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Wippel C, Förtsch C, Hupp S, Maier E, Benz R, Ma J, Mitchell TJ, Iliev AI. Extracellular calcium reduction strongly increases the lytic capacity of pneumolysin from streptococcus pneumoniae in brain tissue. J Infect Dis 2011; 204:930-6. [PMID: 21849290 PMCID: PMC3156923 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Streptococcus pneumoniae causes serious diseases such as pneumonia and meningitis. Its major pathogenic factor is the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pneumolysin, which produces lytic pores at high concentrations. At low concentrations, it has other effects, including induction of apoptosis. Many cellular effects of pneumolysin appear to be calcium dependent. METHODS Live imaging of primary mouse astroglia exposed to sublytic amounts of pneumolysin at various concentrations of extracellular calcium was used to measure changes in cellular permeability (as judged by lactate dehydrogenase release and propidium iodide chromatin staining). Individual pore properties were analyzed by conductance across artificial lipid bilayer. Tissue toxicity was studied in continuously oxygenated acute brain slices. RESULTS The reduction of extracellular calcium increased the lytic capacity of the toxin due to increased membrane binding. Reduction of calcium did not influence the conductance properties of individual toxin pores. In acute cortical brain slices, the reduction of extracellular calcium from 2 to 1 mM conferred lytic activity to pathophysiologically relevant nonlytic concentrations of pneumolysin. CONCLUSIONS Reduction of extracellular calcium strongly enhanced the lytic capacity of pneumolysin due to increased membrane binding. Thus, extracellular calcium concentration should be considered as a factor of primary importance for the course of pneumococcal meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Wippel
- DFG Membrane/Cytoskeleton Interaction Group, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology & Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Medicine, University of Würzburg, Germany
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Hupp S, Heimeroth V, Wippel C, Förtsch C, Ma J, Mitchell TJ, Iliev AI. Astrocytic tissue remodeling by the meningitis neurotoxin pneumolysin facilitates pathogen tissue penetration and produces interstitial brain edema. Glia 2011; 60:137-46. [PMID: 21989652 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes represent a major component of brain tissue and play a critical role in the proper functioning and protection of the brain. Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most common cause of bacterial meningitis, has a high lethality and causes serious disabilities in survivors. Pneumolysin (PLY), a member of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin group and a major S. pneumoniae neurotoxin, causes deterioration over the course of experimental S. pneumoniae meningitis. At disease-relevant sub-lytic concentrations, PLY produces actin and tubulin reorganization and astrocyte cell shape changes in vitro. In this article, we show that sub-lytic amounts of PLY remodel brain tissue and produce astrocytic process retraction, cortical astroglial reorganization and increased interstitial fluid retention, which is manifested as tissue edema. These changes caused increased tissue permeability to macromolecules and bacteria. The pore-forming capacity of PLY remained necessary for these changes because none of the nonpore-forming mutants were capable of producing similar effects. We suggest that PLY can increase the permeability of brain tissue toward pathogenic factors and bacteria in the course of meningitis, thus contributing to the deterioration caused by the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Hupp
- DFG Membrane/Cytoskeleton Interaction Group, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology & Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Medicine, University of Würzburg, Versbacherstr. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
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Factors affecting the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome in pneumococcal infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2011; 24:241-7. [DOI: 10.1097/qco.0b013e3283463e45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Allicin from garlic neutralizes the hemolytic activity of intra- and extra-cellular pneumolysin O in vitro. Toxicon 2011; 57:540-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Förtsch C, Hupp S, Ma J, Mitchell TJ, Maier E, Benz R, Iliev AI. Changes in astrocyte shape induced by sublytic concentrations of the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pneumolysin still require pore-forming capacity. Toxins (Basel) 2011; 3:43-62. [PMID: 22069689 PMCID: PMC3210454 DOI: 10.3390/toxins3010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2010] [Revised: 12/30/2010] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a common pathogen that causes various infections, such as sepsis and meningitis. A major pathogenic factor of S. pneumoniae is the cholesterol-dependent cytolysin, pneumolysin. It produces cell lysis at high concentrations and apoptosis at lower concentrations. We have shown that sublytic amounts of pneumolysin induce small GTPase-dependent actin cytoskeleton reorganization and microtubule stabilization in human neuroblastoma cells that are manifested by cell retraction and changes in cell shape. In this study, we utilized a live imaging approach to analyze the role of pneumolysin’s pore-forming capacity in the actin-dependent cell shape changes in primary astrocytes. After the initial challenge with the wild-type toxin, a permeabilized cell population was rapidly established within 20-40 minutes. After the initial rapid permeabilization, the size of the permeabilized population remained unchanged and reached a plateau. Thus, we analyzed the non-permeabilized (non-lytic) population, which demonstrated retraction and shape changes that were inhibited by actin depolymerization. Despite the non-lytic nature of pneumolysin treatment, the toxin’s lytic capacity remained critical for the initiation of cell shape changes. The non-lytic pneumolysin mutants W433F-pneumolysin and delta6-pneumolysin, which bind the cell membrane with affinities similar to that of the wild-type toxin, were not able to induce shape changes. The initiation of cell shape changes and cell retraction by the wild-type toxin were independent of calcium and sodium influx and membrane depolarization, which are known to occur following cellular challenge and suggested to result from the ion channel-like properties of the pneumolysin pores. Excluding the major pore-related phenomena as the initiation mechanism of cell shape changes, the existence of a more complex relationship between the pore-forming capacity of pneumolysin and the actin cytoskeleton reorganization is suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Förtsch
- DFG Membrane, Cytoskeleton Interaction Group, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology & Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Medicine, University of Würzburg, Versbacherstr. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany; (C.F.); (S.H.)
| | - Sabrina Hupp
- DFG Membrane, Cytoskeleton Interaction Group, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology & Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Medicine, University of Würzburg, Versbacherstr. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany; (C.F.); (S.H.)
| | - Jiangtao Ma
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Level 2, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK; (J.M.); (T.J.M.)
| | - Timothy J. Mitchell
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Level 2, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK; (J.M.); (T.J.M.)
