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Sanchiz-Calvo M, Bentea E, Baekelandt V. Rodent models based on endolysosomal genes involved in Parkinson's disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2021; 72:55-62. [PMID: 34628360 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Genes associated with endolysosomal function have been recently associated with familial Parkinson's disease and described as risk factors for sporadic cases. This indicates that deficits in this pathway predispose to parkinsonism. To better understand the role of these genes in disease development, rodent models have been created by targeting genes playing a role in endolysosomal function, such as LRRK2, DNAJC6, SYNJ1, VPS35, GBA1, ATP13A2 and TMEM175. Here, we review the latest findings describing parkinsonian features in these animal models secondary to endolysosomal dysfunction. Also, we provide suggestions for further development and application of these animal models to better understand the contribution of endolysosomal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and provide novel models for testing therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Sanchiz-Calvo
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Eduard Bentea
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, USA.
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TNFα increases tyrosine hydroxylase expression in human monocytes. NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2021; 7:62. [PMID: 34285243 PMCID: PMC8292430 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-021-00201-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Most, if not all, peripheral immune cells in humans and animals express tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis. Since TH is typically studied in the context of brain catecholamine signaling, little is known about changes in TH production and function in peripheral immune cells. This knowledge gap is due, in part, to the lack of an adequately sensitive assay to measure TH in immune cells expressing lower TH levels compared to other TH expressing cells. Here, we report the development of a highly sensitive and reproducible Bio-ELISA to quantify picogram levels of TH in multiple model systems. We have applied this assay to monocytes isolated from blood of persons with Parkinson's disease (PD) and to age-matched, healthy controls. Our study unexpectedly revealed that PD patients' monocytes express significantly higher levels of TH protein in peripheral monocytes relative to healthy controls. Tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), a pro-inflammatory cytokine, has also been shown to be increased in the brains and peripheral circulation in human PD, as well as in animal models of PD. Therefore, we investigated a possible connection between higher levels of TH protein and the known increase in circulating TNFα in PD. Monocytes isolated from healthy donors were treated with TNFα or with TNFα in the presence of an inhibitor. Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) was used as a positive control. We observed that TNFα stimulation increased both the number of TH+ monocytes and the quantity of TH per monocyte, without increasing the total numbers of monocytes. These results revealed that TNFα could potentially modify monocytic TH production and serve a regulatory role in peripheral immune function. The development and application of a highly sensitive assay to quantify TH in both human and animal cells will provide a novel tool for further investigating possible PD immune regulatory pathways between brain and periphery.
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Yao L, Wu J, Koc S, Lu G. Genetic Imaging of Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's Disease: Recent Advancements. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:655819. [PMID: 34336822 PMCID: PMC8320775 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.655819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative aging disorders characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms due to the selective loss of midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neurons. The decreased viability of DA neurons slowly results in the appearance of motor symptoms such as rigidity, bradykinesia, resting tremor, and postural instability. These symptoms largely depend on DA nigrostriatal denervation. Pharmacological and surgical interventions are the main treatment for improving clinical symptoms, but it has not been possible to cure PD. Furthermore, the cause of neurodegeneration remains unclear. One of the possible neurodegeneration mechanisms is a chronic inflammation of the central nervous system, which is mediated by microglial cells. Impaired or dead DA neurons can directly lead to microglia activation, producing a large number of reactive oxygen species and pro-inflammatory cytokines. These cytotoxic factors contribute to the apoptosis and death of DA neurons, and the pathological process of neuroinflammation aggravates the primary morbid process and exacerbates ongoing neurodegeneration. Therefore, anti-inflammatory treatment exerts a robust neuroprotective effect in a mouse model of PD. Since discovering the first mutation in the α-synuclein gene (SNCA), which can cause disease-causing, PD has involved many genes and loci such as LRRK2, Parkin, SNCA, and PINK1. In this article, we summarize the critical descriptions of the genetic factors involved in PD's occurrence and development (such as LRRK2, SNCA, Parkin, PINK1, and inflammasome), and these factors play a crucial role in neuroinflammation. Regulation of these signaling pathways and molecular factors related to these genetic factors can vastly improve the neuroinflammation of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longping Yao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Jiayu Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Sumeyye Koc
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Health Sciences, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Guohui Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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Magnusen AF, Hatton SL, Rani R, Pandey MK. Genetic Defects and Pro-inflammatory Cytokines in Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol 2021; 12:636139. [PMID: 34239490 PMCID: PMC8259624 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.636139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a movement disorder attributed to the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons mainly in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Motor symptoms include resting tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesias, while non-motor symptoms include autonomic dysfunction, anxiety, and sleeping problems. Genetic mutations in a number of genes (e.g., LRRK2, GBA, SNCA, PARK2, PARK6, and PARK7) and the resultant abnormal activation of microglial cells are assumed to be the main reasons for the loss of DA neurons in PD with genetic causes. Additionally, immune cell infiltration and their participation in major histocompatibility complex I (MHCI) and/or MHCII-mediated processing and presentation of cytosolic or mitochondrial antigens activate the microglial cells and cause the massive generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which are all critical for the propagation of brain inflammation and the neurodegeneration in PD with genetic and idiopathic causes. Despite knowing the involvement of several of such immune devices that trigger neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in PD, the exact disease mechanism or the innovative biomarker that could detect disease severity in PD linked to LRRK2, GBA, SNCA, PARK2, PARK6, and PARK7 defects is largely unknown. The current review has explored data from genetics, immunology, and in vivo and ex vivo functional studies that demonstrate that certain genetic defects might contribute to microglial cell activation and massive generation of a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which ultimately drive the brain inflammation and lead to neurodegeneration in PD. Understanding the detailed involvement of a variety of immune mediators, their source, and the target could provide a better understanding of the disease process. This information might be helpful in clinical diagnosis, monitoring of disease progression, and early identification of affected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Frank Magnusen
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Shelby Loraine Hatton
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Reena Rani
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Manoj Kumar Pandey
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States.,Department of Paediatrics of University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States
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Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2-related functions in GLIA: an update of the last years. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 49:1375-1384. [PMID: 33960369 DOI: 10.1042/bst20201092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Missense mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) gene represent the most common cause of autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). In the years LRRK2 has been associated with several organelles and related pathways in cell. However, despite the significant amount of research done in the past decade, the contribution of LRRK2 mutations to PD pathogenesis remains unknown. Growing evidence highlights that LRRK2 controls multiple processes in brain immune cells, microglia and astrocytes, and suggests that deregulated LRRK2 activity in these cells, due to gene mutation, might be directly associated with pathological mechanisms underlying PD. In this brief review, we recapitulate and update the last LRRK2 functions dissected in microglia and astrocytes. Moreover, we discuss how dysfunctions of LRRK2-related pathways may impact glia physiology and their cross-talk with neurons, thus leading to neurodegeneration and progression of PD.
