D’Andrea
- Department of Psychology, The New School for Social Research, New York, NY, USA
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Gandy S, Forstmann M, Carhart-Harris RL, Timmermann C, Luke D, Watts R. The potential synergistic effects between psychedelic administration and nature contact for the improvement of mental health. Health Psychol Open 2020; 7:2055102920978123. [PMID: 33335742 PMCID: PMC7724423 DOI: 10.1177/2055102920978123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic psychedelic administration and contact with nature have been
associated with the same psychological mechanisms: decreased
rumination and negative affect, enhanced psychological connectedness
and mindfulness-related capacities, and heightened states of awe and
transcendent experiences, all processes linked to improvements in
mental health amongst clinical and healthy populations. Nature-based
settings can have inherently psychologically soothing properties which
may complement all stages of psychedelic therapy (mainly preparation
and integration) whilst potentiating increases in nature relatedness,
with associated psychological benefits. Maximising enhancement of
nature relatedness through therapeutic psychedelic administration may
constitute an independent and complementary pathway towards
improvements in mental health that can be elicited by
psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Gandy
- Centre for Psychedelic Research,
Imperial College London, UK
- Synthesis Institute, The
Netherlands
- Sam Gandy, Synthesis Institute B.V.,
Korte Leidsedwarsstraat 12, 1017 RC Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | - David Luke
- Centre for Psychedelic Research,
Imperial College London, UK
- University of Greenwich, UK
| | - Rosalind Watts
- Centre for Psychedelic Research,
Imperial College London, UK
- Synthesis Institute, The
Netherlands
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60
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Lewis JL, Haase E, Trope A. Climate Dialectics in Psychotherapy: Holding Open the Space Between Abyss and Advance. Psychodyn Psychiatry 2020; 48:271-294. [PMID: 32996850 DOI: 10.1521/pdps.2020.48.3.271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The complexity, uncertainty and charged nature of climate change make it a unique stressor that is irreconcilable at an individual level. This experience of impossibility leads to splitting of reactions into polarities, or dialectics, which must be contained to reduce climate distress and held open for generative use towards climate adaptation. We present a dynamic model for addressing climate change material within psychotherapy, wherein these climate dialectics are identified, explored, and held open. Clinical vignettes* illustrate therapeutic work with the particular climate dialectics of Climate Reality-Social Reality, Individual Agency-Collective Agency, Hope-Hopelessness, Certainty-Uncertainty, and Nature as Comfort-Nature as Threat. Situations of climate anxiety, solastalgia, disavowal, and the climate dismissive patient are addressed, as is the therapeutic use of the wordlessness that accompanies our relationship with the natural world. We explore and emphasize how a focus on the containment and transformation of climate anxiety, rather than on its reduction, assists in aligning with new realities and in the reduction of distress. Use of a developmental stage metaphor, attention to climate-specific counter-transference enactments, and emphasis on authentic action are central to this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet L Lewis
- Clinical Assistant Proffessor of Psychiatry, University of Rochester
| | - Elizabeth Haase
- Associate Professor of Psychiatry, University of Nevada School of Medicine at Reno; Medical Director, Outpatient Behavioral Health, Carson Tahoe Regional Medical Center, Carson City
| | - Alexander Trope
- Senior Resident Physician, UCSF Department of Psychiatry, San Francisco
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Hendricks PS. Psilocybin-assisted group therapy: A new hope for demoralization. EClinicalMedicine 2020; 27:100557. [PMID: 33073220 PMCID: PMC7549063 DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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62
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan K. Chen
- Department of Psychology, York University, Ontario, Canada
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63
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Breeksema JJ, Niemeijer AR, Krediet E, Vermetten E, Schoevers RA. Psychedelic Treatments for Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review and Thematic Synthesis of Patient Experiences in Qualitative Studies. CNS Drugs 2020; 34:925-946. [PMID: 32803732 PMCID: PMC7447679 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-020-00748-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Interest in the use of psychedelic substances for the treatment of mental disorders is increasing. Processes that may affect therapeutic change are not yet fully understood. Qualitative research methods are increasingly used to examine patient accounts; however, currently, no systematic review exists that synthesizes these findings in relation to the use of psychedelics for the treatment of mental disorders. OBJECTIVE To provide an overview of salient themes in patient experiences of psychedelic treatments for mental disorders, presenting both common and diverging elements in patients' accounts, and elucidating how these affect the treatment process. METHODS We systematically searched the PubMed, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Embase databases for English-language qualitative literature without time limitations. Inclusion criteria were qualitative research design; peer-reviewed studies; based on verbalized patient utterances; and a level of abstraction or analysis of the results. Thematic synthesis was used to analyze and synthesize results across studies. A critical appraisal of study quality and methodological rigor was conducted using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP). RESULTS Fifteen research articles, comprising 178 patient experiences, were included. Studies exhibited a broad heterogeneity in terms of substance, mental disorder, treatment context, and qualitative methodology. Substances included psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ibogaine, ayahuasca, ketamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Disorders