| | - Elke Maier
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Medicine, University of Würzburg, Versbacherstr. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany; (E.M.); (R.B.)
| | - Roland Benz
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Medicine, University of Würzburg, Versbacherstr. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany; (E.M.); (R.B.)
| | - Asparouh I. Iliev
- DFG Membrane, Cytoskeleton Interaction Group, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology & Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Medicine, University of Würzburg, Versbacherstr. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany; (C.F.); (S.H.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +49-931-20148997; Fax: +49-931-20148539
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Anderson R, Tintinger G, Cockeran R, Potjo M, Feldman C. Beneficial and Harmful Interactions of Antibiotics with Microbial Pathogens and the Host Innate Immune System. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010; 3:1694-1710. [PMID: 27713324 PMCID: PMC4034004 DOI: 10.3390/ph3051694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2010] [Revised: 04/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In general antibiotics interact cooperatively with host defences, weakening and decreasing the virulence of microbial pathogens, thereby increasing vulnerability to phagocytosis and eradication by the intrinsic antimicrobial systems of the host. Antibiotics, however, also interact with host defences by several other mechanisms, some harmful, others beneficial. Harmful activities include exacerbation of potentially damaging inflammatory responses, a property of cell-wall targeted agents, which promotes the release of pro-inflammatory microbial cytotoxins and cell-wall components. On the other hand, inhibitors of bacterial protein synthesis, especially macrolides, possess beneficial anti-inflammatory/cytoprotective activities, which result from interference with the production of microbial virulence factors/cytotoxins. In addition to these pathogen-directed, anti-inflammatory activities, some classes of antimicrobial agent possess secondary anti-inflammatory properties, unrelated to their conventional antimicrobial activities, which target cells of the innate immune system, particularly neutrophils. This is a relatively uncommon, potentially beneficial property of antibiotics, which has been described for macrolides, imidazole anti-mycotics, fluoroquinolones, and tetracyclines. Although of largely unproven significance in the clinical setting, increasing awareness of the pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory properties of antibiotics may contribute to a more discerning and effective use of these agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Anderson
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria and Tshwane Academic Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Pretoria, South Africa.
| | - Gregory Tintinger
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria and Tshwane Academic Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Pretoria, South Africa.
- Division of Pulmonology, Department of Internal Medicine, Steve Biko Pretoria Academic Hospital and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
| | - Riana Cockeran
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria and Tshwane Academic Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Pretoria, South Africa.
| | - Moliehi Potjo
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria and Tshwane Academic Division of the National Health Laboratory Service, Pretoria, South Africa.
| | - Charles Feldman
- Division of Pulmonology, Department of Internal Medicine, Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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58
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Sellner J, Täuber MG, Leib SL. Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of bacterial CNS infections. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2010; 96:1-16. [PMID: 20109671 DOI: 10.1016/s0072-9752(09)96001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Johann Sellner
- Department of Neurology, Technische Universität München, Germany
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Short-term rifampicin pretreatment reduces inflammation and neuronal cell death in a rabbit model of bacterial meningitis. Crit Care Med 2009; 37:2253-8. [PMID: 19487938 DOI: 10.1097/ccm.0b013e3181a036c0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In bacterial meningitis, severe systemic and local inflammation causes long-term impairment and death of affected patients. The current antibiotic therapy relies on cell wall-active beta-lactam antibiotics, which rapidly sterilize the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). However, beta-lactams inhibit cell wall synthesis, induce bacteriolysis, and thereby evoke a sudden release of high amounts of toxic and proinflammatory bacterial products. Because tissue damage in bacterial meningitis is the result of bacterial toxins and the inflammatory host response, any reduction of free bacterial compounds promises to prevent neuronal damage. DESIGN In vitro experiments and randomized prospective animal study. SETTING University research laboratories. SUBJECTS Streptococcus pneumoniae broth cultures and New Zealand White rabbits. INTERVENTIONS We evaluated a concept to improve bacterial meningitis therapy in which a short-term pretreatment with the protein synthesis-inhibiting antibiotic rifampicin precedes the standard antibiotic therapy with ceftriaxone. First, logarithmically growing pneumococcal cultures were subdivided and exposed to different antibiotics. Then, rabbits suffering from pneumococcal meningitis were randomized to receive rifampicin pretreatment or ceftriaxone alone. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS In pneumococcal cultures, quantitative immunoblotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed a reduced release of pneumolysin and bacterial DNA by rifampicin pretreatment for 30 minutes in comparison with ceftriaxone treatment alone. In vivo, a 1-hour rifampicin pretreatment reduced the release of bacterial products and attenuated the inflammatory host response, as demonstrated by decreased CSF levels of prostaglandin E2 and total protein and increased glucose CSF/plasma ratios. Rifampicin pretreatment reduced infection-associated neuronal apoptotic cell loss compared with ceftriaxone-treated controls. CONCLUSIONS A short-term pretreatment with rifampicin reduced the beta-lactam-induced release of deleterious bacterial products, attenuated inflammation, and thereby decreased neuronal cell loss in experimental bacterial meningitis. This concept has the potential to reduce inflammation-associated neuronal injury in bacterial meningitis and should be evaluated in a clinical trial.
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García-Suárez MDM, Cron LE, Suárez-Alvarez B, Villaverde R, González-Rodríguez I, Vázquez F, Hermans PWM, Méndez FJ. Diagnostic detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae PpmA in urine. Clin Microbiol Infect 2009; 15:443-53. [PMID: 19368547 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02702.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae infections are often difficult to diagnose accurately, as it is not uncommon for clinical samples to be culture-negative, particularly after antibiotic administration. The rapid Binax NOW S. pneumoniae urinary antigen test lacks specificity in children, owing to pneumococcal antigen reactions in children who are nasopharyngeal carriers of S. pneumoniae. A western blot assay with a specific polyclonal antibody was developed for direct detection of the putative proteinase maturation protein A (PpmA) in urine samples from children with pneumococcal infections. The sensitivity and specificity of the assay were 66.7% and 100%, respectively. Previous antibiotic treatment or S. pneumoniae nasopharyngeal colonization did not affect PpmA antigenuria. Results also demonstrated the presence of PpmA cross-reactive epitopes in commensal bacteria that co-colonize the nasopharyngeal niche, although the non-pneumococcal cross-reactive protein(s) did not interfere with the detection assay. S. pneumoniae PpmA in the urine of children with pneumococcal infections may be a marker that has the potential to be used in the clinical diagnosis of pneumococcal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M d M García-Suárez
- Area de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain.