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Harms AS, Ferreira SA, Romero-Ramos M. Periphery and brain, innate and adaptive immunity in Parkinson's disease. Acta Neuropathol 2021; 141:527-545. [PMID: 33555429 PMCID: PMC7952334 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-021-02268-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder where alpha-synuclein plays a central role in the death and dysfunction of neurons, both, in central, as well as in the peripheral nervous system. Besides the neuronal events observed in patients, PD also includes a significant immune component. It is suggested that the PD-associated immune response will have consequences on neuronal health, thus opening immunomodulation as a potential therapeutic strategy in PD. The immune changes during the disease occur in the brain, involving microglia, but also in the periphery with changes in cells of the innate immune system, particularly monocytes, as well as those of adaptive immunity, such as T-cells. This realization arises from multiple patient studies, but also from data in animal models of the disease, providing strong evidence for innate and adaptive immune system crosstalk in the central nervous system and periphery in PD. Here we review the data showing that alpha-synuclein plays a crucial role in the activation of the innate and adaptive immune system. We will also describe the studies suggesting that inflammation in PD includes early changes in innate and adaptive immune cells that develop dynamically through time during disease, contributing to neuronal degeneration and symptomatology in patients. This novel finding has contributed to the definition of PD as a multisystem disease that should be approached in a more integratory manner rather than a brain-focused classical approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley S Harms
- Department of Neurology and Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Sara A Ferreira
- Department of Biomedicine and CNS Disease Modelling Group, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergsgade 10, 8000C, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Marina Romero-Ramos
- Department of Biomedicine and CNS Disease Modelling Group, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergsgade 10, 8000C, Aarhus, Denmark.
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Herrick MK, Tansey MG. Is LRRK2 the missing link between inflammatory bowel disease and Parkinson's disease? NPJ Parkinsons Dis 2021; 7:26. [PMID: 33750819 PMCID: PMC7943592 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-021-00170-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Links that implicate the gastrointestinal system in Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis and progression have become increasingly common. PD shares several similarities with Crohn's disease (CD). Intestinal inflammation is common in both PD and CD and is hypothesized to contribute to PD neuropathology. Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are one of the greatest genetic contributors to PD. Variants in LRRK2 have also been associated with increased incidence of CD. Since its discovery, LRRK2 has been studied intensely in neurons, despite multiple lines of evidence showing that LRRK2 is highly expressed in immune cells. Based on the fact that higher levels of LRRK2 are detectable in inflamed colonic tissue from CD patients and in peripheral immune cells from sporadic PD patients relative to matched controls, we posit that LRRK2 regulates inflammatory processes. Therefore, LRRK2 may sit at a crossroads whereby gut inflammation and higher LRRK2 levels in CD may be a biomarker of increased risk for sporadic PD and/or may represent a tractable therapeutic target in inflammatory diseases that increase risk for PD. Here we will focus on reviewing how PD and CD share overlapping phenotypes, particularly in terms of LRRK2 in the context of the immune system, that could be targeted in future therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Herrick
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease at The University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Malú G Tansey
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease at The University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Follett J, Farrer MJ. LRRK2; a dynamic regulator of cellular trafficking. Brain Res 2021; 1761:147394. [PMID: 33662339 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) represents the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, characterized clinically by bradykinesia, resting tremor, rigidity and postural instability, and a variety of non-motor features. The etiology of PD is unknown, however genetic, environmental and inflammatory factors may influence disease onset and progression. Genetic variability in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 confers significant genotypic and population-attributable risk for LRRK2-parkinsonism that is clinically indistinguishable from idiopathic PD. Nevertheless, the age-associated midbrain pathology observed post-mortem in LRRK2-parkinsonism may involve the abnormal accumulation of either α-synuclein or tau, or just the loss of dopaminergic neurons and gliosis. While diverse biological functions have been described for this multi-domain protein in many cell types, evidence suggests LRRK2 may sense endosomal trafficking to orchestrate dynamic changes in vesicular flux and cytoskeletal architecture. This review posits the long-held belief that synaptic-axonal dysfunction and terminal degeneration may precede dopaminergic cell loss, and provocatively questions how facets of LRRK2 biology may influence this molecular pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Follett
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| | - Matthew J Farrer
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics and Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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A LRRK2 GTP Binding Inhibitor, 68, Reduces LPS-Induced Signaling Events and TNF-α Release in Human Lymphoblasts. Cells 2021; 10:cells10020480. [PMID: 33672296 PMCID: PMC7926966 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) gene cause autosomal-dominant Parkinson’s disease (PD) and contribute to sporadic PD. Common genetic variation in LRRK2 modifies susceptibility to immunological disorders including Crohn’s disease and leprosy. Previous studies have reported that LRRK2 is expressed in B lymphocytes and macrophages, suggesting a role for LRRK2 in immunological functions. In this study, we characterized the LRRK2 protein expression and phosphorylation using human lymphoblasts. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a proinflammatory agent, induced the increase of LRRK2 expression and kinase activities in human lymphoblasts in a time-dependent manner. Moreover, LPS activated the Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway, increased TRAF6/LRRK2 interaction, and elevated the phosphorylation levels of MAPK (JNK1/2, p38, and ERK1/2) and IkBα. Treatment with LRRK2 inhibitor 68 reduced LPS-induced TRAF6/LRRK2 interaction and MAPK and IkBα phosphorylation, thereby reducing TNF-α secretion. These results indicate that LRRK2 is actively involved in proinflammatory responses in human lymphoblasts, and inhibition of GTP binding by 68 results in an anti-inflammation effect against proinflammatory stimuli. These findings not only provide novel insights into the mechanisms of LRRK2-linked immune and inflammatory responses in B-cell-like lymphoblasts, but also suggest that 68 may also have potential therapeutic value for LRRK2-linked immunological disorders.
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60
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Dwyer Z, Chaiquin M, Landrigan J, Ayoub K, Shail P, Rocha J, Childers CL, Storey KB, Philpott DJ, Sun H, Hayley S. The impact of dextran sodium sulphate and probiotic pre-treatment in a murine model of Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:20. [PMID: 33422110 PMCID: PMC7796536 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02062-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent work has established that Parkinson's disease (PD) patients have an altered gut microbiome, along with signs of intestinal inflammation. This could help explain the high degree of gastric disturbances in PD patients, as well as potentially be linked to the migration of peripheral inflammatory factors into the brain. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine microbiome alteration prior to the induction of a PD murine model. METHODS We presently assessed whether pre-treatment with the probiotic, VSL #3, or the inflammatory inducer, dextran sodium sulphate (DSS), would influence the PD-like pathology provoked by a dual hit toxin model using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and paraquat exposure. RESULTS While VSL #3 has been reported to have anti-inflammatory effects, DSS is often used as a model of colitis because of the gut inflammation and the breach of the intestinal barrier that it induces. We found that VSL#3 did not have any significant effects (beyond a blunting of LPS paraquat-induced weight loss). However, the DSS treatment caused marked changes in the gut microbiome and was also associated with augmented behavioral and inflammatory outcomes. In fact, DSS markedly increased taxa belonging to the Bacteroidaceae and Porphyromonadaceae families but reduced those from Rikencellaceae and S24-7, as well as provoking colonic pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, consistent with an inflamed gut. The DSS also increased the impact of LPS plus paraquat upon microglial morphology, along with circulating lipocalin-2 (neutrophil marker) and IL-6. Yet, neither DSS nor VSL#3 influenced the loss of substantia nigra dopamine neurons or the astrocytic and cytoskeleton remodeling protein changes that were provoked by the LPS followed by paraquat treatment. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that disruption of the intestinal integrity and the associated microbiome can interact with systemic inflammatory events to promote widespread brain-gut changes that could be relevant for PD and at the very least, suggestive of novel neuro-immune communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Dwyer
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Melany Chaiquin
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Jeffrey Landrigan
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Kiara Ayoub
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Pragya Shail
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Julianna Rocha
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Christie L Childers
- Institute of Biochemistry and Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Kenneth B Storey
- Institute of Biochemistry and Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Dana J Philpott
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Hongyu Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada.
