Fundamental movement skills and physical activity among children living in low-income communities: a cross-sectional study

Perceived and Actual Movement Skill Competence: The Association Among Primary School Children in Hong Kong

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between perceived and actual movement skill competence among primary school children in Hong Kong. Participants were 568 primary (P) school children (229 boys, 339 girls; Mage = 9.3 years, SD = 1.7). Children’s perceived skill competence was assessed using an identical format to that of Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children in the same 12 fundamental movement skills (FMS) objectively measured. The actual locomotor and object control skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development (2nd edition). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the association between children’s perceived and actual movement skill competence separately for lower (P1–P3) and upper (P4–P6) grades. There was no association between students’ perceptions and actual FMS scores. MANCOVA results indicated that children in upper grades had significantly lower skill perceptions than their younger counterparts. Overall, boys had higher perceptions of object control skill than girls did. The findings indicate that many primary school children have inaccurate perceptions of their FMS competence. These misperceptions may lead to low self-confidence and to gradually opting out of sport and physical activity.

Associations between fundamental movement skill competence, physical activity and psycho-social determinants in Hong Kong Chinese children

Associations between fundamental movement skills (FMS), perceived competence, enjoyment and physical activity (PA) have not been widely investigated among Chinese school children. We hypothesised that FMS would be directly related to self-reported and objectively measured PA, and indirectly related to these outcomes via perceived physical and movement skill competence, and enjoyment. Participants were 763 primary school children (age = 9.3 ± 1.7 years; 474 girls) across grades. FMS were measured for a subsample (n = 603) using Test of Gross Motor Development-2. PA using accelerometers was obtained from this subgroup (n = 238). All participating children completed a questionnaire measuring their PA participation, enjoyment, and perceived physical and movement skill competence. Structural equation modelling revealed positive associations between locomotor skills and perceived movement skill competence (β = .11, 95% CI [.001, .22]), and between perceived movement skill competence and objectively measured PA (β = .59, 95% CI [.04, 1.14]). Perceived physical competence and enjoyment mediated the association between locomotor skills and self-reported PA (β = .08, 95% CI [.02, .12]), but not objectively measured PA. Given inconsistent findings for subjective and objective measures of PA, further mediation analyses of the association between FMS and PA may be warranted.

Associations of object control motor skill proficiency, game play competence, physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness among primary school children

This study investigated if object control relates to children's game play competence, and examined these competencies as correlates of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness. Game play (Game Performance Assessment Instrument), object control (The Test Gross Motor Development-3), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (Accelerometry), and cardiorespiratory fitness (20-metre shuttle) assessments were completed for 107 children (57% Female, 43% Male) aged 9-12 years (M 10.53, SD 0.65). Two-level regression of object control on game play competence, and object control and game play competence on physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness assessed associations. Object control competence was positively associated with game play competence (Std. B = 0.25, t (104.77) = 2.38, p = 0.001). Game play competence (Std. B = 0.33, t (99.81) = 5.21, p < 0.000) was more strongly associated with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity than object control competence (Std. B = 0.20, t (106.93) = 2.96, p = 0.003). Likewise, game competence (Std. B = 0.39, t (104.41) = 4.36, p < 0.000) was more strongly associated with cardiorespiratory fitness than object control competence (Std. B = 0.22, t (106.69) = 2.63, p = 0.002). Object control and game competence are both important as correlates of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness in children.

Fundamental motor skills, nutritional status, perceived competence, and school performance of Brazilian children in social vulnerability: Gender comparison

Being at risk or in social vulnerability situations can affect important aspects of child development. The aim of this study was to investigate fundamental motor skills (locomotor and object control) and school (writing, arithmetic, reading) performances, the perceived competence and the nutritional status of girls and boys living in social vulnerability in the poorest regions of Brazil. Two hundred eleven (211) children (87 girls, 41%), 7-10-year-old (M = 8.3, SD = 0.9), from public schools in Ceará (Brazil), living in social vulnerability, participated in the study. Children were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development - 2, the Body Mass Index (BMI), the Self-Perception Profile for Children, and the School Performance Test. Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), adjusted for age, did not show any significant effect for locomotion. There was an effect of gender on the object control. Boys showed higher scores in striking, kicking, throwing, and rolling a ball. Quade's nonparametric analysis showed no difference in BMI between the genders. Most children presented healthy weight. The MANCOVA showed no effect of gender on children's scores on perceived competence on the subscales; moderate scores were found for most children. There were no gender effects on school performance; both boys and girls demonstrated inferior performance. Boys and girls in social vulnerability showed inferior performance in most motor skills, moderate perceived competence and inferior school performance. These results reveal that the appropriate development of these children is at risk and that intervention strategies should be implemented to compensate the difficulties presented.