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Iliev AI, Djannatian JR, Opazo F, Gerber J, Nau R, Mitchell TJ, Wouters FS. Rapid microtubule bundling and stabilization by the Streptococcus pneumoniae neurotoxin pneumolysin in a cholesterol-dependent, non-lytic and Src-kinase dependent manner inhibits intracellular trafficking. Mol Microbiol 2008; 71:461-77. [PMID: 19040644 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06538.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most frequent cause of bacterial meningitis, leading to permanent neurological damage in 30% and lethal outcome in 25% of patients. The cholesterol-dependent cytolysin pneumolysin is a major virulence factor of S. pneumoniae. It produces rapid cell lysis at higher concentrations or apoptosis at lower concentrations. Here, we show that sublytic amounts of pneumolysin produce rapid bundling and increased acetylation of microtubules (signs of excessive microtubule stabilization) in various types of cells--neuroblastoma cells, fibroblasts and primary astrocytes. The bundling started perinuclearly and extended peripherally towards the membrane. The effect was not connected to pneumolysin's capacity to mediate calcium influx, macropore formation, apoptosis, or RhoA and Rac1 activation. Cellular cholesterol depletion and neutralization of the toxin by pre-incubation with cholesterol completely inhibited the microtubule phenotype. Pharmacological inhibition of Src-family kinases diminished microtubule bundling, suggesting their involvement in the process. The relevance of microtubule stabilization to meningitis was confirmed in an experimental pneumococcal meningitis animal model, where increased acetylation was observed. Live imaging experiments demonstrated a decrease in organelle motility after toxin challenge in a manner comparable to the microtubule-stabilizing agent taxol, thus proposing a possible pathogenic mechanism that might contribute to the CNS damage in pneumococcal meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asparouh I Iliev
- Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Systems, Department of Neuro- and Sensory Physiology, Instutute for Physiology and Pathophysiology, University Medicine Göttingen, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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Systemic expression of cytokine production in patients with severe pneumococcal pneumonia: effects of treatment with a beta-lactam versus a fluoroquinolone. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52:2395-402. [PMID: 18426893 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00658-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial alveolar invasion is followed by an inflammatory response. A systemic extension of the compartmentalized immune response has been described in patients with severe pneumonia. The data suggest that some antimicrobials may induce a differential release of cytokines. We conducted a prospective, randomized study in adult patients with severe pneumococcal pneumonia to measure the effects of ceftriaxone and levofloxacin in the systemic cytokine expression over time. Demographic, clinical characteristics, and severity scores were recorded. The serum concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-1 receptor agonist were measured at 0, 24, 72, and 120 h. A total of 32 patients were included in the study. Both groups were homogeneous in terms of age, comorbidities, severity of disease, and corticosteroid or statin use. With the single exception of IL-1beta, all cytokines were detected in venous blood. All of the cytokines studied showed a similar pattern of progressive decrease over time. No significant differences in the concentrations of any of the cytokines studied were found, with the exception of TNF-alpha, for which lower concentrations were obtained at 120 h in the levofloxacin group (P = 0.014). Basal oxygen saturation (P = 0.034) and heart rate (P = 0.029) returned to normal values earlier in the levofloxacin arm. We demonstrated that in patients with severe pneumococcal pneumonia pro- and anti-inflammatory responses could be detected in venous blood, representing a systemic extension of the compartmentalized response. Treatment with a beta-lactam agent or a fluoroquinolone has different effects on cytokine production and its systemic expression, impacting the clinical course of the disease.
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63
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Goos M, Zech WD, Jaiswal MK, Balakrishnan S, Ebert S, Mitchell T, Carrì MT, Keller BU, Nau R. Expression of a Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase typical for familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis increases the vulnerability of neuroblastoma cells to infectious injury. BMC Infect Dis 2007; 7:131. [PMID: 17997855 PMCID: PMC2211486 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-7-131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2007] [Accepted: 11/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Infections can aggravate the course of neurodegenerative diseases including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Mutations in the anti-oxidant enzyme Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1, SOD1) are associated with familial ALS. Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most frequent respiratory pathogen, causes damage by the action of the cholesterol-binding virulence factor pneumolysin and by stimulation of the innate immune system, particularly via Toll-like-receptor 2. Methods SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells transfected with the G93A mutant of SOD1 typical for familial ALS (G93A-SOD1) and SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells transfected with wildtype SOD1 were both exposed to pneumolysin and in co-cultures with cultured human macrophages treated with the Toll like receptor 2 agonist N-palmitoyl-S-[2,3-bis(palmitoyloxy)-(2RS)-propyl]-[R]-cysteinyl-[S]-seryl-[S]-lysyl-[S]-lysyl-[S]-lysyl-[S]-lysyl-[S]-lysine × 3 HCl (Pam3CSK4). Cell viability and apoptotic cell death were compared morphologically and by in-situ tailing. With the help of the WST-1 test, cell viability was quantified, and by measurement of neuron-specific enolase in the culture supernatant neuronal damage in co-cultures was investigated. Intracellular calcium levels were measured by fluorescence analysis using fura-2 AM. Results SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells transfected with the G93A mutant of SOD1 typical for familial ALS (G93A-SOD1) were more vulnerable to the neurotoxic action of pneumolysin and to the attack of monocytes stimulated by Pam3CSK4 than SH-SY5Y cells transfected with wild-type human SOD1. The enhanced pneumolysin toxicity in G93A-SOD1 neuronal cells depended on the inability of these cells to cope with an increased calcium influx caused by pores formed by pneumolysin. This inability was caused by an impaired capacity of the mitochondria to remove cytoplasmic calcium. Treatment of G93A-SOD1 SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine reduced the toxicity of pneumolysin. Conclusion The particular vulnerability of G93A-SOD1 neuronal cells to hemolysins and inflammation may be partly responsible for the clinical deterioration of ALS patients during infections. These findings link infection and motor neuron disease and suggest early treatment of respiratory infections in ALS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Goos
- Department of Neurology, Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
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Franco-Vidal V, Beurg M, Darrouzet V, Bébéar JP, Skinner LJ, Dulon D. Zinc protection against pneumolysin toxicity on rat cochlear hair cells. Audiol Neurootol 2007; 13:65-70. [PMID: 17890859 DOI: 10.1159/000108763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2007] [Accepted: 07/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae can induce local and systemic diseases such as meningitis, otitis media, and pneumonia. One third of these meningitis cases can be associated with irreversible sensorineural hearing loss whose mechanisms likely involves the exotoxin pneumolysin (PLY) that irreversibly damages cochlear hair cells (HCs). In the respiratory system and in neuron it has been demonstrated that zinc deficiency increases severity and mortality of such infections in animal models and in children. Moreover, zinc supplementation can decrease the severity of pneumococcal respiratory infections. The aim of our study was to assess the potential protective effect of zinc against PLY toxicity on HCs in culture. Our results showed that in the presence of zinc at concentration as low as 1 microM, the toxicity of PLY was largely reduced by about 50% for both inner and outer HCs. At 300 microM of zinc, protection significantly increased with 62 and 55.2% for IHCs and OHCs, respectively. Our results suggest that the protective effect of zinc is likely due to an inhibition of the toxin incorporation and aggregation into the plasma membrane, thus preventing calcium influx through the toxin pores. Our findings raise the possibility that treatments with zinc may help to prevent debilitating otological sequelae from pneumococcal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Franco-Vidal
- Otolaryngology and Skull Base Surgery Department, University of Bordeaux 2 Victor Segalen, Bordeaux, France.
