The diverse mechanisms and anticancer potential of naphthoquinones

Identification and Characterization of Natural and Semisynthetic Quinones as Aurora Kinase Inhibitors

Aurora kinases (Aurora A, B, and C) are a family of serine/threonine kinases that play critical roles during mitotic initiation and progression. Aurora A and B kinases are ubiquitously expressed, and their overexpression and/or amplification in many cancers have been associated with poor prognosis. Several inhibitors that target Aurora kinases A, B, or both have been developed during the past decade with efficacy in different in vitro and in vivo models for a variety of cancers. Recent studies have also identified Aurora A as a synthetic lethal target for different tumor suppressors, including RB1, SMARCA4, and ARID1A, which signifies the need for Aurora-A-selective inhibitors. Here, we report the screening of a small library of quinones (nine naphthoquinones, one orthoquinone, and one anthraquinone) in a biochemical assay for Aurora A kinase that resulted in the identification of several quinones as inhibitors. IC₅₀ determination against Aurora A and B kinases revealed the inhibition of both kinases with selectivity toward Aurora A. Two of the compounds, natural quinone naphthazarin (1) and a pseudo anthraquinone, 2-(chloromethyl)quinizarin (11), potently inhibited the proliferation of various cancer cell lines with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.16 ± 0.15 to 1.7 ± 0.06 and 0.15 ± 0.04 to 6.3 ± 1.8 μM, respectively. Treatment of cancer cells with these compounds for 24 h resulted in abrogated mitosis and apoptotic cell death. Direct binding of both the compounds with Aurora A kinase was also confirmed through STD NMR analysis. Docking studies predicted the binding of both compounds to the ATP binding pocket of Aurora A kinase. We have, therefore, identified quinones as Aurora kinase inhibitors that can serve as a lead for future drug discovery endeavors.

Octahydropyrimido[4,5-g]quinazoline-5,10-diones: their multicomponent synthesis, self-assembly on graphite and electrochemistry

A green multicomponent synthesis of previously unreported octahydropyrimido[4,5-g]quinazoline-5,6-diones was developed from simple building blocks. These highly symmetrical compounds show strong propensity to self-assembled molecular network (SAMN) formation on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite. The SAMN type is easily tunable by changing molecular characteristics. The redox behavior was studied by cyclic voltammetery.

Phoenicin Switch: Discovering the Trigger for Radical Phoenicin Production in Multiple Wild-Type Penicillium Species

Society faces the challenge of storing energy from sustainable sources in inexpensive, nontoxic ways that do not deplete the limited resources of Earth. In this regard, quinone redox flow batteries have been proposed as ideal; however, industrially used quinones have traditionally been synthesized from fossil fuels. Therefore, we investigated the production of phoenicin (compound 1), a deep violet dibenzoquinone produced by certain Penicillium species, for its industrial potential. Strains grew as surface cultures on customized growth media with varying production parameters, and phoenicin production was assessed by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-DAD-QTOF MS) analysis of the supernatant. Phoenicin production was reliant on the sucrose concentration, and by varying that, we produced 4.94 ± 0.56 g/L phoenicin on a Czapek yeast autolysate broth (CY)-based medium with Penicillium phoeniceum (CBS 249.32) as the production host, with 71.91% phoenicin purity in the resulting medium broth. Unexpectedly, metabolites corresponding to phoenicin polymers were tentatively identified in P. phoeniceum, of which the dimer (diphoenicin) was a major chromatographic peak. An MS-based metabolomics study was conducted on P. atrosanguineum using feature-based molecular networking and multivariate statistics, and it was found that few or no known secondary metabolites besides phoenicin were secreted into the growth medium. Finally, the effects of sucrose, sodium nitrate, and yeast extract (YE) in the growth medium were investigated in a 2³ full factorial design. The results indicated an optimal sucrose concentration of 92.87 g/L on CY when NaNO₃ and YE were fixed at 3 and 5 g/L, respectively. IMPORTANCE This work was undertaken to explore the production of fungal quinones in wild-type strains for use as electrolytes in redox flow batteries. As society converts energy production in a more sustainable direction, it becomes increasingly more important to store sustainable energy in smart ways. Conventional battery technologies imply the use of highly toxic, expensive, and rare metals; thus, quinone redox flow batteries have been proposed to be a desirable alternative. In this study, we explored the possibility of producing the fungal quinone phoenicin in Penicillium spp. by changing the growth parameters. The production of other secondary metabolites and known mycotoxins was also investigated in a metabolomics study. It was shown that phoenicin production was activated by optimizing the carbon concentration of the medium, resulting in high titers and purity of the single metabolite.

