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Allen-Philbey K, De Trane S, MacDougall A, Adams A, Bianchi L, Campion T, Giovannoni G, Gnanapavan S, Holden DW, Marta M, Mathews J, Turner BP, Baker D, Schmierer K. Disease activity 4.5 years after starting cladribine: experience in 264 patients with multiple sclerosis. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2023; 16:17562864231200627. [PMID: 37954917 PMCID: PMC10638874 DOI: 10.1177/17562864231200627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cladribine is an effective immunotherapy for people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). Whilst most pwMS do not require re-treatment following standard dosing (two treatment courses), disease activity re-emerges in others. The characteristics of pwMS developing re-emerging disease activity remain incompletely understood. Objectives To explore whether clinical and/or paraclinical baseline characteristics, including the degree of lymphocyte reduction, drug dose and lesions on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are associated with re-emerging disease activity. Design Service evaluation in pwMS undergoing subcutaneous cladribine (SClad) treatment. Methods Demographics, clinical, laboratory and MRI data of pwMS receiving two courses of SClad were extracted from health records. To assess associations of predictor variables with re-emerging disease activity, a series of Cox proportional hazards models was fitted (one for each predictor variable). Results Of n = 264 pwMS 236 received two courses of SClad and were included in the analysis. Median follow-up was 4.5 years (3.9, 5.3) from the first, and 3.5 years (2.9, 4.3) from the last SClad administration. Re-emerging disease activity occurred in 57/236 pwMS (24%); 22/236 received further cladribine doses (SClad or cladribine tablets) at 36.7 months [median; interquartile range (IQR): 31.7, 42.1], and 22/236 other immunotherapies 18.9 months (13.0, 30.2) after their second course of SClad, respectively. Eligibility was based on MRI activity in 29, relapse in 5, both in 13, elevated cerebrospinal fluid neurofilament light chain level in 3, deterioration unrelated to relapse in 4 and other in 3. Only 36/57 of those eligible for additional immunotherapy had received a reduced dose of SClad for their second treatment course. Association was detected between re-emerging disease activity and (i) high baseline MRI activity and (ii) low second dose of SClad. Conclusion Re-emerging disease activity was associated with baseline MRI activity and low dose second course of SClad.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley Allen-Philbey
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Stefania De Trane
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- Neurological Rehabilitation and Spinal Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri, IRCCS Bari, Italy
| | - Amy MacDougall
- Department of Medical Statistics, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Ashok Adams
- Department of Neuroradiology, The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Lucia Bianchi
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Thomas Campion
- Department of Neuroradiology, The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Gavin Giovannoni
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- Preventive Neurology Unit, Wolfson Institute of Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Sharmilee Gnanapavan
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - David W. Holden
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Monica Marta
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Joela Mathews
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Benjamin P. Turner
- Clinical Board Medicine (Neuroscience), The Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - David Baker
- Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
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Thurston TLM, Holden DW. The Salmonella Typhi SPI-2 injectisome enigma. Microbiology (Reading) 2023; 169:001405. [PMID: 37862087 PMCID: PMC10634361 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
The Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2)-encoded type III secretion system (injectisome) is assembled following uptake of bacteria into vacuoles in mammalian cells. The injectisome translocates virulence proteins (effectors) into infected cells. Numerous studies have established the requirement for a functional SPI-2 injectisome for growth of Salmonella Typhimurium in mouse macrophages, but the results of similar studies involving Salmonella Typhi and human-derived macrophages are not consistent. It is important to clarify the functions of the S. Typhi SPI-2 injectisome, not least because an inactivated SPI-2 injectisome forms the basis for live attenuated S. Typhi vaccines that have undergone extensive trials in humans. Intracellular expression of injectisome genes and effector delivery take longer in the S. Typhi/human macrophage model than for S. Typhimurium and we propose that this could explain the conflicting results. Furthermore, strains of both S. Typhimurium and S. Typhi contain intact genes for several 'core' effectors. In S. Typhimurium these cooperate to regulate the vacuole membrane and contribute to intracellular bacterial replication; similar functions are therefore likely in S. Typhi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa L. M. Thurston
- Department of Infectious Disease, Centre for Bacterial Resistance Biology, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - David W. Holden
- Department of Infectious Disease, Centre for Bacterial Resistance Biology, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
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3
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Godlee C, Holden DW. Transmembrane substrates of type three secretion system injectisomes. Microbiology (Reading) 2023; 169:001292. [PMID: 36748571 PMCID: PMC9993115 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The type three secretion system injectisome of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens injects virulence proteins, called effectors, into host cells. Effectors of mammalian pathogens carry out a range of functions enabling bacterial invasion, replication, immune suppression and transmission. The injectisome secretes two translocon proteins that insert into host cell membranes to form a translocon pore, through which effectors are delivered. A subset of effectors also integrate into infected cell membranes, enabling a unique range of biochemical functions. Both translocon proteins and transmembrane effectors avoid cytoplasmic aggregation and integration into the bacterial inner membrane. Translocated transmembrane effectors locate and integrate into the appropriate host membrane. In this review, we focus on transmembrane translocon proteins and effectors of bacterial pathogens of mammals. We discuss what is known about the mechanisms underlying their membrane integration, as well as the functions conferred by the position of injectisome effectors within membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Godlee
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Present address: Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
- *Correspondence: Camilla Godlee, ;
| | - David W. Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
- *Correspondence: David W. Holden,
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4
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Godlee C, Cerny O, Liu M, Blundell S, Gallagher AE, Shahin M, Holden DW. The Salmonella transmembrane effector SteD hijacks AP1-mediated vesicular trafficking for delivery to antigen-loading MHCII compartments. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010252. [PMID: 35622870 PMCID: PMC9182567 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
SteD is a transmembrane effector of the Salmonella SPI-2 type III secretion system that inhibits T cell activation by reducing the amounts of at least three proteins –major histocompatibility complex II (MHCII), CD86 and CD97 –from the surface of antigen-presenting cells. SteD specifically localises at the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and MHCII compartments; however, the targeting, membrane integration and trafficking of SteD are not understood. Using systematic mutagenesis, we identify distinct regions of SteD that are required for these processes. We show that SteD integrates into membranes of the ER/Golgi through a two-step mechanism of membrane recruitment from the cytoplasm followed by integration. SteD then migrates to and accumulates within the TGN. From here it hijacks the host adaptor protein (AP)1-mediated trafficking pathway from the TGN to MHCII compartments. AP1 binding and post-TGN trafficking require a short sequence in the N-terminal cytoplasmic tail of SteD that resembles the AP1-interacting dileucine sorting signal, but in inverted orientation, suggesting convergent evolution. Salmonella enterica is an intracellular pathogen that causes a range of diseases from gastroenteritis to systemic typhoid fever. Its pathogenesis relies on virulence proteins known as effectors that are delivered into host cells and modulate host cellular processes. The ability of the Salmonella effector SteD to localise within host MHCII compartment membranes is essential for its function in disrupting the adaptive immune response. Here we show that SteD integrates into membranes of the early secretory pathway through a two-step recruitment and integration mechanism. SteD then behaves like a transmembrane cargo protein and hijacks a post-Golgi vesicular trafficking pathway to reach MHCII compartments. This study highlights the sophistication by which bacterial pathogens interact with host cell biology at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilla Godlee
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (CG); (DWH)
| | - Ondrej Cerny
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mei Liu
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Samkeliso Blundell
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alanna E. Gallagher
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Meriam Shahin
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David W. Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (CG); (DWH)
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5
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Cerny O, Godlee C, Tocci R, Cross NE, Shi H, Williamson JC, Alix E, Lehner PJ, Holden DW. CD97 stabilises the immunological synapse between dendritic cells and T cells and is targeted for degradation by the Salmonella effector SteD. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009771. [PMID: 34314469 PMCID: PMC8345877 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The Salmonella enterica effector SteD depletes mature MHC class II (mMHCII) molecules from the surface of infected antigen-presenting cells through ubiquitination of the cytoplasmic tail of the mMHCII β chain. This requires the Nedd4 family HECT E3 ubiquitin ligase Wwp2 and a tumor-suppressing transmembrane protein adaptor Tmem127. Here, through a proteomic screen of dendritic cells, we found that SteD targets the plasma membrane protein CD97 for degradation by a similar mechanism. SteD enhanced ubiquitination of CD97 on K555 and mutation of this residue eliminated the effect of SteD on CD97 surface levels. We showed that CD97 localises to and stabilises the immunological synapse between dendritic cells and T cells. Removal of CD97 by SteD inhibited dendritic cell-T cell interactions and reduced T cell activation, independently of its effect on MHCII. Therefore, SteD suppresses T cell immunity by two distinct processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondrej Cerny
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (OC); (DWH)
| | - Camilla Godlee
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Romina Tocci
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nancy E. Cross
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Haoran Shi
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - James C. Williamson
- Cambridge Institute for Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease (CITIID), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Eric Alix
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul J. Lehner
- Cambridge Institute for Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease (CITIID), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David W. Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (OC); (DWH)
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6
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Walch P, Selkrig J, Knodler LA, Rettel M, Stein F, Fernandez K, Viéitez C, Potel CM, Scholzen K, Geyer M, Rottner K, Steele-Mortimer O, Savitski MM, Holden DW, Typas A. Global mapping of Salmonella enterica-host protein-protein interactions during infection. Cell Host Microbe 2021; 29:1316-1332.e12. [PMID: 34237247 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2021.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular bacterial pathogens inject effector proteins to hijack host cellular processes and promote their survival and proliferation. To systematically map effector-host protein-protein interactions (PPIs) during infection, we generated a library of 32 Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (STm) strains expressing chromosomally encoded affinity-tagged effectors and quantified PPIs in macrophages and epithelial cells. We identified 446 effector-host PPIs, 25 of which were previously described, and validated 13 by reciprocal co-immunoprecipitation. While effectors converged on the same host cellular processes, most had multiple targets, which often differed between cell types. We demonstrate that SseJ, SseL, and SifA modulate cholesterol accumulation at the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV) partially via the cholesterol transporter Niemann-Pick C1 protein. PipB recruits the organelle contact site protein PDZD8 to the SCV, and SteC promotes actin bundling by phosphorylating formin-like proteins. This study provides a method for probing host-pathogen PPIs during infection and a resource for interrogating STm effector mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Walch
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany; Heidelberg University, Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Joel Selkrig
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Leigh A Knodler
- Paul G. Allen School for Global Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, USA; Laboratory of Intracellular Parasites, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Mandy Rettel
- EMBL, Proteomics Core Facility, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Frank Stein
- EMBL, Proteomics Core Facility, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Keith Fernandez
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Cristina Viéitez
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany; EMBL European Bioinformatics Institute, (EMBL-EBI), Hinxton, UK
| | - Clément M Potel
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Karoline Scholzen
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Matthias Geyer
- Institute of Structural Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Klemens Rottner
- Division of Molecular Cell Biology, Zoological Institute, TU Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany; Molecular Cell Biology Group, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Olivia Steele-Mortimer
- Laboratory of Intracellular Parasites, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT, USA
| | - Mikhail M Savitski
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany; EMBL, Proteomics Core Facility, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Athanasios Typas
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Genome Biology Unit, Heidelberg, Germany.
