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Wang Y, Wang X, Chen W, Gupta K, Zhu XH. Functional MRI BOLD response in sickle mice with hyperalgesia. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2017; 65:81-85. [PMID: 28579187 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcmd.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Patients with sickle cell anemia (SCA) have abnormal hemoglobin (sickle hemoglobin S) leading to the crystallization of hemoglobin chains in red blood cells (RBCs), which assume sickle shape and display reduced flexibility. Sickle RBCs (sRBCs) adhere to vessel walls and block blood flow, thus preventing oxygen delivery to the tissues leading to vaso-occlusive crises (VOC), acute pain and organ damage. SCA patients often have chronic pain that can be attributed to inflammation, vasculopathy, neuropathy, ischemia-reperfusion injury and organ damage. Blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique that is commonly used for noninvasively mapping spontaneous or evoked brain activation in human or animal models has been applied in this study to assess abnormal oxygenation change in the brains of mice with SCA in response to hypoxia. We found that hyperalgesic HbSS-BERK sickle mice with chronic pain display reduced BOLD response to a hypoxia challenge compared to their control HbAA-BERK mice. Hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) treated sickle mice under acute pain episode exhibit even smaller BOLD signal changes than sickle mice without H/R, suggestive of correlations between cerebral BOLD signal changes and nociception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology/Oncology/Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Xiao Wang
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Wei Chen
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Kalpna Gupta
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology/Oncology/Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Xiao-Hong Zhu
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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Electroacupuncture in conscious free-moving mice reduces pain by ameliorating peripheral and central nociceptive mechanisms. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34493. [PMID: 27687125 PMCID: PMC5043286 DOI: 10.1038/srep34493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Integrative approaches such as electroacupuncture, devoid of drug effects are gaining prominence for treating pain. Understanding the mechanisms of electroacupuncture induced analgesia would benefit chronic pain conditions such as sickle cell disease (SCD), for which patients may require opioid analgesics throughout life. Mouse models are instructive in developing a mechanistic understanding of pain, but the anesthesia/restraint required to administer electroacupuncture may alter the underlying mechanisms. To overcome these limitations, we developed a method to perform electroacupuncture in conscious, freely moving, unrestrained mice. Using this technique we demonstrate a significant analgesic effect in transgenic mouse models of SCD and cancer as well as complete Freund's adjuvant-induced pain. We demonstrate a comprehensive antinociceptive effect on mechanical, cold and deep tissue hyperalagesia in both genders. Interestingly, individual mice showed a variable response to electroacupuncture, categorized into high-, moderate-, and non-responders. Mechanistically, electroacupuncture significantly ameliorated inflammatory and nociceptive mediators both peripherally and centrally in sickle mice correlative to the antinociceptive response. Application of sub-optimal doses of morphine in electroacupuncture-treated moderate-responders produced equivalent antinociception as obtained in high-responders. Electroacupuncture in conscious freely moving mice offers an effective approach to develop a mechanism-based understanding of analgesia devoid of the influence of anesthetics or restraints.
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Comparative Analysis of Pain Behaviours in Humanized Mouse Models of Sickle Cell Anemia. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160608. [PMID: 27494522 PMCID: PMC4975462 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain is a hallmark feature of sickle cell anemia (SCA) but management of chronic as well as acute pain remains a major challenge. Mouse models of SCA are essential to examine the mechanisms of pain and develop novel therapeutics. To facilitate this effort, we compared humanized homozygous BERK and Townes sickle mice for the effect of gender and age on pain behaviors. Similar to previously characterized BERK sickle mice, Townes sickle mice show more mechanical, thermal, and deep tissue hyperalgesia with increasing age. Female Townes sickle mice demonstrate more hyperalgesia compared to males similar to that reported for BERK mice and patients with SCA. Mechanical, thermal and deep tissue hyperalgesia increased further after hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) treatment in Townes sickle mice. Together, these data show BERK sickle mice exhibit a significantly greater degree of hyperalgesia for all behavioral measures as compared to gender- and age-matched Townes sickle mice. However, the genetically distinct "knock-in" strategy of human α and β transgene insertion in Townes mice as compared to BERK mice, may provide relative advantage for further genetic manipulations to examine specific mechanisms of pain.