Discovery of Anilino-1,4-naphthoquinones as Potent EGFR Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors: Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, and Comprehensive Molecular Modeling

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has been recognized as one of the attractive targets for anticancer drug development. Herein, a set of anilino-1,4-naphthoquinone derivatives (3-18) was synthesized and investigated for their anticancer and EGFR inhibitory potentials. Among all tested compounds, three derivatives (3, 8, and 10) were selected for studying EGFR inhibitory activity (in vitro and in silico) due to their most potent cytotoxic activities against six tested cancer cell lines (i.e., HuCCA-1, HepG2, A549, MOLT-3, MDA-MB-231, and T47D; IC50 values = 1.75-27.91 μM), high selectivity index (>20), and good predicted drug-like properties. The experimental results showed that these three promising compounds are potent EGFR inhibitors with nanomolar IC50 values (3.96-18.64 nM). Interestingly, the most potent compound 3 bearing 4-methyl substituent on the phenyl ring displayed 4-fold higher potency than the known EGFR inhibitor, erlotinib. Molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and MM/GBSA-based free energy calculation revealed that van der Waals force played a major role in the accommodations of compound 3 within the ATP-binding pocket of EGFR. Additionally, the 4-CH3 moiety of the compound was noted to be a key chemical feature contributing to the highly potent EGFR inhibitory activity via its formations of alkyl interactions with A743, K745, M766, and L788 residues as well as additional interactions with M766 and T790.

Therapeutic potential of 1,2,3-triazole hybrids for leukemia treatment

Leukemia, a hematological malignancy originating from the bone marrow, is the principal cancer of childhood. In recent decades, improved remission rates and survival of patients with leukemia have been achieved due to significant breakthroughs in the treatment. However, chemoresistance and relapse are common, creating an urgent need for the search for novel pharmaceutical interventions. 1,2,3-Triazole is one of the most fascinating pharmacophores in the discovery of new drugs, and several 1,2,3-triazole derivatives have already been used in clinics or are under clinical evaluation for the treatment of cancers. In particular, 1,2,3-triazole hybrids could suppress tumor proliferation, invasion, and metastasis by inhibiting enzymes, proteins, and receptors in cancer cells, revealing their potential as putative antileukemic agents. This review covers the recent advances regarding the 1,2,3-triazole hybrids with potential antileukemic activity, focusing on the chemical structures, structure-activity relationship, and mechanisms of action, covering articles published from January 2017 to January 2022.

Synthesis, Biological Activity, and Molecular Modelling Studies of Naphthoquinone Derivatives as Promising Anticancer Candidates Targeting COX-2

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains a leading cause of cancer-associated mortalities worldwide. Therefore, it is crucial to develop a novel therapeutic option targeting localized and metastatic NSCLC. In this paper, we describe the synthesis and biological activity characterization of naphthoquinone derivatives bearing selective anticancer activity to NSCLC via a COX-2 mediated pathway. The biological evaluation of compounds 9−16 showed promising structure-dependent anticancer activity on A549 cells in 2D and 3D models. Compounds were able to significantly (p < 0.05) reduce the A549 viability after 24 h of treatment in comparison to treated control. Compounds 9 and 16 bearing phenylamino and 4-hydroxyphenylamino substituents demonstrated the most promising anticancer activity and were able to induce mitochondrial damage and ROS formation. Furthermore, most promising compounds showed significantly lower cytotoxicity to non-cancerous Vero cells. The in silico ADMET properties revealed promising drug-like properties of compounds 9 and 16. Both compounds demonstrated favorable predicted GI absorption values, while only 16 was predicted to be permeable through the blood−brain barrier. Molecular modeling studies identified that compound 16 is able to interact with COX-2 in arachidonic acid site. Further studies are needed to better understand the safety and in vivo efficacy of compounds 9 and 16.