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7
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Matthews-Palmer TRS, Gonzalez-Rodriguez N, Calcraft T, Lagercrantz S, Zachs T, Yu XJ, Grabe GJ, Holden DW, Nans A, Rosenthal PB, Rouse SL, Beeby M. Structure of the cytoplasmic domain of SctV (SsaV) from the Salmonella SPI-2 injectisome and implications for a pH sensing mechanism. J Struct Biol 2021; 213:107729. [PMID: 33774138 PMCID: PMC8223533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2021.107729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
CryoEM of a full-length type III secretion system SctV resolves cytoplasmic but not transmembrane domains. MD simulations show SctV protomers flexibly hinge. Acidification expands the SctV ring by altering interprotomer interactions.
Bacterial type III secretion systems assemble the axial structures of both injectisomes and flagella. Injectisome type III secretion systems subsequently secrete effector proteins through their hollow needle into a host, requiring co-ordination. In the Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium SPI-2 injectisome, this switch is triggered by sensing the neutral pH of the host cytoplasm. Central to specificity switching is a nonameric SctV protein with an N-terminal transmembrane domain and a toroidal C-terminal cytoplasmic domain. A ‘gatekeeper’ complex interacts with the SctV cytoplasmic domain in a pH dependent manner, facilitating translocon secretion while repressing effector secretion through a poorly understood mechanism. To better understand the role of SctV in SPI-2 translocon-effector specificity switching, we purified full-length SctV and determined its toroidal cytoplasmic region’s structure using cryo-EM. Structural comparisons and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the cytoplasmic torus is stabilized by its core subdomain 3, about which subdomains 2 and 4 hinge, varying the flexible outside cleft implicated in gatekeeper and substrate binding. In light of patterns of surface conservation, deprotonation, and structural motion, the location of previously identified critical residues suggest that gatekeeper binds a cleft buried between neighboring subdomain 4s. Simulations suggest that a local pH change from 5 to 7.2 stabilizes the subdomain 3 hinge and narrows the central aperture of the nonameric torus. Our results are consistent with a model of local pH sensing at SctV, where pH-dependent dynamics of SctV cytoplasmic domain affect binding of gatekeeper complex.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Thomas Calcraft
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Structural Biology of Cells and Viruses Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Signe Lagercrantz
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Tobias Zachs
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Xiu-Jun Yu
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Grzegorz J Grabe
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Nans
- Structural Biology of Cells and Viruses Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Peter B Rosenthal
- Structural Biology of Cells and Viruses Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah L Rouse
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
| | - Morgan Beeby
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
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8
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Heggie A, Cerny O, Holden DW. SteC and the intracellular Salmonella-induced F-actin meshwork. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13315. [PMID: 33534187 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovars infect a broad range of mammalian hosts including humans, causing both gastrointestinal and systemic diseases. Following uptake into host cells, bacteria replicate within vacuoles (Salmonella-containing vacuoles; SCVs). Clusters of SCVs are frequently associated with a meshwork of F-actin. This meshwork is dependent on the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 encoded type III secretion system and its effector SteC. SteC contains a region with weak similarity to conserved subdomains of eukaryotic kinases and has kinase activity that is required for the formation of the F-actin meshwork. Several substrates of SteC have been identified. In this mini-review, we attempt to integrate these findings and propose a more unified model to explain SCV-associated F-actin: SteC (i) phosphorylates the actin sequestering protein Hsp27, which increases the local G-actin concentration (ii) binds to and phosphorylates formin family FMNL proteins, which enables actin polymerisation and (iii) phosphorylates MEK, resulting in activation of the MEK/ERK/MLCK/Myosin II pathway, leading to F-actin bundling. We also consider the possible physiological functions of SCV-associated F-actin and similar structures produced by other intracellular bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Heggie
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Ondrej Cerny
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Alix E, Godlee C, Cerny O, Blundell S, Tocci R, Matthews S, Liu M, Pruneda JN, Swatek KN, Komander D, Sleap T, Holden DW. The Tumour Suppressor TMEM127 Is a Nedd4-Family E3 Ligase Adaptor Required by Salmonella SteD to Ubiquitinate and Degrade MHC Class II Molecules. Cell Host Microbe 2020; 28:54-68.e7. [PMID: 32526160 PMCID: PMC7342019 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2020.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The Salmonella enterica effector SteD depletes mature MHC class II (mMHCII) molecules from the surface of infected antigen-presenting cells through ubiquitination of the cytoplasmic tail of the mMHCII β chain. Here, through a genome-wide mutant screen of human antigen-presenting cells, we show that the NEDD4 family HECT E3 ubiquitin ligase WWP2 and a tumor-suppressing transmembrane protein of unknown biochemical function, TMEM127, are required for SteD-dependent ubiquitination of mMHCII. Although evidently not involved in normal regulation of mMHCII, TMEM127 was essential for SteD to suppress both mMHCII antigen presentation in mouse dendritic cells and MHCII-dependent CD4+ T cell activation. We found that TMEM127 contains a canonical PPxY motif, which was required for binding to WWP2. SteD bound to TMEM127 and enabled TMEM127 to interact with and induce ubiquitination of mature MHCII. Furthermore, SteD also underwent TMEM127- and WWP2-dependent ubiquitination, which both contributed to its degradation and augmented its activity on mMHCII.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Alix
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Camilla Godlee
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ondrej Cerny
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Samkeliso Blundell
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Romina Tocci
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Sophie Matthews
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Mei Liu
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Jonathan N Pruneda
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 S.W. Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Kirby N Swatek
- Ubiquitin Signalling Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royale Parade, 3052 Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
| | - David Komander
- Department of Molecular Machines and Signaling, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Tabitha Sleap
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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10
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Cerny O, Holden DW. Salmonella SPI-2 type III secretion system-dependent inhibition of antigen presentation and T cell function. Immunol Lett 2019; 215:35-39. [PMID: 30771380 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovars infect a broad range of mammalian hosts, including humans, causing both gastrointestinal and systemic diseases. Effective immune responses to Salmonella infections depend largely on CD4+ T cell activation by dendritic cells (DCs). Bacteria are internalised by intestinal DCs and respond by translocating effectors of the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2) type III secretion system (T3SS) into host cells. In this review, we discuss processes that are hijacked by SPI-2 T3SS effectors and how this affects DC biology and the activation of T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondrej Cerny
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
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Holden DW, Gold J, Hawkes CH, Giovannoni G, Saxton JM, Carter A, Sharrack B. Epstein Barr virus shedding in multiple sclerosis: Similar frequencies of EBV in saliva across separate patient cohorts. Mult Scler Relat Disord 2018; 25:197-199. [PMID: 30099206 DOI: 10.1016/j.msard.2018.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) infection is closely associated with multiple sclerosis (MS), but the relationship between viral load and disease activity is unclear. This study tested the observed levels of salivary EBV in MS, as a first step in investigating this relationship. METHODS Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) was used to measure EBV DNA levels in saliva samples from three separate Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patient cohorts. RESULTS The qPCR assay was used to delineate EBV shedding, defined here as a reliably detectable level of extracellular EBV DNA in saliva. Frequency of EBV shedding was found to be similar across the groups, with 20-25% of subjects releasing virus on any given sampling date. Diurnal variation in EBV count was tested in one of the cohorts, in which 26% of subjects showed more than a 10-fold difference between the highest and lowest EBV levels on a single day. In the same cohort, elevated viral levels at one time point did not predict elevated viral levels at a subsequent time point. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that EBV lytic activity in a subject cannot be inferred from a single measure of EBV in saliva. Also, subjects do not appear to be behave constantly as "EBV shedders" or "non-shedders". The assay is useful in giving a clear indication of salivary gland EBV lytic activity across a patient cohort - for example, in testing anti-viral drugs in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Holden
- Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London..