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Tan F, Ghosh S, Mosunjac M, Manci E, Ofori-Acquah SF. Original Research: Diametric effects of hypoxia on pathophysiology of sickle cell disease in a murine model. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 241:766-71. [PMID: 27026725 DOI: 10.1177/1535370216642046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypoxia causes erythrocyte sickling in vitro; however, its role in the pathophysiology of sickle cell disease is poorly understood. We report that hypoxia rapidly decreased oxygen saturation in transgenic sickle cell disease mice, but this effect was immediately buffered by a robust ventilatory response. The initial hypoxemia improved steadily throughout the duration of hypoxia without any detectable acute pulmonary adverse effect. Furthermore, the mice suffered acute anemia that ironically was associated with lowering of both plasma hemoglobin and heme. These results were corroborated by increased plasma haptoglobin and hemopexin levels. Markers of ischemic tissue injury increased spatiotemporally following repeated hypoxia exposures. This variation was supported by organ-specific induction of hypoxia-responsive genes. Our results show that hypoxia exerts diametric effects on sickle cell disease by promoting ischemic injury while enhancing the expression of hemolysis scavenger molecules. This phenomenon may help to understand the disparate clinical syndromes associated with hemolysis and vaso-occlusion in sickle cell disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Tan
- Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Samit Ghosh
- Depatment of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Mario Mosunjac
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Elizabeth Manci
- Children's and Women's Hospital, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36604, USA
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Mittal A, Gupta M, Lamarre Y, Jahagirdar B, Gupta K. Quantification of pain in sickle mice using facial expressions and body measurements. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2016; 57:58-66. [PMID: 26852657 PMCID: PMC4746724 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcmd.2015.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Pain is a hallmark feature of sickle cell disease (SCD). Subjects typically quantify pain by themselves, which can be biased by other factors leading to overtreatment or under-treatment. Reliable and accurate quantification of pain, in real time, might enable to provide appropriate levels of analgesic treatment. The mouse grimace scale (MGS), a standardized behavioral coding system with high accuracy and reliability has been used to quantify varied types of pain. We hypothesized that addition of the objective parameters of body length and back curvature will strengthen the reproducibility of MGS. We examined MGS scores and body length and back curvature of transgenic BERK sickle and control mice following cold treatment or following treatment with analgesic cannabinoid CP55,940. We observed that sickle mice demonstrated decreased length and increased back curvature in response to cold. These observations correlate with changes in facial expression for the MGS score. CP55,940 treatment of sickle mice showed an increase in body length and a decrease in back curvature concordant with MGS scores indicative of an analgesic effect. Thus, body parameters combined with facial expressions may provide a quantifiable unbiased method for objective measure of pain in SCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Mittal
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Mihir Gupta
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Yann Lamarre
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Balkrishna Jahagirdar
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Kalpna Gupta
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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Vincent L, Vang D, Nguyen J, Benson B, Lei J, Gupta K. Cannabinoid receptor-specific mechanisms to alleviate pain in sickle cell anemia via inhibition of mast cell activation and neurogenic inflammation. Haematologica 2015; 101:566-77. [PMID: 26703965 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2015.136523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Sickle cell anemia is a manifestation of a single point mutation in hemoglobin, but inflammation and pain are the insignia of this disease which can start in infancy and continue throughout life. Earlier studies showed that mast cell activation contributes to neurogenic inflammation and pain in sickle mice. Morphine is the common analgesic treatment but also remains a major challenge due to its side effects and ability to activate mast cells. We, therefore, examined cannabinoid receptor-specific mechanisms to mitigate mast cell activation, neurogenic inflammation and hyperalgesia, using HbSS-BERK sickle and cannabinoid receptor-2-deleted sickle mice. We show that cannabinoids mitigate mast cell activation, inflammation and neurogenic inflammation in sickle mice via both cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2. Thus, cannabinoids influence systemic and neural mechanisms, ameliorating the disease pathobiology and hyperalgesia in sickle mice. This study provides 'proof of principle' for the potential of cannabinoid/cannabinoid receptor-based therapeutics to treat several manifestations of sickle cell anemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Vincent
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Derek Vang
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Julia Nguyen
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Barbara Benson
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Jianxun Lei
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Kalpna Gupta