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Pathological Functions of LRRK2 in Parkinson's Disease. Cells 2020; 9:cells9122565. [PMID: 33266247 PMCID: PMC7759975 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are common genetic risk factors for both familial and sporadic Parkinson’s disease (PD). Pathogenic mutations in LRRK2 have been shown to induce changes in its activity, and abnormal increase in LRRK2 kinase activity is thought to contribute to PD pathology. The precise molecular mechanisms underlying LRRK2-associated PD pathology are far from clear, however the identification of LRRK2 substrates and the elucidation of cellular pathways involved suggest a role of LRRK2 in microtubule dynamics, vesicular trafficking, and synaptic transmission. Moreover, LRRK2 is associated with pathologies of α-synuclein, a major component of Lewy bodies (LBs). Evidence from various cellular and animal models supports a role of LRRK2 in the regulation of aggregation and propagation of α-synuclein. Here, we summarize our current understanding of how pathogenic mutations dysregulate LRRK2 and discuss the possible mechanisms leading to neurodegeneration.
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62
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Feng YK, Wu QL, Peng YW, Liang FY, You HJ, Feng YW, Li G, Li XJ, Liu SH, Li YC, Zhang Y, Pei Z. Oral P. gingivalis impairs gut permeability and mediates immune responses associated with neurodegeneration in LRRK2 R1441G mice. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:347. [PMID: 33213462 PMCID: PMC7677837 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02027-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The R1441G mutation in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene results in late-onset Parkinson’s disease (PD). Peripheral inflammation and gut microbiota are closely associated with the pathogenesis of PD. Chronic periodontitis is a common type of peripheral inflammation, which is associated with PD. Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg), the most common bacterium causing chronic periodontitis, can cause alteration of gut microbiota. It is not known whether Pg-induced dysbiosis plays a role in the pathophysiology of PD. Methods In this study, live Pg were orally administrated to animals, three times a week for 1 month. Pg-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to stimulate mononuclear cells in vitro. The effects of oral Pg administration on the gut and brain were evaluated through behaviors, morphology, and cytokine expression. Results Dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra were reduced, and activated microglial cells were increased in R1441G mice given oral Pg. In addition, an increase in mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) as well as protein level of α-synuclein together with a decrease in zonula occludens-1 (Zo-1) was detected in the colon in Pg-treated R1441G mice. Furthermore, serum interleukin-17A (IL-17A) and brain IL-17 receptor A (IL-17RA) were increased in Pg-treated R1441G mice. Conclusions These findings suggest that oral Pg-induced inflammation may play an important role in the pathophysiology of LRRK2-associated PD. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-020-02027-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Kun Feng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Major Neurological Diseases, National Key Clinical Department and Key Discipline of Neurology, No.58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou, 510080, China.,Department of Neurology, Hainan General Hospital; Hainan Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, 570311, Hainan, China
| | - Qiong-Li Wu
- Department of Immunology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Yan-Wen Peng
- The Biotherapy Center, the Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510630, China
| | - Feng-Yin Liang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Major Neurological Diseases, National Key Clinical Department and Key Discipline of Neurology, No.58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Hua-Jing You
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Major Neurological Diseases, National Key Clinical Department and Key Discipline of Neurology, No.58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou, 510080, China
| | - Yi-Wei Feng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Major Neurological Diseases, National Key Clinical Department and Key Discipline of Neurology, No.58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou, 510080, China.,Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200000, China
| | - Ge Li
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, 510663, Guangdong, China
| | - Xue-Jiao Li
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, 510663, Guangdong, China
| | - Shu-Hua Liu
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, 510663, Guangdong, China
| | - Yong-Chao Li
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, 510663, Guangdong, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, 510663, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhong Pei
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Treatment of Major Neurological Diseases, National Key Clinical Department and Key Discipline of Neurology, No.58 Zhongshan Road 2, Guangzhou, 510080, China.
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Panagiotakopoulou V, Ivanyuk D, De Cicco S, Haq W, Arsić A, Yu C, Messelodi D, Oldrati M, Schöndorf DC, Perez MJ, Cassatella RP, Jakobi M, Schneiderhan-Marra N, Gasser T, Nikić-Spiegel I, Deleidi M. Interferon-γ signaling synergizes with LRRK2 in neurons and microglia derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5163. [PMID: 33057020 PMCID: PMC7560616 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18755-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease-associated kinase LRRK2 has been linked to IFN type II (IFN-γ) response in infections and to dopaminergic neuronal loss. However, whether and how LRRK2 synergizes with IFN-γ remains unclear. In this study, we employed dopaminergic neurons and microglia differentiated from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells carrying LRRK2 G2019S, the most common Parkinson's disease-associated mutation. We show that IFN-γ enhances the LRRK2 G2019S-dependent negative regulation of AKT phosphorylation and NFAT activation, thereby increasing neuronal vulnerability to immune challenge. Mechanistically, LRRK2 G2019S suppresses NFAT translocation via calcium signaling and possibly through microtubule reorganization. In microglia, LRRK2 modulates cytokine production and the glycolytic switch in response to IFN-γ in an NFAT-independent manner. Activated LRRK2 G2019S microglia cause neurite shortening, indicating that LRRK2-driven immunological changes can be neurotoxic. We propose that synergistic LRRK2/IFN-γ activation serves as a potential link between inflammation and neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Panagiotakopoulou
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Dina Ivanyuk
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Silvia De Cicco
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Wadood Haq
- Centre for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research University of Tübingen, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Aleksandra Arsić
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Cong Yu
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Daria Messelodi
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Marvin Oldrati
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - David C Schöndorf
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Maria-Jose Perez
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Ruggiero Pio Cassatella
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Meike Jakobi
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, 72770, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Nicole Schneiderhan-Marra
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute at the University of Tübingen, 72770, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Gasser
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Ivana Nikić-Spiegel
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany
| | - Michela Deleidi
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, 72076, Germany.
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hertie-Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 72076, Germany.