| | - Julian Gold
- Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London
| | | | - Gavin Giovannoni
- Neuroscience and Trauma, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London
| | - John M Saxton
- Department of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University
| | - Anouska Carter
- Centre for Sport and Exercise Science, Sheffield Hallam University
| | - Basil Sharrack
- Academic Department of Neuroscience, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield
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12
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Bayer-Santos E, Durkin CH, Rigano LA, Kupz A, Alix E, Cerny O, Jennings E, Liu M, Ryan AS, Lapaque N, Kaufmann SHE, Holden DW. The Salmonella Effector SteD Mediates MARCH8-Dependent Ubiquitination of MHC II Molecules and Inhibits T Cell Activation. Cell Host Microbe 2017; 20:584-595. [PMID: 27832589 PMCID: PMC5104694 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2016.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The SPI-2 type III secretion system (T3SS) of intracellular Salmonella enterica translocates effector proteins into mammalian cells. Infection of antigen-presenting cells results in SPI-2 T3SS-dependent ubiquitination and reduction of surface-localized mature MHC class II (mMHCII). We identify the effector SteD as required and sufficient for this process. In Mel Juso cells, SteD localized to the Golgi network and vesicles containing the E3 ubiquitin ligase MARCH8 and mMHCII. SteD caused MARCH8-dependent ubiquitination and depletion of surface mMHCII. One of two transmembrane domains and the C-terminal cytoplasmic region of SteD mediated binding to MARCH8 and mMHCII, respectively. Infection of dendritic cells resulted in SteD-dependent depletion of surface MHCII, the co-stimulatory molecule B7.2, and suppression of T cell activation. SteD also accounted for suppression of T cell activation during Salmonella infection of mice. We propose that SteD is an adaptor, forcing inappropriate ubiquitination of mMHCII by MARCH8 and thereby suppressing T cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethel Bayer-Santos
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Charlotte H Durkin
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Luciano A Rigano
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Andreas Kupz
- Department of Immunology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Centre for Biosecurity and Tropical Infectious Diseases, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, McGregor Road, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Eric Alix
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ondrej Cerny
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Elliott Jennings
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Mei Liu
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Aindrias S Ryan
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Nicolas Lapaque
- INRA, UMR 1319 Micalis, Domaine de Vilvert, Jouy-en-Josas 78352, France; AgroParisTech, UMR Micalis, Jouy-en-Josas 78350, France
| | - Stefan H E Kaufmann
- Department of Immunology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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Jennings E, Thurston TL, Holden DW. Salmonella SPI-2 Type III Secretion System Effectors: Molecular Mechanisms And Physiological Consequences. Cell Host Microbe 2017; 22:217-231. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2017.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Grabe GJ, Zhang Y, Przydacz M, Rolhion N, Yang Y, Pruneda JN, Komander D, Holden DW, Hare SA. The Salmonella Effector SpvD Is a Cysteine Hydrolase with a Serovar-specific Polymorphism Influencing Catalytic Activity, Suppression of Immune Responses, and Bacterial Virulence. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:25853-25863. [PMID: 27789710 PMCID: PMC5207060 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.752782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens secrete virulence (effector) proteins that interfere with immune signaling in their host. SpvD is a Salmonella enterica effector protein that we previously demonstrated to negatively regulate the NF-κB signaling pathway and promote virulence of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium in mice. To shed light on the mechanistic basis for these observations, we determined the crystal structure of SpvD and show that it adopts a papain-like fold with a characteristic cysteine-histidine-aspartate catalytic triad comprising Cys-73, His-162, and Asp-182. SpvD possessed an in vitro deconjugative activity on aminoluciferin-linked peptide and protein substrates in vitro A C73A mutation abolished SpvD activity, demonstrating that an intact catalytic triad is required for its function. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that SpvD is a cysteine protease. The amino acid sequence of SpvD is highly conserved across different S. enterica serovars, but residue 161, located close to the catalytic triad, is variable, with serovar Typhimurium SpvD having an arginine and serovar Enteritidis a glycine at this position. This variation affected hydrolytic activity of the enzyme on artificial substrates and can be explained by substrate accessibility to the active site. Interestingly, the SpvDG161 variant more potently inhibited NF-κB-mediated immune responses in cells in vitro and increased virulence of serovar Typhimurium in mice. In summary, our results explain the biochemical basis for the effect of virulence protein SpvD and demonstrate that a single amino acid polymorphism can affect the overall virulence of a bacterial pathogen in its host.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yue Zhang
- Department of Life Sciences, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom and
| | - Michal Przydacz
- Department of Life Sciences, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom and
| | | | - Yi Yang
- Department of Life Sciences, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom and
| | - Jonathan N Pruneda
- the Division of Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 OQH, United Kingdom
| | - David Komander
- the Division of Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 OQH, United Kingdom
| | | | - Stephen A Hare
- Department of Life Sciences, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom and
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15
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Mouton JM, Helaine S, Holden DW, Sampson SL. Elucidating population-wide mycobacterial replication dynamics at the single-cell level. Microbiology (Reading) 2016; 162:966-978. [PMID: 27027532 PMCID: PMC5042079 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections result in a spectrum of clinical outcomes, and frequently the infection persists in a latent, clinically asymptomatic state. The within-host bacterial population is likely to be heterogeneous, and it is thought that persistent mycobacteria arise from a small population of viable, but non-replicating (VBNR) cells. These are likely to be antibiotic tolerant and necessitate prolonged treatment. Little is known about these persistent mycobacteria, since they are very difficult to isolate. To address this, we have successfully developed a replication reporter system for use in M. tuberculosis. This approach, termed fluorescence dilution, exploits two fluorescent reporters; a constitutive reporter allows the tracking of bacteria, while an inducible reporter enables the measurement of bacterial replication. The application of fluorescence single-cell analysis to characterize intracellular M. tuberculosis identified a distinct subpopulation of non-growing mycobacteria in murine macrophages. The presence of VBNR and actively replicating mycobacteria was observed within the same macrophage after 48 h of infection. Furthermore, our results suggest that macrophage uptake resulted in enrichment of non- or slowly replicating bacteria (as revealed by d-cycloserine treatment); this population is likely to be highly enriched for persisters, based on its drug-tolerant phenotype. These results demonstrate the successful application of the novel dual fluorescence reporter system both in vitro and in macrophage infection models to provide a window into mycobacterial population heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacoba M Mouton
- DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research/SA MRC Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Sophie Helaine
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Samantha L Sampson
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK.,DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research/SA MRC Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
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16
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Domingues L, Ismail A, Charro N, Rodríguez-Escudero I, Holden DW, Molina M, Cid VJ, Mota LJ. The Salmonella effector SteA binds phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate for subcellular targeting within host cells. Cell Microbiol 2016; 18:949-69. [PMID: 26676327 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens use specialized secretion systems to deliver virulence effector proteins into eukaryotic host cells. The function of these effectors depends on their localization within infected cells, but the mechanisms determining subcellular targeting of each effector are mostly elusive. Here, we show that the Salmonella type III secretion effector SteA binds specifically to phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate [PI(4)P]. Ectopically expressed SteA localized at the plasma membrane (PM) of eukaryotic cells. However, SteA was displaced from the PM of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in mutants unable to synthesize the local pool of PI(4)P and from the PM of HeLa cells after localized depletion of PI(4)P. Moreover, in infected cells, bacterially translocated or ectopically expressed SteA localized at the membrane of the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV) and to Salmonella-induced tubules; using the PI(4)P-binding domain of the Legionella type IV secretion effector SidC as probe, we found PI(4)P at the SCV membrane and associated tubules throughout Salmonella infection of HeLa cells. Both binding of SteA to PI(4)P and the subcellular localization of ectopically expressed or bacterially translocated SteA were dependent on a lysine residue near the N-terminus of the protein. Overall, this indicates that binding of SteA to PI(4)P is necessary for its localization within host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lia Domingues
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (FCT NOVA), Caparica, Portugal.,Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Ahmad Ismail
- Departamento de Microbiología II, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRyCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuno Charro
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (FCT NOVA), Caparica, Portugal
| | - Isabel Rodríguez-Escudero
- Departamento de Microbiología II, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRyCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - María Molina
- Departamento de Microbiología II, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRyCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Víctor J Cid
- Departamento de Microbiología II, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRyCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Luís Jaime Mota
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (FCT NOVA), Caparica, Portugal.,Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), Oeiras, Portugal
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17