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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Khaibullina A, Almeida LE, Wang L, Kamimura S, Wong EC, Nouraie M, Maric I, Albani S, Finkel J, Quezado ZM. Rapamycin increases fetal hemoglobin and ameliorates the nociception phenotype in sickle cell mice. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2015; 55:363-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcmd.2015.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2015] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Cataldo G, Rajput S, Gupta K, Simone DA. Sensitization of nociceptive spinal neurons contributes to pain in a transgenic model of sickle cell disease. Pain 2015; 156:722-730. [PMID: 25630029 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Chronic pain is a major characteristic feature of sickle cell disease (SCD). The refractory nature of pain and the development of chronic pain syndromes in many patients with SCD suggest that central neural mechanisms contribute to pain in this disease. We used HbSS-BERK sickle mice, which show chronic features of pain similar to those observed in SCD, and determined whether sensitization of nociceptive neurons in the spinal cord contributes to pain and hyperalgesia in SCD. Electrophysiological recordings of action potential activity were obtained from single identified dorsal horn neurons of the spinal cord in anesthetized mice. Compared with control HbAA-BERK mice, nociceptive dorsal horn neurons in sickle mice exhibited enhanced excitability as evidenced by enlarged receptive fields, increased rate of spontaneous activity, lower mechanical thresholds, enhanced responses to mechanical stimuli, and prolonged afterdischarges following mechanical stimulation. These changes were accompanied by increased phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the spinal cord that are known to contribute to neuronal hyperexcitability, including c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p44/p42 extracellular signaling-regulated kinase (ERK), and p38. These findings demonstrate that central sensitization contributes to pain in SCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Cataldo
- Department of Diagnostic and Biological Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, Vascular Biology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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60
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Valverde Y, Benson B, Gupta M, Gupta K. Spinal glial activation and oxidative stress are alleviated by treatment with curcumin or coenzyme Q in sickle mice. Haematologica 2015; 101:e44-7. [PMID: 26546503 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2015.137489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yessenia Valverde
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Barbara Benson
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Mihir Gupta
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Kalpna Gupta
- Vascular Biology Center, Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
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61
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Wang L, Almeida LEF, de Souza Batista CM, Khaibullina A, Xu N, Albani S, Guth KA, Seo JS, Quezado M, Quezado ZMN. Cognitive and behavior deficits in sickle cell mice are associated with profound neuropathologic changes in hippocampus and cerebellum. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 85:60-72. [PMID: 26462816 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Strokes are perhaps the most serious complications of sickle cell disease (SCD) and by the fifth decade occur in approximately 25% of patients. While most patients do not develop strokes, mounting evidence indicates that even without brain abnormalities on imaging studies, SCD patients can present profound neurocognitive dysfunction. We sought to evaluate the neurocognitive behavior profile of humanized SCD mice (Townes, BERK) and to identify hematologic and neuropathologic abnormalities associated with the behavioral alterations observed in these mice. Heterozygous and homozygous Townes mice displayed severe cognitive deficits shown by significant delays in spatial learning compared to controls. Homozygous Townes also had increased depression- and anxiety-like behaviors as well as reduced performance on voluntary wheel running compared to controls. Behavior deficits observed in Townes were also seen in BERKs. Interestingly, most deficits in homozygotes were observed in older mice and were associated with worsening anemia. Further, neuropathologic abnormalities including the presence of large bands of dark/pyknotic (shrunken) neurons in CA1 and CA3 fields of hippocampus and evidence of neuronal dropout in cerebellum were present in homozygotes but not control Townes. These observations suggest that cognitive and behavioral deficits in SCD mice mirror those described in SCD patients and that aging, anemia, and profound neuropathologic changes in hippocampus and cerebellum are possible biologic correlates of those deficits. These findings support using SCD mice for studies of cognitive deficits in SCD and point to vulnerable brain areas with susceptibility to neuronal injury in SCD and to mechanisms that potentially underlie those deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wang
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States
| | - Luis E F Almeida
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States
| | | | - Alfia Khaibullina
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States
| | - Nuo Xu
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States
| | - Sarah Albani
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States
| | - Kira A Guth
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States
| | - Ji Sung Seo
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States
| | - Martha Quezado
- Laboratory of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States
| | - Zenaide M N Quezado
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Children's Research Institute, United States; Divisions of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Children's National Health System, United States; Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's Research Institute, Children's National Health System, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States.