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Kam TI, Hinkle JT, Dawson TM, Dawson VL. Microglia and astrocyte dysfunction in parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 144:105028. [PMID: 32736085 PMCID: PMC7484088 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
While glia are essential for regulating the homeostasis in the normal brain, their dysfunction contributes to neurodegeneration in many brain diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent studies have identified that PD-associated genes are expressed in glial cells as well as neurons and have crucial roles in microglia and astrocytes. Here, we discuss the role of microglia and astrocytes dysfunction in relation to PD-linked mutations and their implications in PD pathogenesis. A better understanding of microglia and astrocyte functions in PD may provide insights into neurodegeneration and novel therapeutic approaches for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-In Kam
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Jared T Hinkle
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Thomas R, Hallett PJ, Isacson O. Experimental studies of mitochondrial and lysosomal function in in vitro and in vivo models relevant to Parkinson's disease genetic risk. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2020; 154:279-302. [PMID: 32739007 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2020.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have identified the involvement of mitochondrial and lysosomal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease (PD) pathology. In this review we discuss recent work that has identified deficits in mitophagy, mitochondrial network formation, increased sensitivity to mitochondrial stressors and alterations in proteins regulating mitochondrial fission and fusion associated with patient-derived fibroblasts harboring mutations in LRRK2 gene and from sporadic PD patient cells. We further focus on alterations of lysosomal enzymes, in particular glucocerebrosidase activity, and resultant lipid dyshomeostasis in PD and aging, in human tissue and in vivo rodent models. Future studies aimed at understanding the convergence of mitochondrial and lysosomal pathways will be of essence for the identification of unique cellular defects in PD and for the development of new treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ria Thomas
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States.
| | - Penelope J Hallett
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States.
| | - Ole Isacson
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, United States.
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66
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Wallings RL, Herrick MK, Tansey MG. LRRK2 at the Interface Between Peripheral and Central Immune Function in Parkinson's. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:443. [PMID: 32508566 PMCID: PMC7253584 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly accepted that there is an interplay between the peripheral immune response and neuroinflammation in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Mutations in the leucine-rich-repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are associated with familial and sporadic cases of PD but are also found in immune-related disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and leprosy. Furthermore, LRRK2 has been associated with bacterial infections such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Salmonella typhimurium. Recent evidence suggests a role of LRRK2 in the regulation of the immune system and modulation of inflammatory responses, at a systemic level, with LRRK2 functionally implicated in both the immune system of the central nervous system (CNS) and the periphery. It has therefore been suggested that peripheral immune signaling may play an important role in the regulation of neurodegeneration in LRRK2 as well as non-LRRK2-associated PD. This review will discuss the current evidence for this hypothesis and will provide compelling rationale for placing LRRK2 at the interface between peripheral immune responses and neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L. Wallings
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Mary K. Herrick
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Malú Gámez Tansey
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Dwyer Z, Rudyk C, Situt D, Beauchamp S, Abdali J, Dinesh A, Legancher N, Sun H, Schlossmacher M, Hayley S. Microglia depletion prior to lipopolysaccharide and paraquat treatment differentially modulates behavioral and neuronal outcomes in wild type and G2019S LRRK2 knock-in mice. Brain Behav Immun Health 2020; 5:100079. [PMID: 34589856 PMCID: PMC8474533 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Substantial data have implicated microglial-driven neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease (PD) and environmental toxicants have been long expected as triggers of such inflammatory processes. Of course, these environmental insults act in the context of genetic vulnerability factors and in this regard, leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), may play a prominent role. METHODS We used a double hit, lipopolysaccharide (LPS; endotoxin) followed by paraquat (pesticide toxicant) model of PD in mice with the most common LRRK2 mutation G2019S, knockin mice and wild type littermates. In order to assess the contribution of microglia, we depleted these cells (through 14 days of the CSF-1 antagonist, PLX-3397) prior to LPS and paraquat exposure. RESULTS We found that the G2019S mice displayed the greatest signs of behavioral pathology, but that the PLX-3397 induced microglial depletion at the time of LPS exposure diminished toxicity and weight loss and blunted the reduction in home-cage activity with subsequent paraquat exposure. However, neither the PLX-3397 pre-treatment nor the G2019S mutation affected the LPS + paraquat induced loss of substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) dopamine neurons or elevation of circulating immune (IL-6) or stress (corticosterone) factors. Intriguingly, microglial morphological ratings were basally enhanced in G2019S mice and the PLX-3397 pre-treatment reversed this effect. Moreover, PLX-3397 pre-treatment selectively elevated soluble a-synuclein and SIRT3 levels, while reducing SNc caspase-1 and 3, along with CX3CR1. Hence, the re-populated "new" microglia following cessation of PLX-3397 clearly had an altered phenotype or were immature at the time of sacrifice (i.e. after 11 days). CONCLUSIONS Collectively, these findings suggest that G2019S knock-in and PLX-3397 microglial depletion at the time of LPS exposure affects behavioral, but not neurodegenerative responses to subsequent environmental toxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zach Dwyer
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Chris Rudyk
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Divya Situt
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Sheryl Beauchamp
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Jawaria Abdali
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Anu Dinesh
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | | | - Hongyu Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | | | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - CLINT (Canadian LRRK2 in inflammation team)
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
- University of Ottawa, Canada
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Canada
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Cabezudo D, Baekelandt V, Lobbestael E. Multiple-Hit Hypothesis in Parkinson's Disease: LRRK2 and Inflammation. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:376. [PMID: 32410948 PMCID: PMC7199384 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The multiple hit hypothesis for Parkinson’s disease (PD) suggests that an interaction between multiple (genetic and/or environmental) risk factors is needed to trigger the pathology. Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) is an interesting protein to study in this context and is the focus of this review. More than 15 years of intensive research have identified several cellular pathways in which LRRK2 is involved, yet its exact physiological role or contribution to PD is not completely understood. Pathogenic mutations in LRRK2 are the most common genetic cause of PD but most likely require additional triggers to develop PD, as suggested by the reduced penetrance of the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. LRRK2 expression is high in immune cells such as monocytes, neutrophils, or dendritic cells, compared to neurons or glial cells and evidence for a role of LRRK2 in the immune system is emerging. This has led to the hypothesis that an inflammatory trigger is needed for pathogenic LRRK2 mutations to induce a PD phenotype. In this review, we will discuss the link between LRRK2 and inflammation and how this could play an active role in PD etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Cabezudo
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Veerle Baekelandt
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Evy Lobbestael
- Laboratory for Neurobiology and Gene Therapy, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Autophagy lysosomal pathway dysfunction in Parkinson's disease; evidence from human genetics. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2020; 73:60-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2019.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Ahmadi Rastegar D, Dzamko N. Leucine Rich Repeat Kinase 2 and Innate Immunity. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:193. [PMID: 32210756 PMCID: PMC7077357 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
For more than a decade, researchers have sought to uncover the biological function of the enigmatic leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) enzyme, a large multi-domain protein with dual GTPase and kinase activities. Originally identified as a familial Parkinson's disease (PD) risk gene, variations in LRRK2 are also associated with risk of idiopathic PD, inflammatory bowel disease and susceptibility to bacterial infections. LRRK2 is highly expressed in peripheral immune cells and the potential of LRRK2 to regulate immune and inflammatory pathways has emerged as common link across LRRK2-implicated diseases. This review outlines the current genetic and biochemical evidence linking LRRK2 to the regulation of innate immune inflammatory pathways, including the toll-like receptor and inflammasome pathways. Evidence suggests a complex interplay between genetic risk and protective alleles acts to modulate immune outcomes in a manner dependent on the particular pathogen and cell type invaded.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicolas Dzamko
- Brain and Mind Centre, Central Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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71
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LRRK2 regulation of immune-pathways and inflammatory disease. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 47:1581-1595. [PMID: 31769472 PMCID: PMC6925522 DOI: 10.1042/bst20180463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich-repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are associated with familial and sporadic cases of Parkinson's disease but are also found in immune-related disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease, tuberculosis and leprosy. LRRK2 is highly expressed in immune cells and has been functionally linked to pathways pertinent to immune cell function, such as cytokine release, autophagy and phagocytosis. Here, we examine the current understanding of the role of LRRK2 kinase activity in pathway regulation in immune cells, drawing upon data from multiple diseases associated with LRRK2 to highlight the pleiotropic effects of LRRK2 in different cell types. We discuss the role of the bona fide LRRK2 substrate, Rab GTPases, in LRRK2 pathway regulation as well as downstream events in the autophagy and inflammatory pathways.