Designing a Redox Noninnocent Phenalenyl-Based Copper(II) Complex: An Autotandem Catalyst for the Selective Oxidation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

A square-planar [CuIIL] complex 1, based on the redox-active phenalenyl unit LH2 = 9,9'-(ethane-1,2-diylbis(azanediyl))bis(1H-phenalen-1-one), is prepared and structurally characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Complex 1 crystallizes at room temperature with the P1 space group. The molecular structure of 1 reveals the presence of intriguing C-H···Cu intermolecular anagostic interactions of the order ∼2.7715 Å. Utilizing the presence of anagostic interactions and the free nonbonding molecular orbitals (NBMOs) of the closed-shell phenalenyl unit in 1, the oxidation reactions of some industrially important polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the presence of the [CuIIL] complex under very mild conditions have been reported. The direct conversion of anthracene-9-carbaldehyde to 9,10-anthraquinone in one step concludes that the catalyst shows dual activity in the chemical transformations. This also includes the first report of a "single-step" catalytic transformation of pyrene-1-carbaldehyde to the synthetically difficult pyren-4-ol, a precursor for the synthesis of several novel fluorescent probes for cell imaging.

Synthesis, characterization and antiproliferative effects of naphtho [2,3-b] thiophen-4,9-quinone on bladder tumor cells

Naphthoquinones are natural plants products or synthesized compounds. They have α, β-cyclic aromatic dienones structure with a naphthalene skeleton. Little is known about naphthoquinone and nothing about naphtho [2,3-b] thiophen-4,9-quinone effects on bladder cancer. In this study, a naphthoquinone containing a hetero sulfur atom was synthesized using classical synthetic method. The molecular structure was elucidated by NMR techniques and the antitumor effects were evaluated on bladder tumor cell lines with different TP53 status using tripan blue and MTT cytotoxic method, quantification of reactive oxygen species (ROS), wound healing, cell morphology and cell cycle progression assays. The results showed selective cytotoxicity, colonies reduction, morphological change, inhibition of the cell migration process, induction of ROS production and cell cycle arrest. Naphtho [2,3-b] thiophen-4,9-quinone presents antiproliferative activity regardless TP53 status and may be a promising agent in the treatment of bladder cancer, as they have an oxidizing effect and interfere with cell cycle.

Design, synthesis, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory activities of some novel analogues of aloe-emodin isolated from the rhizomes of Rheum emodi

In connection with our continuous efforts in the synthesis of derivatives from major compounds isolated from traditional medicinal plants, in the present study we have attempted to synthesize the furan-conjugated aloe-emodin derivatives (5a-j) using a three-component reaction. The synthesized derivatives were assessed for anticancer activity against five different cancer cell lines using the in vitro MTT assay and the results showed that most of the derivatives are potent against cancer cells comparing with the control. Compounds 5a and 5e showed excellent activity against all the cancer cells with less than 12.5 µM and arrested the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase in both CAL27 and SCC9 cells. Compound 5e induces the early apoptosis in CAL27 cells and compounds 5a and 5e induce early and late apoptosis, respectively, in SCC9 cells. Moreover, compounds 5b, 5c, 5i, and 5j showed excellent anti-inflammatory activity in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by inhibiting IL-6 production. The molecular docking studies revealed that compound 5e has strong interaction with the CLK kinase and protein kinase II through hydrogen binding Asp325 and Lys290.

1,2-Naphthoquinone-4-sulfonic acid salts in organic synthesis

Several low molecular weight naphthoquinones are very useful in organic synthesis. These compounds have given rise to thousands of other naphthoquinones that have been tested against various microorganisms and pharmacological targets, including being used in the preparation of several drugs that are on the pharmaceutical market. Among these naphthoquinones, the series of compounds prepared from 1,2-naphthoquinone-4-sulfonic acid salts (β-NQS) stands out. In addition to being used in organic synthesis, they are excellent analytical derivatization reagents to spectrophotometrically determine drugs containing primary and secondary amino groups. This review summarizes the literature involving β-NQS.