included anxiety, depression, eating disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and substance use disorders. While the included compounds were heterogeneous in pharmacology and treatment contexts, patients reported largely comparable experiences across disorders, which included phenomenological analogous effects, perspectives on the intervention, therapeutic processes and treatment outcomes. Comparable therapeutic processes included insights, altered self-perception, increased connectedness, transcendental experiences, and an expanded emotional spectrum, which patients reported contributed to clinically and personally relevant responses. CONCLUSIONS This review demonstrates how qualitative research of psychedelic treatments can contribute to distinguishing specific features of specific substances, and carry otherwise undiscovered implications for the treatment of specific psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joost J Breeksema
- University Center of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, Postbus 30.001, 9700 RB, Groningen, The Netherlands.
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Erwin Krediet
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Eric Vermetten
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Military Mental Health Care, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- ARQ National Psychotrauma Center, Diemen, The Netherlands
| | - Robert A Schoevers
- University Center of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Groningen, Postbus 30.001, 9700 RB, Groningen, The Netherlands
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64
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James E, Robertshaw TL, Hoskins M, Sessa B. Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences. Hum Psychopharmacol 2020; 35:e2742. [PMID: 32573835 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Research into psychedelic therapy models has shown promise for the treatment of specific psychiatric conditions. Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin have been correlated with therapeutic benefits and long-term improvements in positive mental outlook and attitudes. This article aims to provide an overview of the topic, highlight strengths and weaknesses in current research, generate novel perspectives and discussion, and consider future avenues for research. DESIGN This narrative review was designed to summarise and assess the state of research on psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences and applications for the treatment of specific psychiatric conditions. RESULTS Contemporary methods on the quantification of mystical-type experiences and their acute subjective effects are discussed. Recent studies provide some understanding of the pharmacological actions of psychedelics although the neurological similarities and differences between spontaneous and psychedelic mystical-type experiences are not well described. Applicability to modern clinical settings is assessed. Potential novel therapeutic applications include use in positive psychology interventions in healthy individuals. CONCLUSIONS Since 2006 significant advancements in understanding the therapeutic potential of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy have been made; however, more work is required to understand the neuromechanistic processes and applicability in modern clinical settings. Despite promising results in recent studies, funding issues for clinical trials, legal concerns and socio-cultural resistance provide a counterpoint to experimental evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward James
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Thomas L Robertshaw
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Mathew Hoskins
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.,Cardiff and Vale University Health Board, Cardiff, UK
| | - Ben Sessa
- Neuropsychopharmacology Unit, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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65
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van Mulukom V, Patterson RE, van Elk M. Broadening Your Mind to Include Others: The relationship between serotonergic psychedelic experiences and maladaptive narcissism. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:2725-2737. [PMID: 32472162 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05568-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recent research has shown that classical serotonergic psychedelic (CSP) drugs may be used to ameliorate certain health issues and disorders. Here we hypothesised that CSP experiences, through their ability to induce awe and ego-dissolution, may result in a reduction of maladaptive narcissistic personality traits, such as a strong sense of entitlement and lack of empathy. OBJECTIVES Our objective was to investigate whether high levels of awe and ego dissolution during recent CSP experiences are associated with currently lower levels of maladaptive narcissism. METHODS In this pre-registered high-powered (N = 414) study, we used an online retrospective survey asking participants to describe their 'most awe-inspiring, impressive, significant, or emotionally intense experience', as well as several validated scales to test our hypothesis. RESULTS A statistically significant mediation model indicated that recent CSP-induced experiences were associated with currently increased feelings of connectedness and affective empathetic drive, which in turn were associated with decreased exploitative-entitled narcissism. This relationship held even when taking into account sensation-seeking personality features. We found no evidence for feelings of ego dissolution to have the same effect. CONCLUSIONS Feelings of awe, but not ego dissolution, during recent CSP experiences were associated with increased feelings of connectedness and empathy, which in turn were associated with decreased levels of maladaptive narcissism personality features. This suggests that CSPs hold therapeutic potential for disorders involving connectedness and empathy, such as the treatment of pathological narcissism, and that the induction of connectedness through awe appears to be the driving force behind this potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie van Mulukom
- Brain, Belief, and Behaviour Lab, Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations, Innovation Village IV5, Cheetah Road, Coventry, CV1 2TL, UK.