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Spreer A, von Ruden C, Mitchell TJ, Eiffert H, Nau R. Influence of Subinhibitory Concentrations of Protein-Synthesis-Inhibiting Antibiotics on Production and Release of the Pneumococcal Virulence Factor Pneumolysin in vitro. Chemotherapy 2007; 53:327-31. [PMID: 17728540 DOI: 10.1159/000107691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2006] [Accepted: 06/25/2006] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Pneumolysin is an important virulence factor of Streptococcus pneumoniae with cytotoxic and proinflammatory activities released during growth and autolysis. At concentrations above the minimal inhibitory concentration, the protein-synthesis-inhibiting antibiotics erythromycin, clindamycin and rifampicin inhibit the production and/or release of virulence factors in various bacterial species. We investigated the influence of subinhibitory concentrations of these antibiotics on production and release of pneumolysin by S. pneumoniae strain D39. METHODS The pneumococcal strain D39 was grown in broth and treated with antibiotics at a concentration of 1/32 of the respective minimal inhibitory concentration. Cytoplasmic and extracellular pneumolysin was measured by quantitative immunoblotting with recombinant pneumolysin as standard. RESULTS The subinhibitory antibiotic concentrations evaluated did not affect bacterial growth. During logarithmic growth, production of pneumolysin was decreased by clindamycin, erythromycin and rifampicin by approximately 50% compared with untreated controls. The release of pneumolysin was decreased to a similar extent. CONCLUSION A decrease in pneumolysin production by 50% probably has a moderate biological effect. We do not advocate the use of subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics to modulate the expression of virulence factors during pneumococcal disease, particularly with regard to the risk of development of antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Spreer
- Department of Neurology, University of Gottingen, Gottingen, Germany
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García-Suárez MDM, Flórez N, Astudillo A, Vázquez F, Villaverde R, Fabrizio K, Pirofski LA, Méndez FJ. The role of pneumolysin in mediating lung damage in a lethal pneumococcal pneumonia murine model. Respir Res 2007; 8:3. [PMID: 17257395 PMCID: PMC1790890 DOI: 10.1186/1465-9921-8-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2006] [Accepted: 01/26/2007] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Intranasal inoculation of Streptococcus pneumoniae D39 serotype 2 causes fatal pneumonia in mice. The cytotoxic and inflammatory properties of pneumolysin (PLY) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of pneumococcal pneumonia. Methods To examine the role of PLY in this experimental model we performed ELISA assays for PLY quantification. The distribution patterns of PLY and apoptosis were established by immunohistochemical detection of PLY, caspase-9 activity and TUNEL assay on tissue sections from mice lungs at various times, and the results were quantified with image analysis. Inflammatory and apoptotic cells were also quantified on lung tissue sections from antibody treated mice. Results In bronchoalveolar lavages (BAL), total PLY was found at sublytic concentrations which were located in alveolar macrophages and leukocytes. The bronchoalveolar epithelium was PLY-positive, while the vascular endothelium was not PLY reactive. The pattern and extension of cellular apoptosis was similar. Anti-PLY antibody treatment decreased the lung damage and the number of apoptotic and inflammatory cells in lung tissues. Conclusion The data strongly suggest that in vivo lung injury could be due to the pro-apoptotic and pro-inflammatory activity of PLY, rather than its cytotoxic activity. PLY at sublytic concentrations induces lethal inflammation in lung tissues and is involved in host cell apoptosis, whose effects are important to pathogen survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- María del Mar García-Suárez
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Instituto Universitario de Biotecnología de Asturias (IUBA), Universidad de Oviedo; 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Noelia Flórez
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Instituto Universitario de Biotecnología de Asturias (IUBA), Universidad de Oviedo; 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Aurora Astudillo
- Laboratorio de Anatomía Patológica, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), Universidad de Oviedo; 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Fernando Vázquez
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Instituto Universitario de Biotecnología de Asturias (IUBA), Universidad de Oviedo; 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Roberto Villaverde
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Instituto Universitario de Biotecnología de Asturias (IUBA), Universidad de Oviedo; 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Kevin Fabrizio
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
| | - Liise-Anne Pirofski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
| | - Francisco J Méndez
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional, Instituto Universitario de Biotecnología de Asturias (IUBA), Universidad de Oviedo; 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
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67
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Feldman C, Anderson R. Controversies in the treatment of pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia. Future Microbiol 2006; 1:271-81. [PMID: 17661640 DOI: 10.2217/17460913.1.3.271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Community-acquired pneumonia remains an important cause of disease and death both in the developed and the developing worlds, despite the ready availability of potent antimicrobial agents to which the organisms remain susceptible. Furthermore, disease management is complicated by emerging resistance of the common pathogens to the various classes of commonly prescribed antimicrobial agents. Much recent research in the field of community-acquired pneumonia has focused attention on optimal treatment, evaluating the impact of antibiotic resistance, as well as of antimicrobial choices, on the outcome of these infections. In addition, efforts have been directed towards finding adjunctive therapies to antibiotics that may improve the prognosis of these patients. This article reviews some of these research areas, highlighting controversies that still exist with regard to final recommendations, and in particular with regard to infections with Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most common bacterial cause of community-acquired pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Feldman