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Scanu T, Spaapen RM, Bakker JM, Pratap CB, Wu LE, Hofland I, Broeks A, Shukla VK, Kumar M, Janssen H, Song JY, Neefjes-Borst EA, te Riele H, Holden DW, Nath G, Neefjes J. Salmonella Manipulation of Host Signaling Pathways Provokes Cellular Transformation Associated with Gallbladder Carcinoma. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 17:763-74. [PMID: 26028364 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is fueled by deregulation of signaling pathways in control of cellular growth and proliferation. These pathways are also targeted by infectious pathogens en route to establishing infection. Gallbladder carcinoma (GBC) is frequent in the Indian subcontinent, with chronic Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi infection reported as a significant risk factor. However, direct association and causal mechanisms between Salmonella Typhi infection and GBC have not been established. Deconstructing the epidemiological association between GBC and Salmonella Typhi infection, we show that Salmonella enterica induces malignant transformation in predisposed mice, murine gallbladder organoids, and fibroblasts, with TP53 mutations and c-MYC amplification. Mechanistically, activation of MAPK and AKT pathways, mediated by Salmonella enterica effectors secreted during infection, is critical to both ignite and sustain transformation, consistent with observations in GBC patients from India. Collectively, our findings indicate that Salmonella enterica can promote transformation of genetically predisposed cells and is a causative agent of GBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Scanu
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Robbert M Spaapen
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen M Bakker
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Chandra Bhan Pratap
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Lin-en Wu
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ingrid Hofland
- Core Facility Molecular Pathology and Biobanking, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Annegien Broeks
- Core Facility Molecular Pathology and Biobanking, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Vijay Kumar Shukla
- Department of General Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Mohan Kumar
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Hans Janssen
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ji-Ying Song
- Division of Experimental Animal Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - E Andra Neefjes-Borst
- Department of Pathology, Free University Medical Centre, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Hein te Riele
- Division of Biological Stress Response, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - David W Holden
- Center for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW72AZ, UK
| | - Gopal Nath
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Jacques Neefjes
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Almeida MT, Mesquita FS, Cruz R, Osório H, Custódio R, Brito C, Vingadassalom D, Martins M, Leong JM, Holden DW, Cabanes D, Sousa S. Src-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of non-muscle myosin heavy chain-IIA restricts Listeria monocytogenes cellular infection. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:8383-95. [PMID: 25635050 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.591313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens often interfere with host tyrosine phosphorylation cascades to control host responses and cause infection. Given the role of tyrosine phosphorylation events in different human infections and our previous results showing the activation of the tyrosine kinase Src upon incubation of cells with Listeria monocytogenes, we searched for novel host proteins undergoing tyrosine phosphorylation upon L. monocytogenes infection. We identify the heavy chain of the non-muscle myosin IIA (NMHC-IIA) as being phosphorylated in a specific tyrosine residue in response to L. monocytogenes infection. We characterize this novel post-translational modification event and show that, upon L. monocytogenes infection, Src phosphorylates NMHC-IIA in a previously uncharacterized tyrosine residue (Tyr-158) located in its motor domain near the ATP-binding site. In addition, we found that other intracellular and extracellular bacterial pathogens trigger NMHC-IIA tyrosine phosphorylation. We demonstrate that NMHC-IIA limits intracellular levels of L. monocytogenes, and this is dependent on the phosphorylation of Tyr-158. Our data suggest a novel mechanism of regulation of NMHC-IIA activity relying on the phosphorylation of Tyr-158 by Src.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Almeida
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal, the Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Francisco S Mesquita
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal, the Medical Research Council, Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College, London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Rui Cruz
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal, the Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Hugo Osório
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal, and
| | - Rafael Custódio
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Brito
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal, the Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Didier Vingadassalom
- the Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655
| | - Mariana Martins
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
| | - John M Leong
- the Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655
| | - David W Holden
- the Medical Research Council, Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College, London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Didier Cabanes
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal,
| | - Sandra Sousa
- From the Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200 Porto, Portugal, the Group of Molecular Microbiology, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal,
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Holden
- Section of Microbiology, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
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20
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Holden DW, Philpott DJ. Editorial overview: Host-microbe interactions: bacteria. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 23:v-viii. [PMID: 25560922 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David W Holden
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Section of Microbiology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Dana J Philpott
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
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21
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McEwan DG, Richter B, Claudi B, Wigge C, Wild P, Farhan H, McGourty K, Coxon FP, Franz-Wachtel M, Perdu B, Akutsu M, Habermann A, Kirchof A, Helfrich MH, Odgren PR, Van Hul W, Frangakis AS, Rajalingam K, Macek B, Holden DW, Bumann D, Dikic I. PLEKHM1 regulates Salmonella-containing vacuole biogenesis and infection. Cell Host Microbe 2014; 17:58-71. [PMID: 25500191 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2014.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The host endolysosomal compartment is often manipulated by intracellular bacterial pathogens. Salmonella (Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium) secrete numerous effector proteins, including SifA, through a specialized type III secretion system to hijack the host endosomal system and generate the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV). To form this replicative niche, Salmonella targets the Rab7 GTPase to recruit host membranes through largely unknown mechanisms. We show that Pleckstrin homology domain-containing protein family member 1 (PLEKHM1), a lysosomal adaptor, is targeted by Salmonella through direct interaction with SifA. By binding the PLEKHM1 PH2 domain, Salmonella utilize a complex containing PLEKHM1, Rab7, and the HOPS tethering complex to mobilize phagolysosomal membranes to the SCV. Depletion of PLEKHM1 causes a profound defect in SCV morphology with multiple bacteria accumulating in enlarged structures and significantly dampens Salmonella proliferation in multiple cell types and mice. Thus, PLEKHM1 provides a critical interface between pathogenic infection and the host endolysosomal system.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G McEwan
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University School of Medicine, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt (Main), Germany
| | - Benjamin Richter
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University School of Medicine, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt (Main), Germany
| | - Beatrice Claudi
- Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University Basel, Klingelbergstr. 50/70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Wigge
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Str. 15, Goethe University 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Philipp Wild
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University School of Medicine, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt (Main), Germany
| | - Hesso Farhan
- Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University Basel, Klingelbergstr. 50/70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland; Biotechnology Institute Thurga, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Kieran McGourty
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Fraser P Coxon
- Musculoskeletal Research Programme, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Mirita Franz-Wachtel
- Proteome Center Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute for Cell Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bram Perdu
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Antwerp, Prins Boudewijnlaan 43B, 2650 Edegem, Belgium
| | - Masato Akutsu
- Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University Basel, Klingelbergstr. 50/70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anja Habermann
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Str. 15, Goethe University 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Anja Kirchof
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University School of Medicine, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt (Main), Germany
| | - Miep H Helfrich
- Musculoskeletal Research Programme, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Paul R Odgren
- Deptartment of Cell Biology, S7-242, University of Massachusetts Medical School, North Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Wim Van Hul
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Antwerp, Prins Boudewijnlaan 43B, 2650 Edegem, Belgium
| | - Achilleas S Frangakis
- Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University Basel, Klingelbergstr. 50/70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Krishnaraj Rajalingam
- Molecular Signaling Unit, FZI, Institute for immunology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Langenbeckstraße 1, Mainz 55131, Germany
| | - Boris Macek
- Proteome Center Tübingen, Interfaculty Institute for Cell Biology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 15, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - David W Holden
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Dirk Bumann
- Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University Basel, Klingelbergstr. 50/70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Ivan Dikic
- Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University School of Medicine, Theodor-Stern-Kai 7, D-60590 Frankfurt (Main), Germany; Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue-Str. 15, Goethe University 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; University of Split, School of Medicine, Department of Immunology and Medical Genetics, Soltanska 2, 21 000 Split, Croatia.