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62
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Vang D, Paul JA, Nguyen J, Tran H, Vincent L, Yasuda D, Zaveri NT, Gupta K. Small-molecule nociceptin receptor agonist ameliorates mast cell activation and pain in sickle mice. Haematologica 2015; 100:1517-25. [PMID: 26294734 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2015.128736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment of pain with morphine and its congeners in sickle cell anemia is suboptimal, warranting the need for analgesics devoid of side effects, addiction and tolerance liability. Small-molecule nociceptin opioid receptor ligands show analgesic efficacy in acute and chronic pain models. We show that AT-200, a high affinity nociceptin opioid receptor agonist with low efficacy at the mu opioid receptor, ameliorated chronic and hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced mechanical, thermal and deep tissue/musculoskeletal hyperalgesia in HbSS-BERK sickle mice. The antinociceptive effect of AT-200 was antagonized by SB-612111, a nociceptin opioid receptor antagonist, but not naloxone, a non-selective mu opioid receptor antagonist. Daily 7-day treatment with AT-200 did not develop tolerance and showed a sustained anti-nociceptive effect, which improved over time and led to reduced plasma serum amyloid protein, neuropeptides, inflammatory cytokines and mast cell activation in the periphery. These data suggest that AT-200 ameliorates pain in sickle mice via the nociceptin opioid receptor by reducing inflammation and mast cell activation without causing tolerance. Thus, nociceptin opioid receptor agonists are promising drugs for treating pain in sickle cell anemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek Vang
- Vascular Biology Center and Division of Hematology-Oncology-Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Jinny A Paul
- Vascular Biology Center and Division of Hematology-Oncology-Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Julia Nguyen
- Vascular Biology Center and Division of Hematology-Oncology-Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Huy Tran
- Vascular Biology Center and Division of Hematology-Oncology-Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Lucile Vincent
- Vascular Biology Center and Division of Hematology-Oncology-Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | | | - Kalpna Gupta
- Vascular Biology Center and Division of Hematology-Oncology-Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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63
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Lutz B, Meiler SE, Bekker A, Tao YX. Updated Mechanisms of Sickle Cell Disease-Associated Chronic pain. TRANSLATIONAL PERIOPERATIVE AND PAIN MEDICINE 2015; 2:8-17. [PMID: 26301256 PMCID: PMC4542088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Sickle cell disease (SCD), a hemoglobinopathy, causes sickling of red blood cells, resulting in vessel blockage, stroke, anemia, inflammation, and extreme pain. A vast majority of SCD patients experience pain on a chronic basis, and many turn to opioids to provide limited relief. The side effects that come with chronic opioid use push for research into understanding the specific mechanisms of SCD-associated chronic pain. Current advances in SCD-associated pain have focused on alterations in the pain pathway including nociceptor sensitization and endogenous pain inducers. This article reviews the underlying pathophysiology of SCD, potential pain mechanisms, current treatments and their mechanism of action, and future directions of SCD-associated pain management. The information provided could help propel research in SCD-associated chronic pain and uncover novel treatment options for clinicians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna Lutz
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Steffen E. Meiler
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Alex Bekker
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Yuan-Xiang Tao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ, USA
- Departments of Cell Biology & Molecular Medicine, Pharmacology & Physiology, and Neurology & Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ, USA
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64
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Abstract
Very little is known about pain processing in sickle cell disease (SCD). We examined the mechanical and thermal sensory patterns in children with SCD. Children ages 10 to 17 years (n = 48; mean 13.7 ± 2.0 y; 22 females) participated in quantitative sensory testing (QST) procedures and completed a quality of life (PedsQL) and anxiety and depression scale (RCADS). Thirteen children showed evidence of abnormal pain processing, indicated by decreased sensitivity to heat or cold sensations (hypoesthesia), and pain experienced with nonpainful stimuli (allodynia). Pain ratings associated with cold and warm sensations were significantly higher in the subgroup with abnormal QST compared with the 35 SCD children with normal QST (P = 0.01 and P < 0.0001, respectively). The presence of hypoesthesia and allodynia in children with SCD may represent abnormal changes in the peripheral and central nervous system. Clinicians need to be aware that sickle cell pain may not only be inflammatory or ischemic secondary to vasoocclusion and hypoxia, but may also be neuropathic secondary to nerve injury or nerve dysfunction. Neuropathic pain in SCD may be the result of tissue damage after vaso-occlusion in neural tissues, whether peripherally or centrally. Future studies are needed to determine the presence of neuropathic pain in children with SCD.