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72
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Sanyal A, DeAndrade MP, Novis HS, Lin S, Chang J, Lengacher N, Tomlinson JJ, Tansey MG, LaVoie MJ. Lysosome and Inflammatory Defects in GBA1-Mutant Astrocytes Are Normalized by LRRK2 Inhibition. Mov Disord 2020; 35:760-773. [PMID: 32034799 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autosomal recessive mutations in the glucocerebrosidase gene, Beta-glucocerebrosidase 1 (GBA1), cause the lysosomal storage disorder Gaucher's disease. Heterozygous carriers of most GBA1 mutations have dramatically increased Parkinson's disease (PD) risk, but the mechanisms and cells affected remain unknown. Glucocerebrosidase expression is relatively enriched in astrocytes, yet the impact of its mutation in these cells has not yet been addressed. OBJECTIVES Emerging data supporting non-cell-autonomous mechanisms driving PD pathogenesis inspired the first characterization of GBA1-mutant astrocytes. In addition, we asked whether LRRK2, likewise linked to PD and enriched in astrocytes, intersected with GBA1 phenotypes. METHODS Using heterozygous and homozygous GBA1 D409V knockin mouse astrocytes, we conducted rigorous biochemical and image-based analyses of lysosomal function and morphology. We also examined basal and evoked cytokine response at the transcriptional and secretory levels. RESULTS The D409V knockin astrocytes manifested broad deficits in lysosomal morphology and function, as expected. This, however, is the first study to show dramatic defects in basal and TLR4-dependent cytokine production. Albeit to different extents, both the lysosomal dysfunction and inflammatory responses were normalized by inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity, suggesting functional intracellular crosstalk between glucocerebrosidase and LRRK2 activities in astrocytes. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate novel pathologic effects of a GBA1 mutation on inflammatory responses in astrocytes, indicating the likelihood of broader immunologic changes in GBA-PD patients. Our findings support the involvement of non-cell-autonomous mechanisms contributing to the pathogenesis of GBA1-linked PD and identify new opportunities to correct these changes with pharmacological intervention. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwesha Sanyal
- Ann Romney Center for Neurological Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mark P DeAndrade
- Ann Romney Center for Neurological Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Hailey S Novis
- Ann Romney Center for Neurological Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Steven Lin
- Ann Romney Center for Neurological Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jianjun Chang
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Nathalie Lengacher
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa Brain and Mind Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Julianna J Tomlinson
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa Brain and Mind Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Malú G Tansey
- Department of Neuroscience and Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Matthew J LaVoie
- Ann Romney Center for Neurological Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Cogo S, Manzoni C, Lewis PA, Greggio E. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 and lysosomal dyshomeostasis in Parkinson disease. J Neurochem 2020; 152:273-283. [PMID: 31693760 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, a number of studies have underlined the importance of lysosomal-based degradative pathways in maintaining the homeostasis of post-mitotic cells, and revealed the remarkable contribution of a functional autophagic machinery in the promotion of longevity. In contrast, defects in the clearance of organelles and aberrant protein aggregates have been linked to accelerated neuronal loss and neurological dysfunction. Several neurodegenerative disorders, among which Alzheimer disease (AD), Frontotemporal dementia, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis to name a few, are associated with alterations of the autophagy and endo-lysosomal pathways. In Parkinson disease (PD), the most prevalent genetic determinant, Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), is believed to be involved in the regulation of intracellular vesicle traffic, autophagy and lysosomal function. Here, we review the current understanding of the mechanisms by which LRRK2 regulates lysosomal-based degradative pathways in neuronal and non-neuronal cells and discuss the impact of pathogenic PD mutations in contributing to lysosomal dyshomeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Cogo
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Claudia Manzoni
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, University College London, London, UK
| | - Patrick A Lewis
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, University College London, London, UK
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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MacIsaac S, Quevedo Melo T, Zhang Y, Volta M, Farrer MJ, Milnerwood AJ. Neuron-autonomous susceptibility to induced synuclein aggregation is exacerbated by endogenous Lrrk2 mutations and ameliorated by Lrrk2 genetic knock-out. Brain Commun 2020; 2:fcz052. [PMID: 32510053 PMCID: PMC7273240 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcz052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal aggregates containing α-synuclein are a pathological hallmark of several degenerative diseases; including Parkinson’s disease, Parkinson’s disease with dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies. Understanding the process of α-synuclein aggregation, and discovering means of preventing it, may help guide therapeutic strategy and drug design. Recent advances provide tools to induce α-synuclein aggregation in neuronal cultures. Application of exogenous pre-formed fibrillar α-synuclein induces pathological phosphorylation and accumulation of endogenous α-synuclein, typical of that seen in disease. Genomic variability and mutations in α-synuclein and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 proteins are the major genetic risk factors for Parkinson’s disease. Reports demonstrate fibril-induced α-synuclein aggregation is increased in cells from leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 pathogenic mutant (G2019S) overexpressing mice, and variously decreased by leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 inhibitors. Elsewhere in vivo antisense knock-down of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 protein has been shown to protect mice from fibril-induced α-synuclein aggregation, whereas kinase inhibition did not. To help bring clarity to this issue, we took a purely genetic approach in a standardized neuron-enriched culture, lacking glia. We compared fibril treatment of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 germ-line knock-out, and G2019S germ-line knock-in, mouse cortical neuron cultures with those from littermates. We found leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 knock-out neurons are resistant to α-synuclein aggregation, which predominantly forms within axons, and may cause axonal fragmentation. Conversely, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 knock-in neurons are more vulnerable to fibril-induced α-synuclein accumulation. Protection and resistance correlated with basal increases in a lysosome marker in knock-out, and an autophagy marker in knock-in cultures. The data add to a growing number of studies that argue leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 silencing, and potentially kinase inhibition, may be a useful therapeutic strategy against synucleinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah MacIsaac
- Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Thaiany Quevedo Melo
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Yuting Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Mattia Volta
- Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,EURAC Research, Institute for Biomedicine, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Matthew J Farrer
- Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Austen J Milnerwood