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Helaine S, Cheverton AM, Watson KG, Faure LM, Matthews SA, Holden DW. Internalization of Salmonella by macrophages induces formation of nonreplicating persisters. Science 2014; 343:204-8. [PMID: 24408438 DOI: 10.1126/science.1244705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 514] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens cause persistent infections despite repeated antibiotic exposure. Bacterial persisters are antibiotic-tolerant cells, but little is known about their growth status and the signals and pathways leading to their formation in infected tissues. We used fluorescent single-cell analysis to identify Salmonella persisters during infection. These were part of a nonreplicating population formed immediately after uptake by macrophages and were induced by vacuolar acidification and nutritional deprivation, conditions that also induce Salmonella virulence gene expression. The majority of 14 toxin-antitoxin modules contributed to intracellular persister formation. Some persisters resumed intracellular growth after phagocytosis by naïve macrophages. Thus, the vacuolar environment induces phenotypic heterogeneity, leading to either bacterial replication or the formation of nonreplicating persisters that could provide a reservoir for relapsing infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Helaine
- Section of Microbiology, Medical Research Council Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Santos AJM, Meinecke M, Fessler MB, Holden DW, Boucrot E. Preferential invasion of mitotic cells by Salmonella reveals that cell surface cholesterol is maximal during metaphase. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:2990-6. [PMID: 23687374 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.115253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell surface-exposed cholesterol is crucial for cell attachment and invasion of many viruses and bacteria, including the bacterium Salmonella, which causes typhoid fever and gastroenteritis. Using flow cytometry and 3D confocal fluorescence microscopy, we found that mitotic cells, although representing only 1-4% of an exponentially growing population, were much more efficiently targeted for invasion by Salmonella. This targeting was not dependent on the spherical shape of mitotic cells, but was instead SipB and cholesterol dependent. Thus, we measured the levels of plasma membrane and cell surface cholesterol throughout the cell cycle using, respectively, brief staining with filipin and a fluorescent ester of polyethylene glycol-cholesterol that cannot flip through the plasma membrane, and found that both were maximal during mitosis. This increase was due not only to the rise in global cell cholesterol levels along the cell cycle but also to a transient loss in cholesterol asymmetry at the plasma membrane during mitosis. We measured that cholesterol, but not phosphatidylserine, changed from a ∼2080 outerinner leaflet repartition during interphase to ∼5050 during metaphase, suggesting this was specific to cholesterol and not due to a broad change of lipid asymmetry during metaphase. This explains the increase in outer surface levels that make dividing cells more susceptible to Salmonella invasion and perhaps to other viruses and bacteria entering cells in a cholesterol-dependent manner. The change in cholesterol partitioning also favoured the recruitment of activated ERM (Ezrin, Radixin, Moesin) proteins at the plasma membrane and thus supported mitotic cell rounding.
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Affiliation(s)
- António J M Santos
- Section of Microbiology, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Odendall C, Rolhion N, Förster A, Poh J, Lamont DJ, Liu M, Freemont PS, Catling AD, Holden DW. The Salmonella kinase SteC targets the MAP kinase MEK to regulate the host actin cytoskeleton. Cell Host Microbe 2013; 12:657-68. [PMID: 23159055 PMCID: PMC3510437 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2012.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Revised: 07/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
After host cell entry, Salmonella replicate in membrane-bound compartments, which accumulate a dense meshwork of F-actin through the kinase activity of the Salmonella SPI-2 type III secretion effector SteC. We find that SteC promotes actin cytoskeleton reorganization by activating a signaling pathway involving the MAP kinases MEK and ERK, myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) and Myosin IIB. Specifically, SteC phosphorylates MEK directly on serine 200 (S200), a previously unstudied phosphorylation site. S200 phosphorylation is predicted to displace a negative regulatory helix causing autophosphorylation on the known MEK activatory residues, S218 and S222. In support of this, substitution of S200 with alanine prevented phosphorylation on S218 and S222, and phosphomimetic mutations of S200 stimulated phosphorylation of these residues. Both steC-null and kinase-deficient mutant strains displayed enhanced replication in infected cells, suggesting that SteC manipulates the actin cytoskeleton to restrain bacterial growth, thereby regulating virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Odendall
- Section of Microbiology, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Thomas M, Mesquita FS, Holden DW. The DUB-ious lack of ALIS in Salmonella infection: a Salmonella deubiquitinase regulates the autophagy of protein aggregates. Autophagy 2013; 8:1824-6. [PMID: 22931829 DOI: 10.4161/auto.21742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitinated aggregates are formed in eukaryotic cells in response to several external stimuli, including exposure to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Although Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) LPS has been shown to induce aggresome-like induced structures (ALIS) in macrophages, these have not been described in S. Typhimurium-infected macrophages. Given that LPS is present in infection, this suggests that S. Typhimurium might suppress the formation of ALIS. We found that S. Typhimurium induces the formation of ubiquitinated aggregates in epithelial cells and macrophages, but that their presence is masked by the deubiquitinase (DUB) activity of the S. Typhimurium virulence protein, SseL. SseL deubiquitinates SQSTM1/p62-bound proteins found in S. Typhimurium-induced aggregates and ALIS, and reduces the recruitment of autophagic components. While the functions of ALIS and other ubiquitinated aggregates remain unclear, they serve to sequester cytosolic proteins under a variety of stress conditions and are suggested to be involved in host immune defense. During infection, the deubiquitinase activity of SseL reduces autophagic flux in infected cells and favors bacterial replication. This is a new example of how a bacterial pathogen counteracts the autophagy pathway through the action of a translocated virulence protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mair Thomas
- Section of Microbiology, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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26
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Helaine S, Holden DW. Heterogeneity of intracellular replication of bacterial pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013; 16:184-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2012.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
Intracellular replication of Salmonella enterica requires effector proteins translocated across the Salmonella-containing vacuolar membrane by Salmonella pathogenicity island-2 (SPI-2) encoded type III secretion system (T3SS). The SPI-2 T3SS effector SseL is a deubiquitinase that contributes to virulence in mice. Previous work has produced conflicting evidence as to the involvement of SseL in interference with the NF-κB pathway. To attempt to clarify these discrepancies, we compared mRNA levels in mouse primary bone marrow-derived macrophages infected with wild-type or sseL mutant strains using a genome-wide microarray. There was no detectable effect of loss of SseL on mRNA levels corresponding to any known NF-κB-regulated gene. In addition, there was no effect of SseL on (i) the activation or levels of both the canonical inhibitor of the NF-κB pathway (IκBα and phospho-IκBα), and the non-canonical NF-κB precursor p100/p52, (ii) the translocation of the NF-κB transcription factor p65 to the nucleus of infected macrophages and (iii) pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion. Furthermore, ectopic expression of SseL did not affect NF-κB activation in reporter cell lines. These results fail to support a role for SseL in the down-regulation of the host immune response and in particular the NF-κB pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco S. Mesquita
- Section of Microbiology, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David W. Holden
- Section of Microbiology, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nathalie Rolhion
- Section of Microbiology, MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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McGourty K, Thurston TL, Matthews SA, Pinaud L, Mota LJ, Holden DW. Salmonella inhibits retrograde trafficking of mannose-6-phosphate receptors and lysosome function. Science 2012; 338:963-7. [PMID: 23162002 DOI: 10.1126/science.1227037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica is an intracellular bacterial pathogen that replicates within membrane-bound vacuoles through the action of effector proteins translocated into host cells. Salmonella vacuoles have characteristics of lysosomes but are reduced in hydrolytic enzymes transported by mannose-6-phosphate receptors (MPRs). We found that the effector SifA subverted Rab9-dependent retrograde trafficking of MPRs, thereby attenuating lysosome function. This required binding of SifA to its host cell target SKIP/PLEKHM2. Furthermore, SKIP regulated retrograde trafficking of MPRs in noninfected cells. Translocated SifA formed a stable complex with SKIP and Rab9 in infected cells. Sequestration of Rab9 by SifA-SKIP accounted for the effect of SifA on MPR transport and lysosome function. Growth of Salmonella increased in cells with reduced lysosomal activity and decreased in cells with higher lysosomal activity. These results suggest that Salmonella vacuoles undergo fusion with lysosomes whose potency has been reduced by SifA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kieran McGourty
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Abstract
The adaptor protein Nck has been shown to link receptor ligation to actin-based signalling in a diverse range of cellular events, such as changes in cell morphology and motility. It has also been implicated in phagocytosis. However, its molecular role in controlling actin remodelling associated with phagocytic uptake remains to be clarified. Here, we show that Nck, which is recruited to phagocytic cups, is required for Fcγ receptor (FcγR)- but not complement receptor 3 (CR3)-induced phagocytosis. Nck recruitment in response to FcγR ligation is mediated by the phosphorylation of tyrosine 282 and 298 in the ITAM motif in the cytoplasmic tail of the receptor. In the absence of FcγR phosphorylation, there is also no recruitment of N-WASP or Cdc42 to phagocytic cups. Nck promotes FcγR-mediated phagocytosis by recruiting N-WASP to phagocytic cups. Efficient phagocytosis, however, only occurs, if the CRIB domain of N-WASP can also interact with Cdc42. Our observations demonstrate that Nck and Cdc42 collaborate to stimulate N-WASP-dependent FcγR-mediated phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Dart