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Calhoun G, Wang L, Almeida LEF, Kenyon N, Afsar N, Nouraie M, Finkel JC, Quezado ZMN. Dexmedetomidine ameliorates nocifensive behavior in humanized sickle cell mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 754:125-33. [PMID: 25724786 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Patients with sickle cell disease (SCD) can have recurrent episodes of vaso-occlusive crises, which are associated with severe pain. While opioids are the mainstay of analgesic therapy, in some patients, increasing opioid use results in continued and increasing pain. Many believe that this phenomenon results from opioid-induced tolerance or hyperalgesia or that SCD pain involves non-opioid-responsive mechanisms. Dexmedetomidine, a specific α2-adrenoreceptor agonist, which has sedative and analgesic properties, reduces opioid requirements, and can facilitate opioid withdrawal in clinical settings. We hypothesized that dexmedetomidine would ameliorate the nociception phenotype of SCD mice. Townes and BERK SCD mice, strains known to have altered nociception phenotypes, were used in a crossover preclinical trial that measured nocifensive behavior before and after treatment with dexmedetomidine or vehicle. In a linear dose-effect relationship, over 60-min, dexmedetomidine, compared with vehicle, significantly increased hot plate latency in Townes and BERK mice (P≤0.006). In sickle, but not control mice, dexmedetomidine improved grip force, an indicator of muscle pain (P=0.002). As expected, dexmedetomidine had a sedative effect in sickle and control mice as it decreased wakefulness scores compared with vehicle (all P<0.001). Interestingly, the effects of dexmedetomidine on hot plate latency and wakefulness scores were different in sickle and control mice, i.e., dexmedetomidine-related increases in hotplate latency and decreases in wakefulness scores were significantly smaller in Townes sickle compared to control mice. In conclusion, these findings of beneficial effects of dexmedetomidine on the nociception phenotype in SCD mice might support the conduct of studies of dexmedetomidine in SCD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Calhoun
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Children׳s Research Institute, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States
| | - Li Wang
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Children׳s Research Institute, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States
| | - Luis E F Almeida
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Children׳s Research Institute, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States
| | - Nicholas Kenyon
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Children׳s Research Institute, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States
| | - Nina Afsar
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Children׳s Research Institute, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States
| | - Mehdi Nouraie
- Center for Sickle Cell Disease and Department of Internal Medicine, Howard University, Washington, DC 20001, United States
| | - Julia C Finkel
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Children׳s Research Institute, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States
| | - Zenaide M N Quezado
- The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Children׳s Research Institute, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, United States.
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66
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Morphine for the treatment of pain in sickle cell disease. ScientificWorldJournal 2015; 2015:540154. [PMID: 25654130 PMCID: PMC4306369 DOI: 10.1155/2015/540154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Pain is a hallmark of sickle cell disease (SCD) and its treatment remains challenging. Opioids are the major family of analgesics that are commonly used for treating severe pain. However, these are not always effective and are associated with the liabilities of their own. The pharmacology and multiorgan side effects of opioids are rapidly emerging areas of investigation, but there remains a scarcity of clinical studies. Due to opioid-induced endothelial-, mast cell-, renal mesangial-, and epithelial-cell-specific effects and proinflammatory as well as growth influencing signaling, it is likely that when used for analgesia, opioids may have organ specific pathological effects. Experimental and clinical studies, even though extremely few, suggest that opioids may exacerbate existent organ damage and also stimulate pathologies of their own. Because of the recurrent and/or chronic use of large doses of opioids in SCD, it is critical to evaluate the role and contribution of opioids in many complications of SCD. The aim of this review is to initiate inquiry to develop strategies that may prevent the inadvertent effect of opioids on organ function in SCD, should it occur, without compromising analgesia.