- Department of Human Genetics, Centre for Applied Neurogenetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Colli ML, Szymczak F, Eizirik DL. Molecular Footprints of the Immune Assault on Pancreatic Beta Cells in Type 1 Diabetes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:568446. [PMID: 33042023 PMCID: PMC7522353 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.568446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic disease caused by the selective destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells by infiltrating immune cells. We presently evaluated the transcriptomic signature observed in beta cells in early T1D and compared it with the signatures observed following in vitro exposure of human islets to inflammatory or metabolic stresses, with the aim of identifying "footprints" of the immune assault in the target beta cells. We detected similarities between the beta cell signatures induced by cytokines present at different moments of the disease, i.e., interferon-α (early disease) and interleukin-1β plus interferon-γ (later stages) and the beta cells from T1D patients, identifying biological process and signaling pathways activated during early and late stages of the disease. Among the first responses triggered on beta cells was an enrichment in antiviral responses, pattern recognition receptors activation, protein modification and MHC class I antigen presentation. During putative later stages of insulitis the processes were dominated by T-cell recruitment and activation and attempts of beta cells to defend themselves through the activation of anti-inflammatory pathways (i.e., IL10, IL4/13) and immune check-point proteins (i.e., PDL1 and HLA-E). Finally, we mined the beta cell signature in islets from T1D patients using the Connectivity Map, a large database of chemical compounds/drugs, and identified interesting candidates to potentially revert the effects of insulitis on beta cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maikel L. Colli
- ULB Center for Diabetes Research, Medical Faculty, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Maikel L. Colli
| | - Florian Szymczak
- ULB Center for Diabetes Research, Medical Faculty, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Decio L. Eizirik
- ULB Center for Diabetes Research, Medical Faculty, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
- Welbio, Medical Faculty, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
- Indiana Biosciences Research Institute, Indianapolis, IN, United States
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Peterson CT. Dysfunction of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Neurodegenerative Disease: The Promise of Therapeutic Modulation With Prebiotics, Medicinal Herbs, Probiotics, and Synbiotics. J Evid Based Integr Med 2020; 25:2515690X20957225. [PMID: 33092396 PMCID: PMC7586271 DOI: 10.1177/2515690x20957225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent data suggest gut microbiota dysbiosis as a contributing factor in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's Disease (PD) and Alzheimer's Disease (AD), and these pathologies may manifest via the microbiota-gut-brain-axis, which comprises bidirectional communication through neuroimmune, neuroendocrine, and direct neural pathways such as the vagus nerve. Preclinical and human clinical trial data reveal exciting potential for novel treatment targets and therapeutic modulation with prebiotics, medicinal herbs, probiotics, and synbiotics in health, aging, and neurodegeneration and are reviewed here. While greater insights and characterization of the microbiota-gut-brain axis have been revealed over the past decade, salient questions related to the pathology, pathogenesis and clinical treatment of the axis in the context of both health and neurodegenerative disease remain and are discussed in this review. Future directions such as additional well-controlled, large scale, longitudinal human clinical trials are urgently needed to further elucidate both mechanism and therapeutic opportunity in health, neurological disease, and disease subpopulations to ensure that the next decade ushers the dawn of targeted therapeutic modulation of the microbiota-gut-brain axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Tara Peterson
- Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, Center of Excellence for Research and Training in Integrative Health, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Nataf S, Guillen M, Pays L. Common Neurodegeneration-Associated Proteins Are Physiologically Expressed by Human B Lymphocytes and Are Interconnected via the Inflammation/Autophagy-Related Proteins TRAF6 and SQSTM1. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2704. [PMID: 31824497 PMCID: PMC6886494 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is circumstantial evidence that, under neurodegenerative conditions, peptides deriving from aggregated or misfolded specific proteins elicit adaptive immune responses. On another hand, several genes involved in familial forms of neurodegenerative diseases exert key innate immune functions. However, whether or not such observations are causally linked remains unknown. To start addressing this issue, we followed a systems biology strategy based on the mining of large proteomics and immunopeptidomics databases. First, we retrieved the expression patterns of common neurodegeneration-associated proteins in two professional antigen-presenting cells, namely B lymphocytes and dendritic cells. Surprisingly, we found that under physiological conditions, numerous neurodegeneration-associated proteins are abundantly expressed by human B lymphocytes. A survey of the human proteome allowed us to map a unique protein-protein interaction network linking common neurodegeneration-associated proteins and their first shell interactors in human B lymphocytes. Interestingly, network connectivity analysis identified two major hubs that both relate with inflammation and autophagy, namely TRAF6 (TNF Receptor Associated Factor 6) and SQSTM1 (Sequestosome-1). Moreover, the mapped network in B lymphocytes comprised two additional hub proteins involved in both inflammation and autoimmunity: HSPA8 (Heat Shock Protein Family A Member 8 also known as HSC70) and HSP90AA1 (Heat Shock Protein 90 Alpha Family Class A Member 1). Based on these results, we then explored the Immune Epitope Database "IEDB-AR" and actually found that a large share of neurodegeneration-associated proteins were previously reported to provide endogenous MHC class II-binding peptides in human B lymphocytes. Of note, peptides deriving from amyloid beta A4 protein, sequestosome-1 or profilin-1 were reported to bind multiple allele-specific MHC class II molecules. In contrast, peptides deriving from microtubule-associated protein tau, presenilin 2 and serine/threonine-protein kinase TBK1 were exclusively reported to bind MHC molecules encoded by the HLA-DRB1 1501 allele, a recently-identified susceptibility gene for late onset Alzheimer's disease. Finally, we observed that the whole list of proteins reported to provide endogenous MHC class II-binding peptides in human B lymphocytes is specifically enriched in neurodegeneration-associated proteins. Overall, our work indicates that immunization against neurodegeneration-associated proteins might be a physiological process which is shaped, at least in part, by B lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge Nataf
- CarMeN Laboratory, INSERM U1060, INRA U1397, INSA de Lyon, Lyon-Sud Faculty of Medicine, University of Lyon, Pierre-Bénite, France
- Faculté de Médecine Lyon-Est, University of Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- Banque de Tissus et de Cellules des Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Edouard Herriot, Lyon, France
| | - Marine Guillen
- Faculté de Médecine Lyon-Est, University of Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Laurent Pays
- CarMeN Laboratory, INSERM U1060, INRA U1397, INSA de Lyon, Lyon-Sud Faculty of Medicine, University of Lyon, Pierre-Bénite, France
- Faculté de Médecine Lyon-Est, University of Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- Banque de Tissus et de Cellules des Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Edouard Herriot, Lyon, France
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Abstract
Kinase activating missense mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are pathogenically linked to neurodegenerative Parkinson's disease (PD). Over the past decade, substantial effort has been devoted to the development of potent and selective small molecule inhibitors of LRRK2, as well as their preclinical testing across different Parkinson's disease models. This review outlines the genetic and biochemical evidence that pathogenic missense mutations increase LRRK2 kinase activity, which in turn provides the rationale for the development of small molecule inhibitors as potential PD therapeutics. An overview of progress in the development of LRRK2 inhibitors is provided, which in particular indicates that highly selective and potent compounds capable of clinical utility have been developed. We outline evidence from rodent- and human-induced pluripotent stem cell models that support a pathogenic role for LRRK2 kinase activity, and review the substantial experiments aimed at evaluating the safety of LRRK2 inhibitors. We address challenges still to overcome in the translational therapeutic pipeline, including biomarker development and clinical trial strategies, and finally outline the potential utility of LRRK2 inhibitors for other genetic forms of PD and ultimately sporadic PD. Collective evidence supports the ongoing clinical translation of LRRK2 inhibitors as a therapeutic intervention for PD is greatly needed.