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Mesquita FS, Thomas M, Sachse M, Santos AJM, Figueira R, Holden DW. The Salmonella deubiquitinase SseL inhibits selective autophagy of cytosolic aggregates. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002743. [PMID: 22719249 PMCID: PMC3375275 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell stress and infection promote the formation of ubiquitinated aggregates in both non-immune and immune cells. These structures are recognised by the autophagy receptor p62/sequestosome 1 and are substrates for selective autophagy. The intracellular growth of Salmonella enterica occurs in a membranous compartment, the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV), and is dependent on effectors translocated to the host cytoplasm by the Salmonella pathogenicity island-2 (SPI-2) encoded type III secretion system (T3SS). Here, we show that bacterial replication is accompanied by the formation of ubiquitinated structures in infected cells. Analysis of bacterial strains carrying mutations in genes encoding SPI-2 T3SS effectors revealed that in epithelial cells, formation of these ubiquitinated structures is dependent on SPI-2 T3SS effector translocation, but is counteracted by the SPI-2 T3SS deubiquitinase SseL. In macrophages, both SPI-2 T3SS-dependent aggregates and aggresome-like induced structures (ALIS) are deubiquitinated by SseL. In the absence of SseL activity, ubiquitinated structures are recognized by the autophagy receptor p62, which recruits LC3 and targets them for autophagic degradation. We found that SseL activity lowers autophagic flux and favours intracellular Salmonella replication. Our data therefore show that there is a host selective autophagy response to intracellular Salmonella infection, which is counteracted by the deubiquitinase SseL. Ubiquitination can target substrates to a number of fates, including autophagy, the essential cellular process that allows cells to degrade cytosolic material. Although Salmonella enterica resides in a vacuolar compartment during infection, it translocates several virulence proteins into the host cell cytoplasm. We have found that intracellular Salmonella induces the formation of ubiquitinated aggregates near the Salmonella-containing vacuole and that these aggregates are recognised by the autophagy machinery. Salmonella inhibits this response through the action of a translocated enzyme, SseL, which deubiquitinates the aggregates and thereby decreases the recruitment of autophagy markers. We show that SseL alone can deubiquitinate known substrates that are degraded by autophagy, that it reduces autophagy in infected cells and that its activity can increase intracellular Salmonella replication. This is a new example of how a bacterium counteracts a cellular defence pathway through the action of a translocated virulence protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco S. Mesquita
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mair Thomas
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - António J. M. Santos
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rita Figueira
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David W. Holden
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Figueira R, Holden DW. Functions of the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2) type III secretion system effectors. Microbiology (Reading) 2012; 158:1147-1161. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.058115-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rita Figueira
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - David W. Holden
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Abstract
Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) of bacterial pathogens involve the assembly of a surface-localized needle complex, through which translocon proteins are secreted to form a pore in the eukaryotic cell membrane. This enables the transfer of effector proteins from the bacterial cytoplasm to the host cell. A structure known as the C-ring is thought to have a crucial role in secretion by acting as a cytoplasmic sorting platform at the base of the T3SS. Here, we studied SsaQ, an FliN-like putative C-ring protein of the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2)-encoded T3SS. ssaQ produces two proteins by tandem translation: a long form (SsaQ(L)) composed of 322 amino acids and a shorter protein (SsaQ(S)) comprising the C-terminal 106 residues of SsaQ(L). SsaQ(L) is essential for SPI-2 T3SS function. Loss of SsaQ(S) impairs the function of the T3SS both ex vivo and in vivo. SsaQ(S) binds to its corresponding region within SsaQ(L) and stabilizes the larger protein. Therefore, SsaQ(L) function is optimized by a novel chaperone-like protein, produced by tandem translation from its own mRNA species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Jun Yu
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Mei Liu
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Steve Matthews
- Division of Molecular Biosciences, Centre for Structural Biology, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - David W Holden
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
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Thompson JA, Liu M, Helaine S, Holden DW. Contribution of the PhoP/Q regulon to survival and replication of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in macrophages. Microbiology (Reading) 2011; 157:2084-2093. [PMID: 21511762 PMCID: PMC3167890 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.048926-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The ability of serovars of Salmonella enterica to cause systemic disease is dependent upon their survival and replication within macrophages. To do this, bacteria must withstand or surmount bacteriostatic and bactericidal responses by the host cell, including the delivery of hydrolytic enzymes from lysosomes to the phagosome. The bacterial two-component regulatory system PhoP/Q has been implicated in avoidance of phagolysosomal fusion by S. enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) in murine macrophages. In this study, the involvement of PhoP/Q-activated genes in avoidance of phagolysosomal fusion was analysed: of all the S. Typhimurium mutant strains tested, only an mgtC mutant strain partially reproduced the phenotype of the phoP mutant strain. As this gene is required for bacterial growth in magnesium-depleted conditions in vitro, the contributions of PhoP/Q to intramacrophage replication and survival were reappraised. Although PhoP/Q was required for both replication and survival of S. Typhimurium within murine macrophages, subsequent analysis of the kinetics of phagolysosomal fusion, taking account of differences in the replication rates of wild-type and phoP mutant strains, provided no evidence for a PhoP/Q-dependent role in this process. PhoP/Q appeared to act subsequent to the process of phagolysosomal avoidance and to promote replication of those bacteria that had already escaped a phagolysosomal fate. Therefore, we conclude that the PhoP/Q regulon enables S. Typhimurium to adapt to intramacrophage stresses other than phagolysosomal fusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Thompson
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Mei Liu
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Sophie Helaine
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - David W Holden
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Abstract
The last decade has witnessed increasing research on dissemination of bacterial pathogens in their hosts and on the processes that underlie bacterial spread and growth during organ colonization. Here, we discuss work on the mouse model of human typhoid fever caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. This has revealed the use of several routes of systemic dissemination that result in colonization and growth within the spleen and liver, the major sites of bacterial proliferation. We also highlight techniques that enable in vivo analysis of the infecting population at the spatiotemporal and single cell levels. These approaches have provided more detailed insights into the events underlying the dynamics of Salmonella replication, spread and clearance within host organs and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn G Watson
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Abstract
Salmonella enterica is an important intracellular bacterial pathogen of humans and animals. It replicates within host-cell vacuoles by delivering virulence (effector) proteins through a vacuolar membrane pore made by the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2) type III secretion system (T3SS). T3SS assembly follows vacuole acidification, but when bacteria are grown at low pH, effector secretion is negligible. We found that effector secretion was activated at low pH from mutant strains lacking a complex of SPI-2-encoded proteins SsaM, SpiC, and SsaL. Exposure of wild-type bacteria to pH 7.2 after growth at pH 5.0 caused dissociation and degradation of SsaM/SpiC/SsaL complexes and effector secretion. In infected cells, loss of the pH 7.2 signal through acidification of host-cell cytosol prevented complex degradation and effector translocation. Thus, intravacuolar Salmonella senses host cytosolic pH, resulting in the degradation of regulatory complex proteins and effector translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Jun Yu
- Section of Microbiology, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Dumont A, Boucrot E, Drevensek S, Daire V, Gorvel JP, Poüs C, Holden DW, Méresse S. SKIP, the host target of the Salmonella virulence factor SifA, promotes kinesin-1-dependent vacuolar membrane exchanges. Traffic 2010; 11:899-911. [PMID: 20406420 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2010.01069.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In Salmonella-infected cells, the bacterial effector SifA forms a functional complex with the eukaryotic protein SKIP (SifA and kinesin-interacting protein). The lack of either partner has important consequences on the intracellular fate and on the virulence of this pathogen. In addition to SifA, SKIP binds the microtubule-based motor kinesin-1. Yet the absence of SifA or SKIP results in an unusual accumulation of kinesin-1 on the bacterial vacuolar membrane. To understand this apparent contradiction, we investigated the interaction between SKIP and kinesin-1 and the function of this complex. We show that the C-terminal RUN (RPIP8, UNC-14 and NESCA) domain of SKIP interacted specifically with the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain of the kinesin light chain. Overexpression of SKIP induced a microtubule- and kinesin-1-dependent anterograde movement of late endosomal/lysosomal compartments. In infected cells, SifA contributed to the fission of vesicles from the bacterial vacuole and the SifA/SKIP complex was required for the formation and/or the anterograde transport of kinesin-1-enriched vesicles. These observations reflect the role of SKIP as a linker and/or an activator for kinesin-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Dumont
- Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, CNRS UMR 6102, INSERM U631, Université de la Méditerranée, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, Case 906-13288 Marseille Cedex 9, France
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Groves E, Rittinger K, Amstutz M, Berry S, Holden DW, Cornelis GR, Caron E. Sequestering of Rac by the Yersinia effector YopO blocks Fcgamma receptor-mediated phagocytosis. J Biol Chem 2009; 285:4087-4098. [PMID: 19926792 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.071035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic Yersinia species neutralize innate immune mechanisms by injecting type three secretion effectors into immune cells, altering cell signaling. Our study elucidates how one of these effectors, YopO, blocks phagocytosis. We demonstrate using different phagocytic models that YopO specifically blocks Rac-dependent Fcgamma receptor internalization pathway but not complement receptor 3-dependent uptake, which is controlled by Rho activity. We show that YopO prevents Rac activation but does not affect Rac accumulation at the phagocytic cup. In addition, we show that plasma membrane localization and the guanine-nucleotide dissociation inhibitor (GDI)-like domain of YopO cooperate for maximal anti-phagocytosis. Although YopO has the same affinity for Rac1, Rac2, and RhoA in vitro, it selectively interacts with Rac isoforms in cells. This is due to the differential localization of the Rho family G proteins in resting cells; Rac isoforms partially exist as a GDI-free pool at the membrane of resting cells, whereas RhoA is trapped in the cytosol by RhoGDIalpha. We propose that YopO exploits this basic difference in localization and availability to selectively inhibit Rac-dependent phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Groves