Correlates of Gross Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Gross motor competence confers health benefits, but levels in children and adolescents are low. While interventions can improve gross motor competence, it remains unclear which correlates should be targeted to ensure interventions are most effective, and for whom targeted and tailored interventions should be developed.

Objective

The aim of this systematic review was to identify the potential correlates of gross motor competence in typically developing children and adolescents (aged 3–18 years) using an ecological approach.

Methods

Motor competence was defined as gross motor skill competency, encompassing fundamental movement skills and motor coordination, but excluding motor fitness. Studies needed to assess a summary score of at least one aspect of motor competence (i.e., object control, locomotor, stability, or motor coordination). A structured electronic literature search was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Six electronic databases (CINAHL Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE Complete, PsycINFO^®, Scopus and SPORTDiscus with Full Text) were searched from 1994 to 5 August 2014. Meta-analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between potential correlates and motor competency if at least three individual studies investigated the same correlate and also reported standardized regression coefficients.

Results

A total of 59 studies were identified from 22 different countries, published between 1995 and 2014. Studies reflected the full range of age groups. The most examined correlates were biological and demographic factors. Age (increasing) was a correlate of children’s motor competence. Weight status (healthy), sex (male) and socioeconomic background (higher) were consistent correlates for certain aspects of motor competence only. Physical activity and sport participation constituted the majority of investigations in the behavioral attributes and skills category. Whilst we found physical activity to be a positive correlate of skill composite and motor coordination, we also found indeterminate evidence for physical activity being a correlate of object control or locomotor skill competence. Few studies investigated cognitive, emotional and psychological factors, cultural and social factors or physical environment factors as correlates of motor competence.

Conclusion

This systematic review is the first that has investigated correlates of gross motor competence in children and adolescents. A strength is that we categorized correlates according to the specific ways motor competence has been defined and operationalized (object control, motor coordination, etc.), which enables us to have an understanding of what correlates assist what types of motor competence. Indeed our findings do suggest that evidence for some correlates differs according to how motor competence is operationalized.

Skill-Based and Planned Active Play Versus Free-Play Effects on Fundamental Movement Skills in Preschoolers

Fundamental movement skill interventions are important for promoting physical activity, but the optimal intervention model for preschool children remains unclear. We compared two 8-week interventions, a structured skill-station and a planned active play approach, to a free-play control condition on pre- and postintervention fundamental movement skills. We also collected data regarding program attendance and perceived enjoyment. We found a significant interaction effect between intervention type and time. A Tukey honest significant difference analysis supported a positive intervention effect showing a significant difference between both interventions and the free-play control condition. There was a significant between-group difference in group attendance such that mean attendance was higher for both the free-play and planned active play groups relative to the structured skill-based approach. There were no differences in attendance between free-play and planned active play groups, and there were no differences in enjoyment ratings between the two intervention groups. In sum, while both interventions led to improved fundamental movement skills, the active play approach offered several logistical advantages. Although these findings should be replicated, they can guide feasible and sustainable fundamental movement skill programs within day care settings.

Exploring the perspectives of 10-, 11-, and 12-year-old primary school students on physical activity engagement-"'Cause you can't just be sitting at a desk all the time!"

BACKGROUND

Research indicates that 91% of Canadian children are not engaging in enough physical activity (PA) to achieve health benefits. Physical education (PE) classes have been identified as a way to improve child health by facilitating engagement in movement-based activities. The daily physical activity (DPA) initiative was created with similar intentions and requires that students participate in at least 20 min of PA daily via PE classes and/or during instructional time for other subjects. Despite recommendations that 150 min of exercise/play be incurred weekly through either avenue, nearly half of Canadian schools fail to achieve this goal. The disconnect between PA-related school policies and low reported participation rates suggests that additional research is warranted. The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of primary students regarding the facilitators, barriers, and recommendations for PA engagement at their schools.

METHODS

Researchers conducted nine group interviews with 53 children aged 10-12, representing six primary schools in Northwestern Ontario using a semi-structured interview format. Sessions were analysed using inductive content analysis.