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Wang ZJ, Molokie RE, Wilkie DJ. Does cold hypersensitivity increase with age in sickle cell disease? Pain 2014; 155:2439-2440. [PMID: 25172823 PMCID: PMC4909331 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zaijie Jim Wang
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Comprehensive Sickle Cell Center, University of Illinois, Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Robert E. Molokie
- Department of Biopharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, College of Medicine, University of, Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Comprehensive Sickle Cell Center, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, IL, USA
- Jesse Brown Veterans Administration Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Diana J. Wilkie
- Department of Biobehavioral Health Science, College of Nursing, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Comprehensive Sickle Cell Center, University of Illinois Hospital and Health Sciences System, Chicago, IL, USA
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Hebbel RP. Ischemia-reperfusion injury in sickle cell anemia: relationship to acute chest syndrome, endothelial dysfunction, arterial vasculopathy, and inflammatory pain. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2014; 28:181-98. [PMID: 24589261 DOI: 10.1016/j.hoc.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) physiology, also called reperfusion injury, instigates vascular and tissue injury in human disease states. This review describes why sickle cell anemia should be conceptualized in this fashion and how I/R physiology explains the genesis of characteristic aspects of vascular pathobiology and clinical disease in sickle cell anemia. The nature of I/R and its relevance to sickle cell anemia are discussed, with an emphasis on the acute chest syndrome, endothelial dysfunction with aberrant vasoregulation, circle of Willis vasculopathy, and inflammatory pain. Viewing sickle disease from this perspective elucidates defining pathophysiology and identifies a host of novel potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Hebbel
- Division of Hematology-Oncology-Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School, 420 Delaware Street South East, Mayo Mail Code 480, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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Kenyon N, Wang L, Spornick N, Khaibullina A, Almeida LE, Cheng Y, Wang J, Guptill V, Finkel JC, Quezado ZMN. Sickle cell disease in mice is associated with sensitization of sensory nerve fibers. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2014; 240:87-98. [PMID: 25070860 DOI: 10.1177/1535370214544275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The pain phenotype in sickle cell disease (SCD) patients is highly variable. A small percentage of SCD patients experience many vaso-occlusive crises/year, 5% of patients account for over 30% of pain episodes, while 39% report few episodes of severe pain. Clearly, a better understanding of the pathobiology of SCD is needed to improve its therapy. Humanized sickle cell mice recapitulate several phenotypes of SCD patients and provide a model for the study of SCD pain. Researchers have shown that one strain of humanized SCD mice, the BERK strain, has abnormal pain phenotype. However, the nociception phenotype of another humanized SCD mouse strain, the Townes strain, has not been described. In a large cross-sectional study of BERK and Townes SCD mice, we examined thermosensory response and sensory nerve fiber function using sine-wave electrical stimulation at 2000, 250, and 5 Hz to stimulate preferentially Aβ, Aδ, and C sensory nerve fibers, respectively. We found that BERK and Townes mice, compared to respective controls, had decreases in 2000, 250, and 5 Hz current vocalization thresholds in patterns that suggest sensitization of a broad spectrum of sensory nerve fibers. In addition, the pattern of sensitization of sensory fibers varied according to strain, sex, age, and mouse genotype. In a similarly variable pattern, Townes and BERKs also had significantly altered sensitivity to noxious thermal stimuli in agreement with what has been shown by others. In summary, the analysis of somatosensory function using sine-wave electrical stimulation in humanized sickle cell mice suggests that in SCD, both myelinated and unmyelinated, fibers are sensitized. The pattern of sensory fiber sensitization is distinct from that observed in pain models of neuropathic and inflammatory pain. These findings raise the possibility that sensitization of a broad spectrum of sensory fibers might contribute to the altered and variable nociception phenotype in SCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Kenyon
- Children's Research Institute, The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Li Wang
- Children's Research Institute, The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Nicholas Spornick
- Children's Research Institute, The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Alfia Khaibullina
- Children's Research Institute, The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Luis Ef Almeida
- Children's Research Institute, The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Yao Cheng
- Division of Biostatistics and Study Methodology, Center for Translational Science, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Jichuan Wang
- Division of Biostatistics and Study Methodology, Center for Translational Science, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Virginia Guptill
- Department of Perioperative Medicine, National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Julia C Finkel
- Children's Research Institute, The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, USA
| | - Zenaide M N Quezado
- Children's Research Institute, The Sheikh Zayed Institute for Pediatric Surgical Innovation, Division of Pain Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20010, USA