- University of the Witwatersrand Medical School, Division of Pulmonology, Department of Medicine, Parktown, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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68
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Meli DN, Coimbra RS, Erhart DG, Loquet G, Bellac CL, Täuber MG, Neumann U, Leib SL. Doxycycline reduces mortality and injury to the brain and cochlea in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Infect Immun 2006; 74:3890-6. [PMID: 16790761 PMCID: PMC1489684 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01949-05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial meningitis is characterized by an inflammatory reaction to the invading pathogens that can ultimately lead to sensorineural hearing loss, permanent brain injury, or death. The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tumor necrosis factor alpha-converting enzyme (TACE) are key mediators that promote inflammation, blood-brain barrier disruption, and brain injury in bacterial meningitis. Doxycycline is a clinically used antibiotic with anti-inflammatory effects that lead to reduced cytokine release and the inhibition of MMPs. Here, doxycycline inhibited TACE with a 50% inhibitory dose of 74 microM in vitro and reduced the amount of tumor necrosis factor alpha released into the cerebrospinal fluid by 90% in vivo. In an infant rat model of pneumococcal meningitis, a single dose of doxycycline (30 mg/kg) given as adjuvant therapy in addition to ceftriaxone 18 h after infection significantly reduced the mortality, the blood-brain barrier disruption, and the extent of cortical brain injury. Adjuvant doxycycline (30 mg/kg given subcutaneously once daily for 4 days) also attenuated hearing loss, as assessed by auditory brainstem response audiometry, and neuronal death in the cochlear spiral ganglion at 3 weeks after infection. Thus, doxycycline, probably as a result of its anti-inflammatory properties, had broad beneficial effects in the brain and the cochlea and improved survival in this model of pneumococcal meningitis in infant rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian N Meli
- Institute for Infectious Diseases, Friedbuehlstrasse 51, P.O. Box 61, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
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69
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Buckingham SC, McCullers JA, Luján-Zilbermann J, Knapp KM, Orman KL, English BK. Early vancomycin therapy and adverse outcomes in children with pneumococcal meningitis. Pediatrics 2006; 117:1688-94. [PMID: 16651325 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2005-2282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Experts recommend that children with suspected pneumococcal meningitis should empirically receive combination therapy with vancomycin plus either ceftriaxone or cefotaxime. The relationship between timing of the first dose of vancomycin relative to other antibiotics and outcome in these children, however, has not been addressed. METHODS Medical records of children with pneumococcal meningitis at a single institution from 1991-2001 were retrospectively reviewed. Vancomycin start time was defined as the number of hours from initiation of cefotaxime or ceftriaxone therapy until the administration of vancomycin therapy. Outcome variables were death, sensorineural hearing loss, and other neurologic deficits at discharge. Associations between independent variables and outcome variables were assessed in univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses. RESULTS Of 114 subjects, 109 received empiric vancomycin therapy in combination with cefotaxime or ceftriaxone. Ten subjects (9%) died, whereas 37 (55%) of 67 survivors who underwent audiometry had documented hearing loss, and 14 (13%) of 104 survivors were discharged with other neurologic deficits. Subjects with hearing loss had a significantly shorter median vancomycin start time than did those with normal hearing (<1 vs 4 hours). Vancomycin start time was not significantly associated with death or other neurologic deficits in univariate or multivariate analyses. Multiple logistic regression revealed that hearing loss was independently associated with vancomycin start time <2 hours, blood leukocyte count <15000/microL, and cerebrospinal fluid glucose concentration <30 mg/dL. CONCLUSIONS Early empiric vancomycin therapy was not clinically beneficial in children with pneumococcal meningitis but was associated with a substantially increased risk of hearing loss. It may be prudent to consider delaying the first dose of vancomycin therapy until > or =2 hours after the first dose of parenteral cephalosporin in children beginning therapy for suspected or confirmed pneumococcal meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven C Buckingham
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Le Bonheur Children's Medical Center, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
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70
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Feldman C, Cockeran R, Jedrzejas MJ, Mitchell TJ, Anderson R. Hyaluronidase augments pneumolysin-mediated injury to human ciliated epithelium. Int J Infect Dis 2006; 11:11-5. [PMID: 16483814 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2005.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2005] [Revised: 08/01/2005] [Accepted: 09/08/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of pneumococcal hyaluronidase (0.1-10microg/ml), alone and in combination with pneumolysin (50 and 100ng/ml), on human ciliated epithelium. METHODS Ciliary beat frequency (CBF) and structural integrity of human ciliated respiratory epithelium in vitro were studied using a phototransistor technique and a visual scoring index, respectively. RESULTS Hyaluronidase per se did not affect either CBF or the structural integrity of the epithelium. However, preincubation of the epithelial strips with hyaluronidase (10microg/ml) for 30min at 37 degrees C significantly potentiated pneumolysin-mediated ciliary slowing and epithelial damage. Hyaluronan, a substrate of hyaluronidase, had no effects on the ciliated respiratory epithelium in concentrations up to 100microg/ml and did not antagonize the injurious effects of pneumolysin on the epithelium. However, preincubation of the epithelial strips with hyaluronan (100microg/ml) was associated with attenuation of the ciliary slowing and epithelial damage induced by incubation of the strips with hyaluronidase (10microg/ml) for 30min at 37 degrees C followed by addition of pneumolysin (50ng/ml). CONCLUSIONS Although having no direct effects alone, hyaluronidase may contribute to pneumolysin-mediated damage and dysfunction to respiratory epithelium, thereby favoring colonization and subsequently extra-pulmonary dissemination of the pneumococcus.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Feldman
- Division of Pulmonology, Department of Medicine, Johannesburg Hospital and University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa.