RESULTS

Participants discussed several facilitators of PA including enjoying activities (alleviating boredom and participating with others), accomplishment (skill building and enhanced self-image), and benefits in the classroom (thinking clearly and enhanced readiness to learn). Barriers to PA participation included school rules and culture (PA/PE restrictions, heavy workload, and "no work, no PA"), personal struggles (physical challenges and varied skill levels), and technology (being addictive and a replacement for being active). Recommendations for enhancing engagement that were outlined by the children centred around PE and daily physical activity (increase opportunities and involve students in planning/delivery) and recess-based themes (decrease focus on safety and make equipment more available).

CONCLUSION

These student perspectives and related recommendations may be beneficial for administrators and teachers in similar contexts who are seeking to enhance PA engagement among students with the goal of improving child health.

Relationship between Physical Activity and Physical Fitness in Preschool Children: A Cross-Sectional Study

PURPOSE

To evaluate the relationships between objectively measured physical activity and physical fitness among preschool children.

METHODS

A total of 346 participants (201 boys and 145 girls) aged 3.5-5.5 years (M = 4.5 yr, SD = 0.47) from Shanghai, China, completed physical fitness assessments, including triceps skinfold thickness (TSFT), grip strength, tennis throwing, sit and reach test, standing long jump, balance beam, 10mSRT, and 20mSRT. Physical activity was objectively measured by ActiGraphGT3X+ accelerometer. Multiple linear regression models were used to explore the cross-sectional associations between PA and physical fitness after adjusting for age, gender, BMI, and valid wearing time.

RESULTS

Positive associations were observed between stand long jump (p < .01), tennis throwing (p < .01), laps in 20mSRT (p < .01), and MVPA. However, TSFT (p < .05), time in 10mSRT (p < .01), and balance beam (p < .05) were negatively associated with MVPA. Furthermore, positive associations were found between stand long jump (p < .01), tennis throwing (p < .01), and MVPA only in boys. Negative associations were found between time on balance beam (p < .01) and MVPA only in girls.

CONCLUSIONS

MVPA appears to be an effective and reliable predictor of preschoolers' physical fitness. Boys' body composition, muscular strength, explosive strength, agility, aerobic fitness, girls' agility, aerobic fitness, and balance could improve as MVPA increases.

Actual competence, rather than perceived competence, is a better predictor of physical activity in children aged 6-9 years

There is a limited understanding about the relative importance of perceived and actual competence on emergent physical activity levels in children and whether there is a difference in their development and strength between boys and girls. This study used a single-cohort, multiple age group design to monitor physical activity, actual motor competence (AMC) and perceived competence (PC) on four occasions over 18 months in 6-to 9-year-old boys and girls (N = 201). Physical activity was measured by 7-day daily step counts (pedometer) and activity diary. AMC was assessed by mastery of skill criteria for 4 motor skills; run, overhand throw, standing broad jump, and line walk. PC was measured with the Self Description Questionnaire-I. Linear Mixed Model analysis revealed that AMC, Gender and School significantly impacted physical activity levels longitudinally in these children. AMC made a greater contribution (9-30%) to physical activity levels than PC (0-5%), and at an earlier age in boys (7 years) than girls (9 years). The need to acknowledge these developing distinctions in considering emergent physical activity levels has important implications for childhood learning environments and physical activity interventions.

The Relationship between Actual Fundamental Motor Skill Proficiency, Perceived Motor Skill Confidence and Competence, and Physical Activity in 8⁻12-Year-Old Irish Female Youth

This study examines the relationship between actual fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency, perceived motor confidence and competence, and physical activity (PA) among female children (n= 160; mean age = 10.69 ± 1.40 years). The Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd Edition (TGMD-2) was used to assess seven FMSs (locomotor, object-control, and stability). Motor confidence and competence were assessed using a valid skill-specific scale, and a modified version of the Self-Perception Profile for Children. PA levels were assessed using self-report (PA Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C)) and classified as low, moderate, and high active. One-way and two-way ANOVAs (post-hoc honest significant difference (HSD)) and correlation coefficients were used to analyse the data. Findings indicate that the majority of youth (71.8%) were not meeting the minimum 60 min of daily PA recommended for health, and that 98.1% did not achieve the FMS proficiency expected for their age. While there were high levels of perceived physical self-confidence (PSC) reported within FMS skill-specific tasks, there was no significant correlation observed between actual FMS proficiency and perceived PSC among the cohort. Results show that low, moderately, and highly active female participants differ significantly in terms of their overall FMS (p = 0.03) and locomotor (LOC) control scores (p = 0.03). Results from a two-way between-groups analysis of variance also revealed no statistically significant interaction effect between PA grouping and physical performance self-concept (PPSC) on overall FMS proficiency levels. Results of a multiple linear regression indicate that perceived PSC is a significant predictor (beta = 0.183) of participants' overall PA levels. Data show a need for targeting low levels of PA, and low FMS proficiency in female youth, and for developing interventions aiming to enhance perceived PSC levels.