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Zappia KJ, Garrison SR, Hillery CA, Stucky CL. Cold hypersensitivity increases with age in mice with sickle cell disease. Pain 2014; 155:2476-2485. [PMID: 24953902 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Sickle cell disease (SCD) is associated with acute vaso-occlusive crises that trigger painful episodes and frequently involves ongoing, chronic pain. In addition, both humans and mice with SCD experience heightened cold sensitivity. However, studies have not addressed the mechanism(s) underlying the cold sensitization or its progression with age. Here we measured thermotaxis behavior in young and aged mice with severe SCD. Sickle mice had a marked increase in cold sensitivity measured by a cold preference test. Furthermore, cold hypersensitivity worsened with advanced age. We assessed whether enhanced peripheral input contributes to the chronic cold pain behavior by recording from C fibers, many of which are cold sensitive, in skin-nerve preparations. We observed that C fibers from sickle mice displayed a shift to warmer (more sensitive) cold detection thresholds. To address mechanisms underlying the cold sensitization in primary afferent neurons, we quantified mRNA expression levels for ion channels thought to be involved in cold detection. These included the transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (Trpm8) and transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (Trpa1) channels, as well as the 2-pore domain potassium channels, TREK-1 (Kcnk2), TREK-2 (Kcnk10), and TRAAK (Kcnk4). Surprisingly, transcript expression levels of all of these channels were comparable between sickle and control mice. We further examined transcript expression of 83 additional pain-related genes, and found increased mRNA levels for endothelin 1 and tachykinin receptor 1. These factors may contribute to hypersensitivity in sickle mice at both the afferent and behavioral levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine J Zappia
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA Department of Pediatrics and Children's Research Institute, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA Blood Research Institute, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
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Darbari DS, Ballas SK, Clauw DJ. Thinking beyond sickling to better understand pain in sickle cell disease. Eur J Haematol 2014; 93:89-95. [DOI: 10.1111/ejh.12340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Deepika S. Darbari
- Division of Hematology; Department of Pediatrics; Center for Cancer and Blood Disorders; Children's National Medical Center; George Washington University; Washington DC USA
| | - Samir K. Ballas
- Department of Medicine; Cardeza Foundation; Jefferson Medical College; Thomas Jefferson University; Philadelphia PA USA
| | - Daniel J. Clauw
- Departments of Anesthesia, Medicine and Psychiatry; University of Michigan Medical School; Ann Arbor MI USA
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Gregory NS, Harris AL, Robinson CR, Dougherty PM, Fuchs PN, Sluka KA. An overview of animal models of pain: disease models and outcome measures. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2013; 14:1255-69. [PMID: 24035349 PMCID: PMC3818391 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2013.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Pain is ultimately a perceptual phenomenon. It is built from information gathered by specialized pain receptors in tissue, modified by spinal and supraspinal mechanisms, and integrated into a discrete sensory experience with an emotional valence in the brain. Because of this, studying intact animals allows the multidimensional nature of pain to be examined. A number of animal models have been developed, reflecting observations that pain phenotypes are mediated by distinct mechanisms. Animal models of pain are designed to mimic distinct clinical diseases to better evaluate underlying mechanisms and potential treatments. Outcome measures are designed to measure multiple parts of the pain experience, including reflexive hyperalgesia measures, sensory and affective dimensions of pain, and impact of pain on function and quality of life. In this review, we discuss the common methods used for inducing each of the pain phenotypes related to clinical pain syndromes as well as the main behavioral tests for assessing pain in each model. PERSPECTIVE Understanding animal models and outcome measures in animals will assist in translating data from basic science to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas S Gregory
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Neuroscience Graduate Program, College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
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Abstract
Sickle cell anemia (SCA) is an inherited disorder associated with severe lifelong pain and significant morbidity. The mechanisms of pain in SCA remain poorly understood. We show that mast cell activation/degranulation contributes to sickle pain pathophysiology by promoting neurogenic inflammation and nociceptor activation via the release of substance P in the skin and dorsal root ganglion. Mast cell inhibition with imatinib ameliorated cytokine release from skin biopsies and led to a correlative decrease in granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and white blood cells in transgenic sickle mice. Targeting mast cells by genetic mutation or pharmacologic inhibition with imatinib ameliorates tonic hyperalgesia and prevents hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced hyperalgesia in sickle mice. Pretreatment with the mast cell stabilizer cromolyn sodium improved analgesia following low doses of morphine that were otherwise ineffective. Mast cell activation therefore underlies sickle pathophysiology leading to inflammation, vascular dysfunction, pain, and requirement for high doses of morphine. Pharmacological targeting of mast cells with imatinib may be a suitable approach to address pain and perhaps treat SCA.