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79
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Parkinson's progression prediction using machine learning and serum cytokines. NPJ PARKINSONS DISEASE 2019; 5:14. [PMID: 31372494 PMCID: PMC6658482 DOI: 10.1038/s41531-019-0086-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The heterogeneous nature of Parkinson’s disease (PD) symptoms and variability in their progression complicates patient treatment and interpretation of clinical trials. Consequently, there is much interest in developing models that can predict PD progression. In this study we have used serum samples from a clinically well characterized longitudinally followed Michael J Fox Foundation cohort of PD patients with and without the common leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) G2019S mutation. We have measured 27 inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in serum at baseline and after 1 year to investigate cytokine stability. We then used the baseline measurements in conjunction with machine learning models to predict longitudinal clinical outcomes after 2 years follow up. Using the normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) as a measure of performance, the best prediction models were for the motor symptom severity scales, with NRMSE of 0.1123 for the Hoehn and Yahr scale and 0.1193 for the unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale part three (UPDRS III). For each model, the top variables contributing to prediction were identified, with the chemokines macrophage inflammatory protein one alpha (MIP1α), and monocyte chemoattractant protein one (MCP1) making the biggest peripheral contribution to prediction of Hoehn and Yahr and UPDRS III, respectively. These results provide information on the longitudinal assessment of peripheral inflammatory cytokines in PD and give evidence that peripheral cytokines may have utility for aiding prediction of PD progression using machine learning models.
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80
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Hinkle JT, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. The A1 astrocyte paradigm: New avenues for pharmacological intervention in neurodegeneration. Mov Disord 2019; 34:959-969. [PMID: 31136698 PMCID: PMC6642014 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently demonstrated that NLY01, a novel glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, exerts neuroprotective effects in two mouse models of PD in a glia-dependent manner. NLY01 prevented microglia from releasing inflammatory mediators known to convert astrocytes into a neurotoxic A1 reactive subtype. Importantly, we provided evidence that this neuroprotection was not mediated by a direct action of NLY01 on neurons or astrocytes (e.g., by activating neurotrophic pathways or modulating astrocyte reactivity per se). In the present article, we provide a generalist review of microglia and astrocytes in neurodegeneration and discuss the emerging paradigm of A1 astrocyte neurotoxicity in more detail. We comment on specific inferences that are naturally suggested by our work in this area and the differential level of support it offers to each. Finally, we discuss implications for the overall goal of creating disease-modifying therapies for PD, survey emerging methodologies for accelerating translational research on glia in neurodegeneration, and describe expected challenges for developing glia-directed therapies that do not impede essential physiological functions carried out by glia in the CNS. © 2019 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared T. Hinkle
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Valina L. Dawson
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology,Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Adrienne Helis Malvin Medical Research Foundation, New Orleans, LA 70130-2685, USA
| | - Ted M. Dawson
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology,Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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81
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Abstract
![]()
In the field of Parkinson’s
disease (PD) research, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) remains
one of the most enigmatic kinases. LRRK2 pathogenic mutations result
in increased kinase activity, making LRRK2 an attractive therapeutic
target for PD. For over 10 years, the identification of a bona fide
substrate and a physiological function for LRRK2 has been elusive,
and only recently, Rab GTPases were identified as substrates for LRRK2
kinase activity. Additionally, LRRK2 gene expression data shows that
LRRK2 is expressed at low levels in neurons and at high levels in
cells of the immune system. These findings shifted research efforts
from neuronal toxicity of LRRK2 mutations to the function of LRRK2
in both vesicle trafficking and the immune system, which has resulted
in novel insights into the role of LRRK2 during infection and immunity.
In this Perspective, we summarize the latest findings highlighting
LRRK2 as a central regulator of vesicular trafficking, infection,
immunity, and inflammation, speculating how LRRK2 function could influence
neuronal pathology in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Herbst
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, United Kingdom
| | - Maximiliano G. Gutierrez
- Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, 1 Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, United Kingdom
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82
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Rudyk C, Dwyer Z, Hayley S. Leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) modulates paraquat-induced inflammatory sickness and stress phenotype. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:120. [PMID: 31174552 PMCID: PMC6554960 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1483-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a common gene implicated in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and is also thought to be fundamentally involved in numerous immune functions. Thus, we assessed the role of LRRK2 in the context of the effects of the environmental toxicant, paraquat, that has been implicated in PD and is known to affect inflammatory processes. Methods Male LRRK2 knockout (KO) and transgenic mice bearing the G2019S LRRK2 mutation (aged 6–8 months) or their littermate controls were exposed to paraquat (two times per week for 3 weeks), and sickness measures, motivational scores, and total home-cage activity levels were assessed. Following sacrifice, western blot and ELISA assays were performed to see whether or not LRRK2 expression would alter processes related to plasticity, immune response processes, or the stress response. Results Paraquat-induced signs of sickness, inflammation (elevated IL-6), and peripheral toxicity (e.g., organ weight) were completely prevented by LRRK2 knockout. In fact, LRRK2 knockout dramatically reduced not only signs of illness, but also the motivational (nest building) and home-cage activity deficits induced by paraquat. Although LRRK2 deficiency did not affect the striatal BDNF reduction that was provoked by paraquat, it did blunt the corticosterone elevation induced by paraquat, raising the possibility that LRRK2 may modulate aspects of the HPA stress axis. Accordingly, we found that transgenic mice bearing the G2019S LRRK2 mutation had elevated basal corticosterone, along with diminished hippocampal 5-HT1A levels. Conclusion We are the first to show the importance of LRRK2 in the peripheral neurotoxic and stressor-like effects of paraquat. These data are consistent with LRRK2 playing a role in the general inflammatory tone and stressor effects induced by environmental toxicant exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Rudyk
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Zach Dwyer
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada.
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83
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Mitochondrial antigen presentation: a mechanism linking Parkinson’s disease to autoimmunity. Curr Opin Immunol 2019; 58:31-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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84
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Fuzzati-Armentero MT, Cerri S, Blandini F. Peripheral-Central Neuroimmune Crosstalk in Parkinson's Disease: What Do Patients and Animal Models Tell Us? Front Neurol 2019; 10:232. [PMID: 30941089 PMCID: PMC6433876 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain is no longer considered an immune privileged organ and neuroinflammation has long been associated with Parkinson's disease. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that innate and adaptive responses take place in the CNS. The extent to which peripheral immune alterations impacts on the CNS, or vice and versa, is, however, still a matter of debate. Gaining a better knowledge of the molecular and cellular immune dysfunctions present in these two compartments and clarifying their mutual interactions is a fundamental step in understanding and preventing Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge on inflammatory processes evidenced both in PD patients and in toxin-induced animal models of the disease. It discusses differences and similarities between human and animal studies in the context of neuroinflammation and immune responses and how they have guided therapeutic strategies to slow down disease progression. Future longitudinal studies are necessary and can help gain a better understanding on peripheral-central nervous system crosstalk to improve therapeutic strategies for PD.