The roles of physical activity and sedentary behavior on Hispanic children's mental health: a motor skill perspective

PURPOSE

Motor competence (MC) has been recognized as the foundation for life-time moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) as well as an influential factor in reducing sedentary behavior during childhood. Guided by Blair et al.'s health model, the purpose of this study was to examine the behavioral mechanism of mental health including physical, psychosocial, and cognitive health among Hispanic children related to MC and MVPA.

METHODS

A prospective research design was used with two-wave assessments across one academic year. A total of 141 Hispanic kindergarteners (Mean_age = 5.37, SD = 0.48) were recruited in Texas. Nearly all (94.3%) of the participants were from low-income families based on the Income Eligibility Guidelines. The study was approved by the University Research Review Board, and informed consent was obtained from parents/guardians prior to starting the study.

RESULTS

Multiple regressions indicated that manipulative skill was a significant predictor of physical and psychosocial health (β = 0.21, β = 0.26, p < 0.05, respectively) and locomotor skill served as a significant predictor for cognitive health (β = 0.22, p < 0.01), after controlling for BMI. Bootstrapping analyses supported the statistical significance of indirect effects of MC on mental health outcomes through MVPA (95% CI [0.031, 0.119]) and sedentary behavior (95% CI [0.054, 0.235]), respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that skill-based activities/games, with instructions, should be encouraged during school-based physical activity and health promotion programs in childhood education. Better understanding of the early effects of MC may contribute to designing strategies to promote Hispanic children's well-being.

Effectiveness of exercise intervention on improving fundamental movement skills and motor coordination in overweight/obese children and adolescents: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Childhood obesity is negatively associated with fundamental movement skill and motor coordination, which in turn constrains physical activity participation and adherence thereby forming a 'vicious cycle'. However, developing motor skill and coordination in childhood could help to break the vicious cycle to reduce childhood obesity. The objective of this systematic review was to determine the effectiveness of exercise and physical activity interventions on improving fundamental movement skill and motor coordination in overweight/obese children and adolescents.

DESIGN

A systematic review with quality assessment.

METHODS

A comprehensive systematic search was conducted from MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE without date restriction for randomized control trials, interventions or longitudinal studies of movement skill/motor skill/motor coordination in overweight/obese participants between 0-18 years of age. A total of 3944 publications were screened, and 17 published studies were included.

RESULTS

Altogether 38 tests for locomotor, object-control, balance and complex task tests were examined in selected studies, with 33 reporting increases after interventions, while only five tests indicated no change. The evidence strongly suggests that exercise/physical activity interventions were effective in improving locomotor skill, object-control skill and complex tasks in overweight/obese peers. However, the results for balance were equivocal.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from existing studies suggest overweight/obese peers have lower levels of fundamental movement skill than their healthy weight peers. However, exercise/physical activity interventions are effective in improving their skills. To maximize skill improvement, we recommend focused fundamental movement skill and motor coordination activities for skill development. These progressions in interventions may help break the vicious cycle of childhood obesity.

Potential moderators of day-to-day variability in children's physical activity patterns

Little is known about whether physical activity compensation occurs and, if so, what are potential moderators of such responses. This study examined whether children's physical activity, sedentary time and energy expenditure on one day was associated with these behaviours the following day, and what factors may moderate observed associations. One hundred and twenty-seven children (8-11 years) wore an ActiGraph accelerometer for eight days. Time spent in sedentary time and physical activity was obtained. Daily energy expenditure was also assessed using a SenseWear Armband (n=98). Moderators examined were sex, age, BMI, fitness, and fundamental movement skills (FMS). Multilevel analyses were conducted using generalized mixed models. On any given day, every additional 10 minutes spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was associated with 9.3 minutes less MVPA the following day. Every additional 10kcal expended on one day was associated with 2.9 fewer kcal expended the following day. Additional time spent sedentary on any given day was associated with less light physical activity the following day in children with lower FMS. The results are largely consistent with the compensation hypothesis, with children appearing to compensate their activity between days. Strategies to minimise potential compensatory changes may be needed for children overall rather than for specific population sub-groups.