| | - Ruairi E Patterson
- Brain, Belief, and Behaviour Lab, Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations, Innovation Village IV5, Cheetah Road, Coventry, CV1 2TL, UK
| | - Michiel van Elk
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 129B, 1018, XA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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66
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Aday JS, Davoli CC, Bloesch EK. Psychedelics and virtual reality: parallels and applications. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2020; 10:2045125320948356. [PMID: 32922734 PMCID: PMC7446267 DOI: 10.1177/2045125320948356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic drugs and virtual reality (VR) each have the capacity to disrupt the rigidity and limitations of typical conscious experience. This article delineates the parallels among psychedelic and VR states as well as their potential synergistic applications in clinical and recreational settings. Findings indicate that, individually, psychedelics and VR are used in analogous ways to alter sensory experience and evoke awe. They are also both used in tandem with traditional therapies to treat a variety of mood disorders; their shared capacity to transiently alter perspective and disrupt rigid patterns of mental experience may underly their analogous and transdiagnostic therapeutic uses. In terms of their combined applications, a number of recreational users currently utilize psychedelics and VR together to enhance their experience. We propose that VR may be a useful tool for preparing hallucinogen-naïve participants in clinical trials for the sensory distortions experienced in psychedelic states. Given the critical role of "setting" in psychedelic treatment outcomes, we also detail how VR could be used to optimize the environment in psychedelic sessions. Finally, we provide considerations for future studies and detail how advancements in psychedelic and VR research can inform one another. Collectively, this article outlines a number of connections between psychedelics and VR, and, more broadly, is representative of growing scientific interest into the interactions among technology, psychopharmacology, and mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob S. Aday
- Department of Psychology, Central Michigan University, 101 Sloan Hall, Mount Pleasant, MI 48858, USA
| | | | - Emily K. Bloesch
- Department of Psychology, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
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67
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Hibicke M, Landry AN, Kramer HM, Talman ZK, Nichols CD. Psychedelics, but Not Ketamine, Produce Persistent Antidepressant-like Effects in a Rodent Experimental System for the Study of Depression. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:864-871. [PMID: 32133835 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Psilocybin shows efficacy to alleviate depression in human clinical trials for six or more months after only one or two treatments. Another hallucinogenic drug, esketamine, has recently been U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved as a rapid-acting antidepressant. The mechanistic basis for the antidepressant effects of psilocybin and ketamine appear to be conserved. The efficacy of these two medications has not, however, been directly compared either clinically or preclinically. Further, whether or not a profound subjective existential experience is necessary for psilocybin to have antidepressant effects is unknown. To address these questions, we tested psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and ketamine in a rat model for depression. As in humans, a single administration of psilocybin or LSD produced persistent antidepressant-like effects in our model. In contrast, ketamine produced only a transient antidepressant-like effect. Our results indicate that classic psychedelics may have therapeutic efficacy that is more persistent than that of ketamine, and also suggest that a subjective existential experience may not be necessary for therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Hibicke
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
| | - Alexus N. Landry
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
| | - Hannah M. Kramer
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
| | - Zoe K. Talman
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
| | - Charles D. Nichols
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
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68
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Wolff M, Evens R, Mertens LJ, Koslowski M, Betzler F, Gründer G, Jungaberle H. Learning to Let Go: A Cognitive-Behavioral Model of How Psychedelic Therapy Promotes Acceptance. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:5. [PMID: 32153433 PMCID: PMC7046795 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The efficacy of psychedelic-assisted therapies for mental disorders has been attributed to the lasting change from experiential avoidance to acceptance that these treatments appear to facilitate. This article presents a conceptual model that specifies potential psychological mechanisms underlying such change, and that shows substantial parallels between psychedelic therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy: We propose that in the carefully controlled context of psychedelic therapy as applied in contemporary clinical research, psychedelic-induced belief relaxation can increase motivation for acceptance via operant conditioning, thus engendering episodes of relatively avoidance-free exposure to greatly intensified private events. Under these unique learning conditions, relaxed avoidance-related beliefs can be exposed to corrective information and become revised accordingly, which may explain long-term increases in acceptance and corresponding reductions in psychopathology. Open research questions and implications for clinical practice are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Wolff
- Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- MIND Foundation, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ricarda Evens
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lea J. Mertens
- Department of Molecular Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Michael Koslowski
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Felix Betzler
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerhard Gründer
- Department of Molecular Neuroimaging, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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69
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Moreton SG, Szalla L, Menzies RE, Arena AF. Embedding existential psychology within psychedelic science: reduced death anxiety as a mediator of the therapeutic effects of psychedelics. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:21-32. [PMID: 31784805 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05391-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Psychedelic therapies can engender enduring improvements in psychological well-being. However, relatively little is known about the psychological mechanisms through which the salutary effects of psychedelics emerge. Through integrating extant research on psychedelics with contemporary existential psychology, we present a novel hypothesis that reduced death anxiety may be a key mechanism underpinning the therapeutic effects of psychedelics. In developing this hypothesis, we also provide a complementary review of mechanisms through which psychedelics may reduce death anxiety. We conclude that an awareness of the role of death anxiety in psychopathology has the potential to guide future research into psychedelic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam G Moreton
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia.
| | - Luke Szalla
- School of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| | - Rachel E Menzies
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Andrew F Arena
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
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70
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Davis AK, Barrett FS, Griffiths RR. Psychological flexibility mediates the relations between acute psychedelic effects and subjective decreases in depression and anxiety. JOURNAL OF CONTEXTUAL BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 2020; 15:39-45. [PMID: 32864325 PMCID: PMC7451132 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Prior research has shown that acute subjective psychedelic effects are associated with both spontaneous and intended changes in depression and anxiety. Psychedelics are also theorized to produce increases in psychological flexibility, which could explain decreases in depression and anxiety following a psychedelic experience. Therefore, the present cross-sectional survey study sought to examine whether psychological flexibility mediated the relationship between acute psychedelic experiences and spontaneous or intended changes in depression and anxiety among a large international sample of people who reported having used a psychedelic (n=985; male=71.6%; Caucasian/white=84.1%; M age=32.2, SD=12.6). A regression analysis showed that acute effects (i.e., mystical and insightful effects) were significantly associated with decreases in depression/anxiety following a psychedelic experience. A path analysis revealed that, while controlling for age and sex, increases in psychological flexibility fully mediated the effect of mystical and insightful experiences on decreases in depression and anxiety following a psychedelic experience. This suggests that psychological flexibility may be an important mediator of the therapeutic effects of psychedelic drugs. Future prospective experimental studies should examine the effect of psychedelic drug administration on psychological flexibility in order to gain a better understanding of the psychological processes that predict therapeutic effects of psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan K. Davis
- College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
| | - Frederick S. Barrett
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
| | - Roland R. Griffiths
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
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71
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Nichols CD, Hendricks PS. Classic psychedelics as therapeutics for psychiatric disorders. HANDBOOK OF BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64125-0.00049-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Gandy S. Psychedelics and potential benefits in “healthy normals”: A review of the literature. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
We are in the midst of a psychedelic research renaissance. With research examining the efficacy of psychedelics as a treatment for a range of mental health indications still in its early stages, there is an increasing body of research to show that careful use of psychedelics can yield a variety of benefits in “healthy normals” and so lead to “the betterment of well people.” Psychedelics have been found to modulate neuroplasticity, and usage in a supportive setting can result in enduring increases in traits such as well-being, life satisfaction, life meaning, mindfulness, and a variety of measures associated with prosocial behaviors and healthy psychological functioning. The effect of psychedelic experience on measures of personality trait openness and is potential implications is examined, and the potential role of awe as a mediator of the benefits of the psychedelic experience is discussed. Special attention is given to the capacity of psychedelics to increase measures of nature relatedness in an enduring sense, which is being correlated with a broad range of measures of psychological well-being as well as a key predictor of pro-environmental awareness and behavior. The effects of particular classical psychedelic compounds on healthy people are discussed, with special attention given to the mystical-type experiences occasioned by high doses of psychedelics, which appear to be an important mediator of long-term benefits and psychotherapeutic gains. Research looking at the potential benefits of psychedelic microdosing is discussed. Potential future research avenues are explored, focusing on the potential development of psychedelics as agents of ecotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Gandy