Effect of substituents and chain length in amino-1,4-naphthoquinones on glutathione-S-transferase inhibition: molecular docking and electrochemical perspectives: a structure–activity study

The highlights of structure–activity relationship in GST inhibition.

In vitro antitumor activity of dialkylamine-1,4-naphthoquinones toward human glioblastoma multiforme cells

In this study, we evaluated the in vitro antitumor activity of dialkylamino-1,4-naphthoquinones (1a–n) toward human glioblastoma multiforme cells (GBM02).

Metal complexes of a pro-vitamin K3 analog phthiocol (2-hydroxy-3-methylnaphthalene-1,4-dione): synthesis, characterization, and anticancer activity

Anticancer activity of geometrical isomers of phthiocol complexes are evaluated against MCF-7 and A549 cell lines.

Biosynthesis of Novel Naphthoquinone Derivatives in the Commonly-used Chassis Cells Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli

Naphthoquinones harboring 1,4-naphthoquinone pharmacophore are considered as privileged structures in medicinal chemistry. In pharmaceutical industry and fundamental research, polyketide naphthoquinones were widely produced by heterologous expression of polyketide synthases in microbial chassis cells, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli. Nevertheless, these cell factories still remain, to a great degree, black boxes that often exceed engineers’ expectations. In this work, the biotransformation of juglone or 1,4-naphthoquinone was conducted to generate novel derivatives and it was revealed that these two naphthoquinones can indeed be modified by the chassis cells. Seventeen derivatives, including 6 novel compounds, were isolated and their structural characterizations indicated the attachment of certain metabolites of chassis cells to naphthoquinones. Some of these biosynthesized derivatives were reported as potent antimicrobial agents with reduced cytotoxic activities. Additionally, molecular docking as simple and quick in silico approach was performed to screen the biosynthesized compounds for their potential antiviral activity. It was found that compound 11 and 17 showed the most promising binding affinities against Nsp9 of SARS-CoV-2, demonstrating their potential antiviral activities. Overall, this work provides a new approach to generate novel molecules in the commonly used chassis cells, which would expand the chemical diversity for the drug development pipeline. It also reveals a novel insight into the potential of the catalytic power of the most widely used chassis cells.

Exploration and characterization of chemical stimulators to maximize the wax ester production by Euglena gracilis

Euglena gracilis, a phototrophic protist, is a valuable biomass producer that is often employed in sustainable development efforts. E. gracilis accumulates wax esters as byproducts during anaerobic ATP production via the reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle, utilizing the storage carbohydrate β-1,3-glucan paramylon as the carbon source. Here, we report a library screening for chemical stimulators that accelerate both wax ester production and paramylon consumption. Among the 115 compounds tested, we identified nine compounds that increased wax ester production by more than 2.0-fold relative to the solvent control. In the presence of these nine compounds, the paramylon content decreased compared with the control experiment, and the residual paramylon content varied between 7% and 26% of the initial level. The most active compound, 1,4-diaminoanthracene-9,10-dione (OATQ008), stimulated wax ester production up to 2.7-fold within 24 h, and 93% of the cellular paramylon was consumed. In terms of the structural features of the chemical stimulators, we discuss the potential target sites to stimulate wax ester production in mitochondria under anaerobic conditions.

Synthetic enamine naphthoquinone derived from lawsone as cytotoxic agents assessed by in vitro and in silico evaluations

We synthesized ten enamine naphthoquinones with yields ranging from 43 to 76%. These compounds were screened for their in vitro antiproliferative activities by MTT assay against four types of human cancer cell lines: HCT116, PC3, HL60 and SNB19. The naphthoquinones bearing the picolylamine (7) and quinoline (12) moieties were the most actives (IC₅₀ < 24 μM for all the cell lines), which were comparable or better to the values obtained for the control drugs. In silico evaluations allowed us to develop a qualitative Structure-Activity Relationship which suggest that electrostatic features, particularly the C₂-C₃ internuclear repulsion and the molecular dipole moment, relate to the biological response. Furthermore, Molecular Docking simulations indicate that the synthetic compounds have the potential to act as anticancer molecules by inhibiting topoisomerase-II and thymidylate synthase.