Comparison of motor competence levels on two assessments across childhood

This study compared performances and motor delay classifications for the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition (TGMD-2) and the Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder (KTK) in a sample of 424 healthy children (47% girls) between 5 and 10 years of age. Low-to-moderate correlations (r range = 0.34-0.52) were found between assessments across age. In general, both boys and girls demonstrated higher raw scores across age groups. However, percentile scores indicated younger children outperformed older children, denoting a normative percentile-based decrease in motor competence (MC) in the older age groups. In total, the TGMD-2 and KTK classified 39.4% and 18.4% children, respectively, as demonstrating very low MC (percentile ≤5). In conclusion, the TGMD-2 classified significantly more children with motor delays than the KTK and the differences between children's motor skill classification levels by these assessments became greater as the age groups increased. Therefore, the TGMD-2 may demonstrate more susceptibility to sociocultural influences and be more influenced by cumulative motor experiences throughout childhood. Low-to-moderate correlations between assessments also suggest the TGMD-2 and KTK may measure different aspects of MC. As such, it may be important to use multiple assessments to comprehensively assess motor competence.

Does physical education influence eye-hand coordination? The Lifestyles of our Kids intervention study

In Australian government-funded primary schools, the responsibility for physical education (PE) falls mainly on general classroom teachers, many of whom possess limited PE training. This study sought to examine the impact of specialist-taught PE on eye-hand coordination (EHC) development. In this 4-year cluster-randomized intervention, participants were 187 boys and 172 girls initially in grade 2 in 29 primary schools, where no school employed university-trained specialist PE teachers. In 13 (intervention) schools, specialist PE teachers conducted 268 PE classes (two 45-minute sessions/wk) from grade 2 to grade 6. The intervention was based on traditional PE educational objectives, including fundamental motor skills, but did not specifically focus on EHC. The remaining 16 (control) schools continued with common-practice PE taught by general classroom teachers (30-60 min/wk). EHC was measured by a ball throw and wall-rebound catch test and recorded at ages 8, 10, and 12 (SD 0.3) at ends of grades 2, 4, and 6, respectively. There was steady yearly improvement of EHC in both groups, but no evidence of any intervention effect in boys (P=.88) or girls (P=.20). The introduction of specialist-taught PE during 4 years of primary school did not influence EHC development. Considering evidence that classroom teachers make little contribution to PE in this jurisdiction, together with the steady progression of EHC over the 4 years, other influences such as organized sport, after-school activities, natural development, and parental instruction are conceivably more influential factors in EHC development during primary school years.

Scaling-up an efficacious school-based physical activity intervention: Study protocol for the 'Internet-based Professional Learning to help teachers support Activity in Youth' (iPLAY) cluster randomized controlled trial and scale-up implementation evaluation

BACKGROUND

Despite the health benefits of regular physical activity, most children are insufficiently active. Schools are ideally placed to promote physical activity; however, many do not provide children with sufficient in-school activity or ensure they have the skills and motivation to be active beyond the school setting. The aim of this project is to modify, scale up and evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention previously shown to be efficacious in improving children's physical activity, fundamental movement skills and cardiorespiratory fitness. The 'Internet-based Professional Learning to help teachers support Activity in Youth' (iPLAY) study will focus largely on online delivery to enhance translational capacity.

METHODS/DESIGN

The intervention will be implemented at school and teacher levels, and will include six components: (i) quality physical education and school sport, (ii) classroom movement breaks, (iii) physically active homework, (iv) active playgrounds, (v) community physical activity links and (vi) parent/caregiver engagement. Experienced physical education teachers will deliver professional learning workshops and follow-up, individualized mentoring to primary teachers (i.e., Kindergarten - Year 6). These activities will be supported by online learning and resources. Teachers will then deliver the iPLAY intervention components in their schools. We will evaluate iPLAY in two complementary studies in primary schools across New South Wales (NSW), Australia. A cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT), involving a representative sample of 20 schools within NSW (1:1 allocation at the school level to intervention and attention control conditions), will assess effectiveness and cost-effectiveness at 12 and 24 months. Students' cardiorespiratory fitness will be the primary outcome in this trial. Key secondary outcomes will include students' moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (via accelerometers), fundamental movement skill proficiency, enjoyment of physical education and sport, cognitive control, performance on standardized tests of numeracy and literacy, and cost-effectiveness. A scale-up implementation study guided by the RE-AIM framework will evaluate the reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance of the intervention when delivered in 160 primary schools in urban and regional areas of NSW.