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85
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Tansey MG, Romero-Ramos M. Immune system responses in Parkinson's disease: Early and dynamic. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 49:364-383. [PMID: 30474172 PMCID: PMC6391192 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The neuropathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD) are the degeneration and death of dopamine-producing neurons in the ventral midbrain, the widespread intraneuronal aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α) in Lewy bodies and neurites, neuroinflammation, and gliosis. Signs of microglia activation in the PD brain postmortem as well as during disease development revealed by neuroimaging, implicate immune responses in the pathophysiology of the disease. Intensive research during the last two decades has advanced our understanding of the role of these responses in the disease process, yet many questions remain unanswered. A transformative finding in the field has been the confirmation that in vivo microglia are able to respond directly to pathological a-syn aggregates but also to neuronal dysfunction due to intraneuronal a-syn toxicity well in advance of neuronal death. In addition, clinical research and disease models have revealed the involvement of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Indeed, the data suggest that PD leads not only to a microglia response, but also to a cellular and humoral peripheral immune response. Together, these findings compel us to consider a more holistic view of the immunological processes associated with the disease. Central and peripheral immune responses aimed at maintaining neuronal health will ultimately have consequences on neuronal survival. We will review here the most significant findings that have contributed to the current understanding of the immune response in PD, which is proposed to occur early, involve peripheral and brain immune cells, evolve as neuronal dysfunction progresses, and is likely to influence disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malú G Tansey
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Marina Romero-Ramos
- Department of Biomedicine, Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience - DANDRITE, Nordic-EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, & AU IDEAS center NEURODIN, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
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86
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Cresto N, Gardier C, Gubinelli F, Gaillard MC, Liot G, West AB, Brouillet E. The unlikely partnership between LRRK2 and α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2019; 49:339-363. [PMID: 30269383 PMCID: PMC6391223 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Our understanding of the mechanisms underlying Parkinson's disease, the once archetypical nongenetic neurogenerative disorder, has dramatically increased with the identification of α-synuclein and LRRK2 pathogenic mutations. While α-synuclein protein composes the aggregates that can spread through much of the brain in disease, LRRK2 encodes a multidomain dual-enzyme distinct from any other protein linked to neurodegeneration. In this review, we discuss emergent datasets from multiple model systems that suggest these unlikely partners do interact in important ways in disease, both within cells that express both LRRK2 and α-synuclein as well as through more indirect pathways that might involve neuroinflammation. Although the link between LRRK2 and disease can be understood in part through LRRK2 kinase activity (phosphotransferase activity), α-synuclein toxicity is multilayered and plausibly interacts with LRRK2 kinase activity in several ways. We discuss common protein interactors like 14-3-3s that may regulate α-synuclein and LRRK2 in disease. Finally, we examine cellular pathways and outcomes common to both mutant α-synuclein expression and LRRK2 activity and points of intersection. Understanding the interplay between these two unlikely partners in disease may provide new therapeutic avenues for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémie Cresto
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, UMR9199, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, and MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Centre), Institut François Jacob, DRF, CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Camille Gardier
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, UMR9199, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, and MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Centre), Institut François Jacob, DRF, CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Francesco Gubinelli
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, UMR9199, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, and MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Centre), Institut François Jacob, DRF, CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Marie-Claude Gaillard
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, UMR9199, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, and MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Centre), Institut François Jacob, DRF, CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Géraldine Liot
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, UMR9199, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, and MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Centre), Institut François Jacob, DRF, CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Andrew B. West
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States 35294
| | - Emmanuel Brouillet
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory, UMR9199, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, and MIRCen (Molecular Imaging Research Centre), Institut François Jacob, DRF, CEA, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
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87
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Storelli E, Cassina N, Rasini E, Marino F, Cosentino M. Do Th17 Lymphocytes and IL-17 Contribute to Parkinson's Disease? A Systematic Review of Available Evidence. Front Neurol 2019; 10:13. [PMID: 30733703 PMCID: PMC6353825 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons, appearance of Lewy bodies and presence of neuroinflammation. No treatments currently exist to prevent PD or delay its progression, and dopaminergic substitution treatments just relieve the consequences of dopaminergic neuron loss. Increasing evidence points to peripheral T lymphocytes as key players in PD, and recently there has been growing interest into the specific role of T helper (Th) 17 lymphocytes. Th17 are a proinflammatory CD4+ T cell lineage named after interleukin (IL)-17, the main cytokine produced by these cells. Th17 are involved in immune-related disease such as psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease, and drugs targeting Th17/IL-17 are currently approved for clinical use in such disease. In the present paper, we first summarized current knowledge about contribution of the peripheral immune system in PD, as well as about the physiopharmacology of Th17 and IL-17 together with its therapeutic relevance. Thereafter, we systematically retrieved and evaluated published evidence about Th17 and IL-17 in PD, to help assessing Th17/IL-17-targeting drugs as potentially novel antiparkinson agents. Critical appraisal of the evidence did not allow to reach definite conclusions: both animal as well as clinical studies are limited, just a few provide mechanistic evidence and none of them investigates the eventual relationship between Th17/IL-17 and clinically relevant endpoints such as disease progression, disability scores, intensity of dopaminergic substitution treatment. Careful assessment of Th17 in PD is anyway a priority, as Th17/IL-17-targeting therapeutics might represent a straightforward opportunity for the unmet needs of PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Marco Cosentino
- Center of Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
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88
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Emerging and Dynamic Biomedical Uses of Ferritin. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2018; 11:ph11040124. [PMID: 30428583 PMCID: PMC6316788 DOI: 10.3390/ph11040124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 11/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferritin, a ubiquitously expressed protein, has classically been considered the main iron cellular storage molecule in the body. Owing to the ferroxidase activity of the H-subunit and the nucleation ability of the L-subunit, ferritin can store a large amount of iron within its mineral core. However, recent evidence has demonstrated a range of abilities of ferritin that extends well beyond the scope of iron storage. This review aims to discuss novel functions and biomedical uses of ferritin in the processes of iron delivery, delivery of biologics such as chemotherapies and contrast agents, and the utility of ferritin as a biomarker in a number of neurological diseases.
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89
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Mikołajczyk A, Złotkowska D. Neuroimmunological Implications of Subclinical Lipopolysaccharide from Salmonella Enteritidis. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19103274. [PMID: 30360353 PMCID: PMC6214136 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19103274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence has indicated that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is implicated in neuroimmunological responses, but the body’s response to subclinical doses of bacterial endotoxin remains poorly understood. The influence of a low single dose of LPS from Salmonella Enteritidis, which does not result in any clinical symptoms of intoxication (subclinical lipopolysaccharide), on selected cells and signal molecules of the neuroimmune system was tested. Five juvenile crossbred female pigs were intravenously injected with LPS from S. Enteritidis (5 μg/kg body weight (b.w.)), while five pigs from the control group received sodium chloride in the same way. Our data demonstrated that subclinical LPS from S. Enteritidis increased levels of dopamine in the brain and neuropeptides such as substance P (SP), galanin (GAL), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and active intestinal peptide (VIP) in the cervical lymph nodes with serum hyperhaptoglobinaemia and reduction of plasma CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes seven days after lipopolysaccharide administration. CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes from the cervical lymph node and serum interleukin-6 and tumour necrosis factor α showed no significant differences between the control and lipopolysaccharide groups. Subclinical lipopolysaccharide from S. Enteritidis can affect cells and signal molecules of the neuroimmune system. The presence of subclinical lipopolysaccharide from S. Enteritidis is associated with unknown prolonged consequences and may require eradication and a deeper search into the asymptomatic carrier state of Salmonella spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Mikołajczyk
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-082 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Dagmara Złotkowska
- Department of Food Immunology and Microbiology, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research, Polish Academy of Sciences in Olsztyn, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland.
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