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71
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Yuste J, Botto M, Paton JC, Holden DW, Brown JS. Additive inhibition of complement deposition by pneumolysin and PspA facilitates Streptococcus pneumoniae septicemia. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 175:1813-9. [PMID: 16034123 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.3.1813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is a common cause of septicemia in the immunocompetent host. To establish infection, S. pneumoniae has to overcome host innate immune responses, one component of which is the complement system. Using isogenic bacterial mutant strains and complement-deficient immune naive mice, we show that the S. pneumoniae virulence factor pneumolysin prevents complement deposition on S. pneumoniae, mainly through effects on the classical pathway. In addition, using a double pspA-/ply- mutant strain we demonstrate that pneumolysin and the S. pneumoniae surface protein PspA act in concert to affect both classical and alternative complement pathway activity. As a result, the virulence of the pspA-/ply- strain in models of both systemic and pulmonary infection is greatly attenuated in wild-type mice but not complement deficient mice. The sensitivity of the pspA-/ply- strain to complement was exploited to demonstrate that although early innate immunity to S. pneumoniae during pulmonary infection is partially complement-dependent, the main effect of complement is to prevent spread of S. pneumoniae from the lungs to the blood. These data suggest that inhibition of complement deposition on S. pneumoniae by pneumolysin and PspA is essential for S. pneumoniae to successfully cause septicemia. Targeting mechanisms of complement inhibition could be an effective therapeutic strategy for patients with septicemia due to S. pneumoniae or other bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Yuste
- Centre for Respiratory Research, Department of Medicine, Royal Free and University College Medical School, Rayne Institute, London, United Kingdom
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72
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Ebert S, Dietz GPH, Mitchell TJ, Michel U, Bähr M, Nau R. Limited protection of TAT-Bcl-XL against pneumolysin-induced neuronal cell death. Neurosci Lett 2005; 384:349-53. [PMID: 15961228 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2005] [Revised: 04/28/2005] [Accepted: 05/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Severe brain damage in patients with pneumococcal meningitis is in part caused by the cytosolic pneumococcal protein pneumolysin. The devastating effect of this neurotoxin might be alleviated by interfering with the cell death pathways that it sets in motion. An important player in these pathways is Bcl-X(L), an antiapoptotic protein of the Bcl-2 family, which is neuroprotective in various in vitro and in vivo models of cell death. We investigated whether its membrane-permeable form, the TAT-Bcl-X(L) fusion protein, is capable of protecting human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells against pneumolysin-induced cell death. Under mild pneumolysin-induced neuronal injury, TAT-Bcl-X(L) increased cell viability significantly by approximately 40% (82.7 +/- 16.1% versus 70.0+/-8.2%; p = 0.04). When the cells were exposed to a more rigorous pneumolysin treatment, TAT-Bcl-X(L) had no protective effects. This suggests the involvement of additional neuronal death pathways in pneumolysin-induced cell death, which are not controlled by Bcl-X(L). Therefore, Bcl-X(L), a promising therapeutic candidate for ischemia and neurodegenerative diseases, is only of partial efficacy in preventing the direct neurotoxicity of pneumolysin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Ebert
- Department of Neurology, University of Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
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73
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Athamna A, Athamna M, Nura A, Shlyakov E, Bast DJ, Farrell D, Rubinstein E. Is in vitro antibiotic combination more effective than single-drug therapy against anthrax? Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49:1323-5. [PMID: 15793105 PMCID: PMC1068588 DOI: 10.1128/aac.49.4.1323-1325.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic combinations are used to enhance antibacterial efficacy and to prevent the development of resistance. We have tested a possible synergistic effect of several antibacterial combinations on Bacillus anthracis. The in vitro activities of antibiotic combinations against two strains of B. anthracis, strain Sterne and the Russian anthrax vaccine strain STi, were tested by the fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) method, derived from the MICs of the agents in combination, and by measuring the rate of bacterial killing over time by several antibiotic combinations. The FIC results showed that synergism against both B. anthracis strains was observed only with the combination of rifampin and clindamycin. The telithromycin-amoxicillin combination showed synergism against strain Sterne only. All other combinations were either indifferent or antagonistic. The results of the bacterial time-kill study demonstrated indifferent effects for all combinations. These in vitro results demonstrate the difficulties in obtaining synergistic combinations of antibiotics against B. anthracis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abed Athamna
- Traingle Research and Development Center, Kfar-Qaraa, Tel Aviv University School of Medicine, Tel Aviv, Israel
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74
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Fickl H, Cockeran R, Steel HC, Feldman C, Cowan G, Mitchell TJ, Anderson R. Pneumolysin-mediated activation of NFkappaB in human neutrophils is antagonized by docosahexaenoic acid. Clin Exp Immunol 2005; 140:274-81. [PMID: 15807851 PMCID: PMC1809376 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02757.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the relationship between influx of extracellular Ca(2+), activation of NFkappaB and synthesis of interleukin-8 (IL-8) following exposure of human neutrophils to subcytolytic concentrations (8.37 and 41.75 ng/ml) of the pneumococcal toxin, pneumolysin, as well as the potential of the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid, to antagonize these events. Activation and translocation of NFkappaB were measured using a radiometric electrophoretic mobility shift assay, while influx of extracellular Ca(2+) and synthesis of IL-8 were determined using a radioassay and an ELISA procedure, respectively. Exposure of neutrophils to pneumolysin was accompanied by influx of Ca(2+), activation of NFkappaB, and synthesis of IL-8, all of which were eliminated by inclusion of the Ca(2+)-chelating agent, EGTA (10 m m), in the cell-suspending medium, as well as by pretreatment of the cells with docosahexaenoic acid (5 and 10 microg/ml). The antagonistic effects of docosahexaenoic acid on these pro-inflammatory interactions of pneumolysin with neutrophils were not attributable to inactivation of the toxin, and required the continuous presence of the fatty acid. These observations demonstrate that activation of NFkappaB and synthesis of IL-8, following exposure of neutrophils to pneumolysin are dependent on toxin-mediated influx of Ca(2+) and that these potentially harmful activities of the toxin are antagonized by docosahexaenoic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Fickl