DISCUSSION

This project will provide the evidence and a framework for government to guide physical activity promotion throughout NSW primary schools and a potential model for adoption in other states and countries.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ( ACTRN12616000731493 ). Date of registration: June 3, 2016.

Motor Competence and its Effect on Positive Developmental Trajectories of Health

In 2008, Stodden and colleagues took a unique developmental approach toward addressing the potential role of motor competence in promoting positive or negative trajectories of physical activity, health-related fitness, and weight status. The conceptual model proposed synergistic relationships among physical activity, motor competence, perceived motor competence, health-related physical fitness, and obesity with associations hypothesized to strengthen over time. At the time the model was proposed, limited evidence was available to support or refute the model hypotheses. Over the past 6 years, the number of investigations exploring these relationships has increased significantly. Thus, it is an appropriate time to examine published data that directly or indirectly relate to specific pathways noted in the conceptual model. Evidence indicates that motor competence is positively associated with perceived competence and multiple aspects of health (i.e., physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and a healthy weight status). However, questions related to the increased strength of associations across time and antecedent/consequent mechanisms remain. An individual's physical and psychological development is a complex and multifaceted process that synergistically evolves across time. Understanding the most salient factors that influence health and well-being and how relationships among these factors change across time is a critical need for future research in this area. This knowledge could aid in addressing the declining levels of physical activity and fitness along with the increasing rates of obesity across childhood and adolescence.

Fundamental motor skill, physical activity, and sedentary behavior in socioeconomically disadvantaged kindergarteners

Guided by Stodden et al's conceptual model, the main purpose of the study was to examine the relation between fundamental motor skills (FMS; locomotor and objective control skills), different intensity levels of physical activity (light PA [LPA], moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA], and vigorous PA[VPA]), and sedentary behavior (SB) in socioeconomically disadvantaged kindergarteners. A prospective design was used in this study and the data were collected across the 2013-2014 academic school year. Participants were 256 (129 boys; 127 girls; Mage = 5.37, SD = 0.48) kindergarteners recruited from three public schools in the southern United States. Results found that FMS were significantly related to LPA, MVPA, VPA, and SB. Regression analyses indicate that locomotor skills explained significant variance for LPA (6.4%; p < .01), MVPA (7.9%; p < .001), and VPA (5.3%; p < .01) after controlling for weight status. Mediational analysis supports the significant indirect effect of MVPA on the relation between FMS and SB (95% CI: [-0.019, -0.006]). Adequate FMS development during early childhood may result in participating in more varied physical activities, thus leading to lower risk of obesity-related behaviors.

Early motor skill competence as a mediator of child and adult physical activity

OBJECTIVE

In order to effectively promote physical activity (PA) during childhood, and across the lifespan, a better understanding of the role of early motor skill development on child and adult PA is needed.

METHODS

Here, we propose a conceptual model delineating the hypothesized influence of motor skill development on child and adult PA, while providing an overview of the current empirical research related to this model.

RESULTS

There is consistent and emerging evidence showing that adequate motor skill competence, particularly locomotor and gross motor skills, is associated with increased PA levels during the preschool, child, and adolescent years, with early motor skill development also influencing enjoyment of PA as well as long-term PA and motor skill performance. The physical education setting appears to be a well-suited environment for motor skill development.

CONCLUSION

Employing appropriate strategies to target motor skill development across the childhood years is of paramount interest in helping shape children's PA behavior, their experiences related to PA, as well as maintain their PA.