- From the Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
| | - Katrin Rittinger
- the Division of Molecular Structure, National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, London NW7 1AA, United Kingdom, and
| | - Marlise Amstutz
- Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingenbergstrasse 50/70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sara Berry
- From the Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - David W Holden
- From the Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Guy R Cornelis
- Infection Biology, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingenbergstrasse 50/70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Emmanuelle Caron
- From the Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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Mota LJ, Ramsden AE, Liu M, Castle JD, Holden DW. SCAMP3 is a component of the Salmonella-induced tubular network and reveals an interaction between bacterial effectors and post-Golgi trafficking. Cell Microbiol 2009; 11:1236-53. [PMID: 19438519 PMCID: PMC2730479 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2009.01329.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica are facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens that proliferate within host cells in a membrane-bounded compartment, the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV). Intracellular replication of Salmonella is mediated by bacterial effectors translocated on to the cytoplasmic face of the SCV membrane by a type III secretion system. Some of these effectors manipulate the host endocytic pathway, resulting in the formation in epithelial cells of tubules enriched in late endosomal markers, known as Salmonella-induced filaments (SIFs). However, much less is known about possible interference of Salmonella with the secretory pathway. Here, a small-interference RNA screen revealed that secretory carrier membrane proteins (SCAMPs) 2 and 3 contribute to the maintenance of SCVs in the Golgi region of HeLa cells. This is likely to reflect a function of SCAMPs in vacuolar membrane dynamics. Moreover, SCAMP3, which accumulates on the trans-Golgi network in uninfected cells, marked tubules induced by Salmonella effectors that overlapped with SIFs but which also comprised distinct tubules lacking late endosomal proteins. We propose that SCAMP3 tubules reflect a manipulation of specific post-Golgi trafficking that might allow Salmonella to acquire nutrients and membrane, or to control host immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís Jaime Mota
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Lossi NS, Rolhion N, Magee AI, Boyle C, Holden DW. The Salmonella SPI-2 effector SseJ exhibits eukaryotic activator-dependent phospholipase A and glycerophospholipid : cholesterol acyltransferase activity. Microbiology (Reading) 2008; 154:2680-2688. [PMID: 18757801 PMCID: PMC2885629 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2008/019075-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular replication of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium within membrane-bound compartments, called Salmonella-containing vacuoles, depends on the activities of several effector proteins translocated by the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2)-encoded type III secretion system. The SPI-2 effector protein SseJ shows similarity at the amino acid level to several GDSL lipases with glycerophospholipid : cholesterol acyltransferase (GCAT) activity. In this study, we show that catalytic serine-dependent phospholipase A (PLA) and GCAT activity of recombinant SseJ is potentiated by factor(s) present in HeLa cells, RAW macrophages and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. SseJ activity was enhanced with increasing amounts of, or preincubation with, eukaryotic cell extracts. Analysis of the activating factor(s) shows that it is soluble and heat- and protease-sensitive. We conclude that PLA and GCAT activities of SseJ are potentiated by proteinaceous eukaryotic factor(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine S. Lossi
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Nathalie Rolhion
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Anthony I. Magee
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Cliona Boyle
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - David W. Holden
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Abstract
Ubiquitination and deubiquitination regulate several essential cellular processes such as protein degradation, cell-cycle progression, signaling, and DNA repair. Given the importance of these processes, it is not surprising that many microbes have developed the means to interfere with different stages of ubiquitin pathways to promote their survival and replication. This review focuses on virulence proteins of bacterial pathogens that mediate these effects and summarizes our current understanding of their actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Rytkönen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Flowers Building, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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42
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Mazurkiewicz P, Thomas J, Thompson JA, Liu M, Arbibe L, Sansonetti P, Holden DW. SpvC is a Salmonella effector with phosphothreonine lyase activity on host mitogen-activated protein kinases. Mol Microbiol 2008; 67:1371-83. [PMID: 18284579 PMCID: PMC2268955 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2008.06134.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
SpvC is encoded by the Salmonella virulence plasmid. We have investigated the biochemical function of SpvC and the mechanism by which it is secreted by bacteria and translocated into infected macrophages. We constructed a strain carrying a deletion in spvC and showed that the strain is attenuated for systemic virulence in mice. SpvC can be secreted in vitro by either the SPI-1 or SPI-2 type III secretion systems. Cell biological and genetic experiments showed that translocation of the protein into the cytosol of macrophages by intracellular bacteria is dependent on the SPI-2 T3SS. Using antibodies specific to phospho-amino acids and mass spectrometry we demonstrate that SpvC has phosphothreonine lyase activity on full-length phospho-Erk (pErk) and a synthetic 13-amino-acid phospho-peptide containing the TXY motif. A Salmonella strain expressing spvC from a plasmid downregulated cytokine release from infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Mazurkiewicz
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Ramsden AE, Holden DW, Mota LJ. Membrane dynamics and spatial distribution of Salmonella-containing vacuoles. Trends Microbiol 2007; 15:516-24. [PMID: 17983751 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2007.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2007] [Revised: 08/29/2007] [Accepted: 10/24/2007] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Salmonella enterica are facultative intracellular bacteria that cause intestinal and systemic diseases, and replicate within host cells in a membrane-bound compartment, the Salmonella-containing vacuole. Intravacuolar bacterial replication depends on spatiotemporal regulated interactions with host cell vesicular compartments. Recent studies have shown that type III secretion effector proteins control both the vacuolar membrane dynamics and intracellular positioning of bacterial vacuoles. The functions of these effectors, which are beginning to be understood, disclose a complex hijacking of host cell microtubule motors--kinesins and dynein--and regulators of their function, and suggest interactions with the Golgi complex. Here, we discuss current models describing the mode of action of Salmonella type III secretion effector proteins involved in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Ramsden
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London, UK
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Nelson AL, Ries J, Bagnoli F, Dahlberg S, Fälker S, Rounioja S, Tschöp J, Morfeldt E, Ferlenghi I, Hilleringmann M, Holden DW, Rappuoli R, Normark S, Barocchi MA, Henriques-Normark B. RrgA is a pilus-associated adhesin in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Mol Microbiol 2007; 66:329-40. [PMID: 17850254 PMCID: PMC2170534 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05908.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Adherence to host cells is important in microbial colonization of a mucosal surface, and Streptococcus pneumoniae adherence was significantly enhanced by expression of an extracellular pilus composed of three subunits, RrgA, RrgB and RrgC. We sought to determine which subunit(s) confers adherence. Bacteria deficient in RrgA are significantly less adherent than wild-type organisms, while overexpression of RrgA enhances adherence. Recombinant monomeric RrgA binds to respiratory cells, as does RrgC with less affinity, and pre-incubation of epithelial cells with RrgA reduces adherence of wild-type piliated pneumococci. Non-adherent RrgA-negative, RrgB- and RrgC-positive organisms produce pili, suggesting that pilus-mediated adherence is due to expression of RrgA, rather than the pilus backbone itself. In contrast, RrgA-positive strains with disrupted rrgB and rrgC genes exhibit wild-type adherence despite failure to produce pili by Western blot or immunoelectron microscopy. The density of bacteria colonizing the upper respiratory tract of mice inoculated with piliated RrgA-negative pneumococci was significantly less compared with wild-type; in contrast, non-piliated pneumococci expressing non-polymeric RrgA had similar numbers of bacteria in the nasopharynx as piliated wild-type bacteria. These data suggest that RrgA is central in pilus-mediated adherence and disease, even in the absence of polymeric pilus production.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Nelson
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - J Ries
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | | | - S Dahlberg
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - S Fälker
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - S Rounioja
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - J Tschöp
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | - E Morfeldt
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | - D W Holden
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial CollegeLondon, UK
| | | | - S Normark
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
| | | | - B Henriques-Normark
- Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control and Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska InstitutetStockholm, Sweden
- E-mail ; Tel. (+46) 8 457 24 13; Fax (+46) 8 30 25 66
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Abstract
Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) replicates inside mammalian cells within membrane-bound compartments called Salmonella-containing vacuoles. Intracellular replication is dependent on the activities of several effector proteins translocated across the vacuolar membrane by the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2)-type III secretion system (T3SS). This is accompanied by the formation in the vicinity of bacterial vacuoles of an F-actin meshwork, thought to be involved in maintaining the integrity of vacuolar membranes. In this study, we investigated the function of the SPI-2 T3SS effector SteC. An steC mutant strain was not defective for intracellular replication or attenuated for virulence in mice. However, the steC mutant was defective for SPI-2-dependent F-actin meshwork formation in host cells, although the vacuolar membranes surrounding mutant bacteria appeared to be normal. Expression of SteC in fibroblast cells following transfection caused extensive rearrangements of the F-actin cytoskeleton. Sequence analysis identified amino acid similarity between SteC and the human kinase Raf-1. A His-tagged SteC fusion protein had kinase activity in vitro and a point mutant lacking kinase activity was unable to induce F-actin rearrangements in vivo. We conclude that SPI-2-dependent F-actin meshwork formation depends on the kinase activity of SteC, which resembles more closely eukaryotic than prokaryotic kinases.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Poh
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and InfectionFlowers Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Charlotte Odendall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and InfectionFlowers Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Ad Spanos
- Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Genetics, National Institute for Medical ResearchLondon NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Cliona Boyle
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and InfectionFlowers Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Mei Liu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and InfectionFlowers Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Paul Freemont
- Division of Molecular BiosciencesImperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - David W Holden
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and InfectionFlowers Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
- For correspondence. E-mail ; Tel. (+44) 2075943073; Fax (+44) 2075943095
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46
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Abstract
Intracellular replication of Salmonella enterica occurs in membrane-bound compartments, called Salmonella-containing vacuoles (SCVs). Following invasion of epithelial cells, most SCVs migrate to a perinuclear region and replicate in close association with the Golgi network. The association of SCVs with the Golgi is dependent on the Salmonella-pathogenicity island-2 (SPI-2) type III secretion system (T3SS) effectors SseG, SseF and SifA. However, little is known about the dynamics of SCV movement. Here, we show that in epithelial cells, 2 h were required for migration of the majority of SCVs to within 5 μm from the microtubule organizing centre (MTOC), which is located in the same subcellular region as the Golgi network. This initial SCV migration was saltatory, bidirectional and microtubule-dependent. An intact Golgi, SseG and SPI-2 T3SS were dispensable for SCV migration to the MTOC, but were essential for maintenance of SCVs in that region. Live-cell imaging between 4 and 8 h post invasion revealed that the majority of wild-type SCVs displaced less than 2 μm in 20 min from their initial starting positions. In contrast, between 6 and 8 h post invasion the majority of vacuoles containing sseG, sseF or ssaV mutant bacteria displaced more than 2 μm in 20 min from their initial starting positions, with some undergoing large and dramatic movements. Further analysis of the movement of SCVs revealed that large displacements were a result of increased SCV speed rather than a change in their directionality, and that SseG influences SCV motility by restricting vacuole speed within the MTOC/Golgi region. SseG might function by tethering SCVs to Golgi-associated molecules, or by controlling microtubule motors, for example by inhibiting kinesin recruitment or promoting dynein recruitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Ramsden
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College LondonArmstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Luís J Mota
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College LondonArmstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Sylvia Münter
- Plate-Forme d'Imagerie Dynamique (PFID), Département de Biologie, Cellulaire et Infection, Institut Pasteur25, Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Spencer L Shorte
- Plate-Forme d'Imagerie Dynamique (PFID), Département de Biologie, Cellulaire et Infection, Institut Pasteur25, Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - David W Holden
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College LondonArmstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
- E-mail ; Tel. (+44) 20 7594 3073; Fax (+44) 20 7594 3076
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47
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Rytkönen A, Poh J, Garmendia J, Boyle C, Thompson A, Liu M, Freemont P, Hinton JCD, Holden DW. SseL, a Salmonella deubiquitinase required for macrophage killing and virulence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:3502-7. [PMID: 17360673 PMCID: PMC1802004 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0610095104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Expression of the Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2) type III secretion system is controlled by the two-component regulatory system SsrA-SsrB. We used a transcriptomic approach to help define the SsrA-SsrB regulon. We identified a gene encoding an uncharacterized effector (SseL) whose translocation into host cells depends on the SPI-2 secretion system. SseL has similarities to cysteine proteases with deubiquitinating activity. A GST-SseL fusion protein specifically hydrolyzed mono- and polyubiquitin substrates in vitro with a preference for K63-linked ubiquitin chains. Ubiquitin-modified proteins accumulated in macrophages infected with Salmonella sseL mutant strains but to a lesser extent when infected with bacteria expressing active protein, demonstrating that SseL functions as a deubiquitinase in vivo. Salmonella sseL mutant strains did not show a replication defect or induce altered levels of cytokine production upon infection of macrophages but were defective for a delayed cytotoxic effect and were attenuated for virulence in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Rytkönen
- *Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection and
| | - John Poh
- *Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection and
| | - Junkal Garmendia
- *Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection and
| | - Cliona Boyle
- *Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection and
| | - Arthur Thompson
- Molecular Microbiology Group, Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UA, United Kingdom
| | - Mei Liu
- *Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection and
| | - Paul Freemont
- Division of Molecular Biosciences, Imperial College London, Flowers Building, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; and
| | - Jay C. D. Hinton
- Molecular Microbiology Group, Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UA, United Kingdom
| | - David W. Holden
- *Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection and
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Unsworth KE, Mazurkiewicz P, Senf F, Zettl M, McNiven M, Way M, Holden DW. Dynamin is required for F-actin assembly and pedestal formation by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC). Cell Microbiol 2007; 9:438-49. [PMID: 16965516 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00801.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
After attaching to human intestinal epithelial cells, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) induces the formation of an actin-rich pedestal-like structure. The signalling pathway leading to pedestal formation is initiated by the bacterial protein Tir, which is inserted into the host cell plasma membrane. The domain exposed on the cell surface binds to another bacterial protein, intimin, while one of the cytoplasmic domains binds the adaptor protein Nck. This leads to recruitment of other cytoskeletal proteins including neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) and Arp2/3, resulting in focused actin polymerization at the site of bacterial attachment. In this study we investigated the role of the large GTPase dynamin 2 (Dyn2) in pedestal formation. We found that in HeLa cells, both endogenous and overexpressed Dyn2 were recruited to sites of EPEC attachment. Recruitment of endogenous Dyn2 required the presence of Tir, Nck and N-WASP but was independent of cortactin and Arp2/3. Knock-down of Dyn2 expression by RNA interference reduced actin polymerization and pedestal formation. Overexpression of dominant-negative mutants of Dyn2 also reduced pedestal formation and prevented recruitment of N-WASP, Arp3 and cortactin, but not Nck. Together, our results indicate that Dyn2 is an integral component of the signalling cascade leading to actin polymerization in EPEC pedestals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate E Unsworth
- Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, UK
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49
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Abstract
DNA signature tags (molecular barcodes) facilitate functional screens by identifying mutants in mixed populations that have a reduced or increased adaptation to a particular environment. Many innovative adaptations and refinements in the technology have been described since its original use with Salmonella; they have yielded a wealth of information on a broad range of biological processes--mainly in bacteria, but also in yeast and other fungi, viruses, parasites and, most recently, in mammalian cells. By combining whole-genome microarrays and comprehensive ordered libraries of mutants, high-throughput functional screens can now be achieved on a genomic scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Mazurkiewicz
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Centre for Molecular Microbiology and Infection, Imperial College London, Armstrong Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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50
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Deiwick J, Salcedo SP, Boucrot E, Gilliland SM, Henry T, Petermann N, Waterman SR, Gorvel JP, Holden DW, Méresse S. The translocated Salmonella effector proteins SseF and SseG interact and are required to establish an intracellular replication niche. Infect Immun 2006; 74:6965-72. [PMID: 17015457 PMCID: PMC1698088 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00648-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The facultative intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica causes a variety of diseases, including gastroenteritis and typhoid fever. Inside epithelial cells, Salmonella replicates in vacuoles, which localize in the perinuclear area in close proximity to the Golgi apparatus. Among the effector proteins translocated by the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2-encoded type III secretion system, SifA and SseG have been shown necessary but not sufficient to ensure the intracellular positioning of Salmonella vacuoles. Hence, we have investigated the involvement of other secreted effector proteins in this process. Here we show that SseF interacts functionally and physically with SseG but not SifA and is also required for the perinuclear localization of Salmonella vacuoles. The observations show that the intracellular positioning of Salmonella vacuoles is a complex phenomenon resulting from the combined action of several effector proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Deiwick
- Institute of Biochemistry, Center for Structural and Cell Biology in Medicine, University of Lübeck, Ratzeburger Allee 160, 23538 Lübeck, Germany.
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