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, University of PretoriaPretoria
| | - R Cockeran
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, University of PretoriaPretoria
| | - H C Steel
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, University of PretoriaPretoria
| | - C Feldman
- Division of Pulmonology, Department of Medicine, Johannesburg Hospital and University of the WitwatersrandJohannesburg, South Africa
| | - G Cowan
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgow, UK
| | - T J Mitchell
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of GlasgowGlasgow, UK
| | - R Anderson
- Medical Research Council Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, University of PretoriaPretoria
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75
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Abstract
Inflammation represents a complex biologic and biochemical process involving cells of the immune system and a plethora of biologic mediators in response to mechanical, chemical or infectious injuries. When mobilization of effector cells and molecules becomes excessive, the beneficial aspect of this response--to limit damage and promote healing, can be overriden, resulting in host-cell and tissue dysfunction. Based on the hypothesis that chronic infections underly some inflammatory diseases, antibacterial therapy has long been assessed in various inflammatory settings. Recently, the anti-inflammatory activity of some antibacterial agents has also been suspected. Of these duel-action drugs, ansamycins represent an interesting family. Although their therapeutic use is restricted to potentially infectious inflammatory diseases, many experimental data suggest that these drugs also possess direct inhibitory activity on some crucial proinflammatory effectors. To date, the potent antimycobacterial activity of the therapeutically useful ansamycins precludes their widespread use in inflammatory diseases. However, biosynthetic manipulation remains an attractive route for the generation of pharmacologically useful analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Thérèse Labro
- INSERM, U479, CHU Xavier Bichat, 16 rue Henri Huchard, 75018, Paris, France.
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76
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Nau R, Eiffert H. Minimizing the release of proinflammatory and toxic bacterial products within the host: A promising approach to improve outcome in life-threatening infections. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 44:1-16. [PMID: 15780573 DOI: 10.1016/j.femsim.2005.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2004] [Revised: 01/06/2005] [Accepted: 01/13/2005] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Various bacterial components (e.g., endotoxin, teichoic and lipoteichoic acids, peptidoglycans, DNA) induce or enhance inflammation by stimulating the innate immune system and/or are directly toxic in eukariotic cells (e.g., hemolysins). When antibiotics which inhibit bacterial protein synthesis kill bacteria, smaller quantities of proinflammatory or toxic compounds are released in vitro and in vivo than during killing of bacteria by beta-lactams and other cell-wall active drugs. In general, high antibiotic concentrations liberate lower quantities of bacterial proinflammatory or toxic compounds than concentrations close to the minimum inhibitory concentration. In animal models of Escherichia coli Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus peritonitis/sepsis and of Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis, a lower release of proinflammatory bacterial compounds was associated with a reduced mortality or neuronal injury. Pre-treatment with a bacterial protein synthesis inhibitor reduced the strong release of bacterial products usually observed during treatment with a beta-lactam antibiotic. Data available strongly encourage clinical trials comparing antibiotic regimens with different release of proinflammatory/toxic bacterial products. The benefit of the approach to reduce the liberation of bacterial products should be greatest in patients with a high bacterial load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Nau
- Department of Neurology, University of Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Strasse 40, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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77
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Hirst RA, Mohammed BJ, Mitchell TJ, Andrew PW, O'Callaghan C. Streptococcus pneumoniae-induced inhibition of rat ependymal cilia is attenuated by antipneumolysin antibody. Infect Immun 2004; 72:6694-8. [PMID: 15501805 PMCID: PMC523015 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.11.6694-6698.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciliated ependymal cells line the ventricular surfaces and aqueducts of the brain. In ex vivo experiments, pneumolysin caused rapid inhibition of the ependymal ciliary beat frequency and caused ependymal cell disruption. Wild-type pneumococci and pneumococci deficient in pneumolysin caused ciliary slowing, but penicillin lysis of wild-type, not pneumolysin-deficient, pneumococci increased the extent of ciliary inhibition. This effect was abolished by antipneumolysin antibody. Ependymal ciliary stasis by purified pneumolysin was also blocked by the addition of antipneumolysin monoclonal antibodies. These data show that antibiotic lysis of Streptococcus pneumoniae can be detrimental to the ciliated ependyma and that antipneumolysin antibody may have a therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Hirst
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Leicester, LE2 7LX, UK.