Influences of gender and socioeconomic status on the motor proficiency of children in the UK

As the development of movement skills are so crucial to a child's involvement in lifelong physical activity and sport, the purpose of this study was to assess the motor proficiency of children aged 4-7 years (range=4.3-7.2 years), whilst considering gender and socioeconomic status. 369 children (176 females, 193 males, aged=5.96 ± 0.57 years) were assessed for fine motor precision, fine motor integration, manual dexterity, bilateral co-ordination, balance, speed and agility, upper-limb co-ordination and strength. The average standard score for all participants was 44.4 ± 8.9, classifying the participants towards the lower end of the average score. Multivariate analysis of covariance identified significant effects for gender (p<0.001) and socioeconomic status (p<0.001). Females outperformed males for fine motor skills and boys outperformed girls for catch and dribble gross motor skills. High socioeconomic status significantly outperformed middle and/or low socioeconomic status for total, fine and gross motor proficiency. Current motor proficiency of primary children aged 4-7 years in the UK is just below average with differences evident between gender and socioeconomic status. Teachers and sport coaches working with primary aged children should concentrate on the development of movement skills, whilst considering differences between genders and socioeconomic status.

Longitudinal patterns of change in eye-hand coordination in children aged 8-16 years

Enhanced eye-hand coordination (EHC) is associated with greater participation in physical activity. No longitudinal studies have examined the change in throw-catch EHC from childhood to mid-adolescence. We investigated the development of EHC with an object control test from childhood to mid-adolescence in boys and girls. Evaluated at age 8, 10, 12 and 16 years, EHC was measured as the aggregate success rate of a throw and wall-rebound catch test. The test involved 40 attempts of progressive increasing difficulty, as determined by increased distances from a wall and transitions from two-handed to one-handed catches. Outcomes were treated as quasi-binomial and modelled by generalised linear mixed logistic regression analysis. EHC improved with age from childhood to mid-adolescence, although boys were more adept at each age (p<0.001). The patterns of change in EHC with increasing age varied according to the degree of difficulty of the task (p<0.001); throw and two-handed catch proficiency developing earlier than throw and one-handed catch in both sexes. Boys' EHC was better than girls' as early as age 8 years and male proficiency was maintained through to mid-adolescence. The proficiency of throw and two-handed catch rates developed faster than throw and one-handed catch rates for both sexes.

The PLUNGE randomized controlled trial: evaluation of a games-based physical activity professional learning program in primary school physical education

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the efficacy of the Professional Learning for Understanding Games Education (PLUNGE) program on fundamental movement skills (FMS), in-class physical activity and perceived sporting competence.

METHODS

A cluster-randomized controlled trial involving one year six class each from seven primary schools (n=168; mean age=11.2 years, SD=1.0) in the Hunter Region, NSW, Australia. In September (2013) participants were randomized by school into the PLUNGE intervention (n=97 students) or the 7-week wait-list control (n=71) condition. PLUNGE involved the use of Game Centered curriculum delivered via an in-class teacher mentoring program. Students were assessed at baseline and 8-week follow-up for three object control FMS (Test of Gross Motor Development 2), in-class physical activity (pedometer steps/min) and perceived sporting competence (Self-perception Profile for Children).

RESULTS

Linear mixed models revealed significant group-by-time intervention effects (all p<0.05) for object control competency (effect size: d=0.9), and in-class pedometer steps/min (d=1.0). No significant intervention effects (p>0.05) were observed for perceived sporting competence.

CONCLUSIONS

The PLUNGE intervention simultaneously improved object control FMS proficiency and in-class PA in stage three students.

Fundamental movement skills in relation to weekday and weekend physical activity in preschool children

OBJECTIVES

To examine associations between fundamental movement skills and weekday and weekend physical activity among preschool children living in deprived communities.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observation study.

METHODS

Six locomotor skills and 6 object-control skills were video-assessed using The Children's Activity and Movement in Preschool Study Motor Skills Protocol. Physical activity was measured via hip-mounted accelerometry. A total of 99 children (53% boys) aged 3-5 years (M 4.6, SD 0.5) completed all assessments. Multilevel mixed regression models were used to examine associations between fundamental movement skills and physical activity. Models were adjusted for clustering, age, sex, standardised body mass index and accelerometer wear time.

RESULTS

Boys were more active than girls and had higher object-control skill competency. Total skill score was positively associated with weekend moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (p = 0.034) but not weekday physical activity categories (p > 0.05). When subdomains of skills were examined, object-control skills was positively associated with light physical activity on weekdays (p = 0.008) and with light (p = 0.033), moderate-to-vigorous (p = 0.028) and light- and moderate-to-vigorous (p = 0.008) physical activity at weekends. Locomotor skill competency was positively associated with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on weekdays (p = 0.016) and light physical activity during the weekend (p = 0.035).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that developing competence in both locomotor and object-control skills may be an important element in promoting an active lifestyle in young children during weekdays and at weekends.