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Shmukler BE, Hsu A, Alves J, Trudel M, Rust MB, Hubner CA, Rivera A, Alper SL. N-ethylmaleimide activates a Cl(-)-independent component of K(+) flux in mouse erythrocytes. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2013; 51:9-16. [PMID: 23481459 PMCID: PMC3646938 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcmd.2013.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The K-Cl cotransporters (KCCs) of mouse erythrocytes exhibit higher basal activity than those of human erythrocytes, but are similarly activated by cell swelling, by hypertonic urea, and by staurosporine. However, the dramatic stimulation of human erythroid KCCs by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) is obscured in mouse erythrocytes by a prominent NEM-stimulated K(+) efflux that lacks Cl(-)-dependence. The NEM-sensitivity of Cl(-)-independent K(+) efflux of mouse erythrocytes is lower than that of KCC. The genetically engineered absence of the K-Cl cotransporters KCC3 and KCC1 from mouse erythrocytes does not modify Cl(-)-independent K(+) efflux. Mouse erythrocytes genetically devoid of the Gardos channel KCNN4 show increased NEM-sensitivity of both Cl(-)-independent K(+) efflux and K-Cl cotransport. The increased NEM-sensitivity and stimulation magnitude of Cl(-)-independent K(+) efflux in mouse erythrocytes expressing transgenic hypersickling human hemoglobin SAD (HbSAD) are independent of the presence of KCC3 and KCC1, but absence of KCNN4 reduces the stimulatory effect of HbSAD. NEM-stimulated Cl(-)-independent K(+) efflux of mouse red cells is insensitive to ouabain and bumetanide, but partially inhibited by chloroquine, barium, and amiloride. The NEM-stimulated activity is modestly reduced at pH6.0 but not significantly altered at pH8.0, and is abolished at 0°C. Although the molecular identity of this little-studied K(+) efflux pathway of mouse erythrocytes remains unknown, its potential role in the pathophysiology of sickle red cell dehydration will be important for the extrapolation of studies in mouse models of sickle cell disease to our understanding of humans with sickle cell anemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris E. Shmukler
- Divisions of Nephrology and Molecular and Vascular Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA
| | - Ann Hsu
- Divisions of Nephrology and Molecular and Vascular Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA
| | - Jessica Alves
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Marie Trudel
- Institut de Recherches Cliniques de Montréal, Molecular Genetics and Development, Faculte de Medecine, University of Montreal, Montreal
| | - Marco B. Rust
- Neurobiology/Neurophysiology Group, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | | | - Alicia Rivera
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Seth L. Alper
- Divisions of Nephrology and Molecular and Vascular Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
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Abstract
Sickle cell pain includes 3 types: acute recurrent painful crises, chronic pain syndromes, and neuropathic pain. The acute painful crisis is the hallmark of the disease and the most common cause of hospitalization and treatment in the emergency department. It evolves through 4 phases: prodromal, initial, established, and resolving. Each acute painful episode is associated with inflammation that worsens with recurrent episodes, often culminating in serious complications and organ damage, such as acute chest syndrome, multiorgan failure, and sudden death. Three pathophysiologic events operate in unison during the prodromal phase of the crisis: vaso-occlusion, inflammation, and nociception. Aborting the acute painful episode at the prodromal phase could potentially prevent or minimize tissue damage. Our hypothesis is that managing these events with hydration, anti-inflammatory drugs, aggressive analgesia, and possibly vasodilators could abort the crisis and prevent or minimize further damage. Chronic pain syndromes are associated with or accompany avascular necrosis and leg ulcers. Neuropathic pain is not well studied in patients with sickle cell disease but has been modeled in the transgenic sickle mouse. Management of sickle cell pain should be based on its own pathophysiologic mechanisms rather than borrowing guidelines from other nonsickle pain syndromes.
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