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78
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Ebert S, Gerber J, Bader S, Mühlhauser F, Brechtel K, Mitchell TJ, Nau R. Dose-dependent activation of microglial cells by Toll-like receptor agonists alone and in combination. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 159:87-96. [PMID: 15652406 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2004] [Revised: 10/03/2004] [Accepted: 10/04/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells express Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognising exogenous and endogenous ligands. Upon stimulation with agonists of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9, nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were released by primary mouse microglial cell cultures. Endotoxin was most potent in stimulating microglia followed by pneumolysin, cytosine-guanosine (CpG) oligodesoxynucleotide (ODN), and Tripalmitoyl-S-glyceryl-cysteine. Maximum stimulation of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 resulted in approximately equal amounts of nitric oxide release. Pneumolysin was a potent activator of microglial cells; at high concentrations, it reduced cell viability. No cytotoxicity was noted with the other TLR agonists. Costimulation with maximum concentrations of two TLR agonists did not further increase nitric oxide release. Costimulation with submaximum concentrations was additive or supraadditive, suggesting that even low concentrations of products of infectious agents can lead to microglial activation via TLRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Ebert
- Department of Neurology, University of Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
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79
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Cockeran R, Theron AJ, Feldman C, Mitchel TJ, Anderson R. Pneumolysin potentiates oxidative inactivation of alpha-1-proteinase inhibitor by activated human neutrophils. Respir Med 2004; 98:865-71. [PMID: 15338799 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2004.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the effects of the Streptococcus pneumoniae-derived, pro-inflammatory toxin, pneumolysin (8.37 and 41.75 ng/ml), on the oxidative inactivation of alpha-1-protease inhibitor (API) by chemoattractant-activated human neutrophils in vitro. The elastase inhibitory capacity (EIC) of API in supernatants from unstimulated neutrophils, neutrophils treated with pneumolysin only, or with the chemoattractant FMLP (1 microM) only, or the combination of the toxin with FMLP was measured by a colorimetric procedure based on the activity of added porcine elastase. The EIC of API was unaffected by exposure to pneumolysin only, unstimulated neutrophils, or neutrophils treated with pneumolysin only. However, exposure to FMLP-activated neutrophils resulted in a reduction of the EIC of API, which was significantly (P<0.05) augmented by pneumolysin (mean reductions of 16%, 43% and 83% for FMLP only and in combination with 8.37 and 41.75 ng/ml pneumolysin, respectively), and was attenuated by wortmannin (1 microM), an inhibitor of NADPH oxidase, the oxidant-scavenger methionine (100 microM), and depletion of Ca2+ from the cell-suspending medium. These pro-proteolytic interactions of pneumolysin with chemoattractant-activated neutrophils may contribute to the invasiveness of the pneumococcus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riana Cockeran
- MRC Unit for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria and Tshwane Academic Division of the National Health Laboratory Services, PO Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
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80
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Schmeck B, Gross R, N'Guessan PD, Hocke AC, Hammerschmidt S, Mitchell TJ, Rosseau S, Suttorp N, Hippenstiel S. Streptococcus pneumoniae-induced caspase 6-dependent apoptosis in lung epithelium. Infect Immun 2004; 72:4940-7. [PMID: 15321985 PMCID: PMC517413 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.9.4940-4947.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2004] [Revised: 03/29/2004] [Accepted: 06/01/2004] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the major pathogen of community-acquired pneumonia and one of the most common causes of death due to infectious diseases in industrialized countries. Lung epithelium lines the airways and constitutes the first line of innate defense against respiratory pathogens. Little is known about the molecular interaction of pneumococci with lung epithelial cells. Apoptosis of lung epithelium is involved in some bacterial lung infections. In this study different pneumococcal strains specifically induced either apoptotic or necrotic death of human alveolar and bronchial epithelial cells. Pneumococcus-induced apoptosis did not depend on the virulence factors pneumolysin and H(2)O(2). Apoptotic cells showed increased activity of caspases 6, 8, and 9 but not increased activity of caspase 3. Moreover, programmed cell death could be strongly reduced by a caspase 6 inhibitor and a pan-caspase inhibitor. Inhibitors of calpain and chymotrypsin- and trypsin-like proteases also reduced pneumococcus-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, pneumococcus-infected human alveolar epithelial cells showed Bid cleavage and reduced levels of Bcl2 and Bax. Overexpression of Bcl2 in these cells reduced apoptosis significantly. Thus, pneumococci induced apoptosis of human alveolar and bronchial epithelial cells. Programmed cell death was executed by caspase 6 and noncaspase proteases, but not by caspase 3, and could be blocked by overexpression of Bcl2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Schmeck
- Department of Internal Medicine/Infectious Diseases Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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81
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Spreer A, Lis A, Gerber J, Reinert RR, Eiffert H, Nau R. Differences in clinical manifestation of Streptococcus pneumoniae infection are not correlated with in vitro production and release of the virulence factors pneumolysin and lipoteichoic and teichoic acids. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42:3342-5. [PMID: 15243112 PMCID: PMC446287 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.42.7.3342-3345.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Production and release of the pneumococcal virulence factors pneumolysin and lipoteichoic and teichoic acid in 75 clinical isolates were investigated. No difference was found between strains causing systemic infection or localized respiratory infection and isolates from asymptomatic carriers. This suggests that the presence of pneumolysin and lipoteichoic and teichoic acid is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for pneumococcal infection and development of invasive disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Spreer
- Department of Neurology, University of Göttingen, Germany
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82
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Cockeran R, Theron AJ, Feldman C, Mitchell TJ, Anderson R. Docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid antagonize the proinflammatory interactions of pneumolysin with human neutrophils. Infect Immun 2004; 72:4327-9. [PMID: 15213185 PMCID: PMC427396 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.7.4327-4329.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pneumolysin (4.18 ng/ml)-mediated influx of Ca(2+) and augmentation of the chemoattractant-activated generation of reactive oxidants was antagonized by pretreatment of human neutrophils with the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid (1.25 to 5 microg/ml). These agents may have potential in attenuating the proinflammatory properties of this pneumococcal toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riana Cockeran
- Medical Research Council for Inflammation and Immunity, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, P.O. Box 2034, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
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Gianinazzi C, Grandgirard D, Simon F, Imboden H, Joss P, Täuber MG, Leib SL. Apoptosis of Hippocampal Neurons in Organotypic Slice Culture Models: Direct Effect of Bacteria Revisited. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2004; 63:610-7. [PMID: 15217089 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/63.6.610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons of the hippocampal dentate gyrus selectively undergo programmed cell death in patients suffering from bacterial meningitis and in experimental models of pneumococcal meningitis in infant rats. In the present study, a membrane-based organotypic slice culture system of rat hippocampus was used to test whether this selective vulnerability of neurons of the dentate gyrus could be reproduced in vitro. Apoptosis was assessed by nuclear morphology (condensed and fragmented nuclei), by immunochemistry for active caspase-3 and deltaC-APP, and by proteolytic caspase-3 activity. Co-incubation of the cultures with live pneumococci did not induce neuronal apoptosis unless cultures were kept in partially nutrient-deprived medium. Complete nutrient deprivation alone and staurosporine independently induced significant apoptosis, the latter in a dose-response way. In all experimental settings, apoptosis occurred preferentially in the dentate gyrus. Our data demonstrate that factors released by pneumococci per se failed to induce significant apoptosis in vitro. Thus, these factors appear to contribute to a multifactorial pathway, which ultimately leads to neuronal apoptosis in bacterial meningitis.
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