- 1 Independent Researcher, Leicestershire, UK
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73
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Kettner H, Gandy S, Haijen ECHM, Carhart-Harris RL. From Egoism to Ecoism: Psychedelics Increase Nature Relatedness in a State-Mediated and Context-Dependent Manner. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E5147. [PMID: 31888300 PMCID: PMC6949937 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16245147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: There appears to be a growing disconnection between humans and their natural environments which has been linked to poor mental health and ecological destruction. Previous research suggests that individual levels of nature relatedness can be increased through the use of classical psychedelic compounds, although a causal link between psychedelic use and nature relatedness has not yet been established. (2) Methods: Using correlations and generalized linear mixed regression modelling, we investigated the association between psychedelic use and nature relatedness in a prospective online study. Individuals planning to use a psychedelic received questionnaires 1 week before (N = 654), plus one day, 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 2 years after a psychedelic experience. (3) Results: The frequency of lifetime psychedelic use was positively correlated with nature relatedness at baseline. Nature relatedness was significantly increased 2 weeks, 4 weeks and 2 years after the psychedelic experience. This increase was positively correlated with concomitant increases in psychological well-being and was dependent on the extent of ego-dissolution and the perceived influence of natural surroundings during the acute psychedelic state. (4) Conclusions: The here presented evidence for a context- and state-dependent causal effect of psychedelic use on nature relatedness bears relevance for psychedelic treatment models in mental health and, in the face of the current ecological crisis, planetary health.
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74
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Argento E, Capler R, Thomas G, Lucas P, Tupper KW. Exploring ayahuasca‐assisted therapy for addiction: A qualitative analysis of preliminary findings among an Indigenous community in Canada. Drug Alcohol Rev 2019; 38:781-789. [DOI: 10.1111/dar.12985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Argento
- Centre for Gender and Sexual Health EquityUniversity of British Columbia Vancouver Canada
| | | | - Gerald Thomas
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use ResearchUniversity of Victoria Victoria Canada
| | - Philippe Lucas
- Global Patient Research and Access, Tilray and Social Dimensions of HealthUniversity of Victoria Victoria Canada
| | - Kenneth W. Tupper
- School of Population and Public HealthUniversity of British Columbia Vancouver Canada
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Anderson T, Petranker R, Christopher A, Rosenbaum D, Weissman C, Dinh-Williams LA, Hui K, Hapke E. Psychedelic microdosing benefits and challenges: an empirical codebook. Harm Reduct J 2019; 16:43. [PMID: 31288862 PMCID: PMC6617883 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-019-0308-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microdosing psychedelics is the practice of consuming very low, sub-hallucinogenic doses of a psychedelic substance, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or psilocybin-containing mushrooms. According to media reports, microdosing has grown in popularity, yet the scientific literature contains minimal research on this practice. There has been limited reporting on adverse events associated with microdosing, and the experiences of microdosers in community samples have not been categorized. METHODS In the present study, we develop a codebook of microdosing benefits and challenges (MDBC) based on the qualitative reports of a real-world sample of 278 microdosers. RESULTS We describe novel findings, both in terms of beneficial outcomes, such as improved mood (26.6%) and focus (14.8%), and in terms of challenging outcomes, such as physiological discomfort (18.0%) and increased anxiety (6.7%). We also show parallels between benefits and drawbacks and discuss the implications of these results. We probe for substance-dependent differences, finding that psilocybin-only users report the benefits of microdosing were more important than other users report. CONCLUSIONS These mixed-methods results help summarize and frame the experiences reported by an active microdosing community as high-potential avenues for future scientific research. The MDBC taxonomy reported here informs future research, leveraging participant reports to distil the highest-potential intervention targets so research funding can be efficiently allocated. Microdosing research complements the full-dose literature as clinical treatments are developed and neuropharmacological mechanisms are sought. This framework aims to inform researchers and clinicians as experimental microdosing research begins in earnest in the years to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Anderson
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Mississauga, Canada
| | | | | | - Daniel Rosenbaum
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Cory Weissman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Le-Anh Dinh-Williams
- Department of Psychological Clinical Science, University of Toronto at Scarborough, Toronto, Canada
| | - Katrina Hui
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Emma Hapke
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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