4-(Dimethylamino)pyridine as an Efficient Catalyst for One-Pot Synthesis of 1,4-Pyranonaphthoquinone Derivatives viaMicrowave-Assisted Sequential Three Component Reaction in Green Solvent

Novel 1,4-pyranonaphthoquinone derivatives were successfully synthesized via the microwave-assisted three-component reaction of 1,4-naphthoquinone, malononitrile, and various arylaldehydes in ethanol in the presence of 4-(dimethylamino)pyridine (DMAP) as a catalyst, and subsequently evaluated in terms of their antimicrobial and antifungal activities. This synthetic procedure has the notable advantages of environmental friendliness, short reaction time, good yield, and convenient operation.

Fungal quinones: diversity, producers, and applications of quinones from Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces, Fusarium, and Arthrinium

Quinones represent an important group of highly structurally diverse, mainly polyketide-derived secondary metabolites widely distributed among filamentous fungi. Many quinones have been reported to have important biological functions such as inhibition of bacteria or repression of the immune response in insects. Other quinones, such as ubiquinones are known to be essential molecules in cellular respiration, and many quinones are known to protect their producing organisms from exposure to sunlight. Most recently, quinones have also attracted a lot of industrial interest since their electron-donating and -accepting properties make them good candidates as electrolytes in redox flow batteries, like their often highly conjugated double bond systems make them attractive as pigments. On an industrial level, quinones are mainly synthesized from raw components in coal tar. However, the possibility of producing quinones by fungal cultivation has great prospects since fungi can often be grown in industrially scaled bioreactors, producing valuable metabolites on cheap substrates. In order to give a better overview of the secondary metabolite quinones produced by and shared between various fungi, mainly belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces, Fusarium, and Arthrinium, this review categorizes quinones into families such as emodins, fumigatins, sorbicillinoids, yanuthones, and xanthomegnins, depending on structural similarities and information about the biosynthetic pathway from which they are derived, whenever applicable. The production of these quinone families is compared between the different genera, based on recently revised taxonomy. KEY POINTS: • Quinones represent an important group of secondary metabolites widely distributed in important fungal genera such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces, Fusarium, and Arthrinium. • Quinones are of industrial interest and can be used in pharmacology, as colorants and pigments, and as electrolytes in redox flow batteries. • Quinones are grouped into families and compared between genera according to the revised taxonomy.

1,4-Naphthoquinone Is a Potent Inhibitor of IRAK1 Kinases and the Production of Inflammatory Cytokines in THP-1 Differentiated Macrophages

Quinones are a class of cyclic organic compounds that are widely distributed in nature and have been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancerous activities. However, the molecular mechanisms/signaling by which these molecules exert their effect are still not fully understood. In this study, a group of quinone-derived compounds were examined for their potential inhibitory effect against human IRAK1 and IRAK4 kinases in vitro. We have identified five compounds: 1,4-naphthoquinone, emodin, shikonin, plumbagin, and menadione (vitamin K3) as active and selective inhibitors of human IRAK1 enzyme in vitro. The biochemical binding and molecular interactions between the active compounds and IRAK1's catalytic site were demonstrated in silico using structural-based docking and dynamic simulation analysis. Also, 1,4-naphthoquinone was found to effectively inhibit the growth of cancer cell lines overexpressing IRAK1. Furthermore, 1,4-naphthoquinone potently suppressed the production and secretion of key proinflammatory cytokine proteins IL-8, IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α, and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated PMA-induced human THP-1 macrophages. In conclusion, 1,4-naphthoquinone is an effective inhibitor of IRAK1 kinases and their mediated inflammatory cytokines production in LPS-stimulated PMA-induced human THP-1 macrophages.

Short-Chain Naphthoquinone Protects Against Both Acute and Spontaneous Chronic Murine Colitis by Alleviating Inflammatory Responses

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is characterised by chronic, relapsing, idiopathic, and multifactorial colon inflammation. Recent evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a critical role in the onset and recurrence of this disease. Previous reports highlighted the potential of short-chain quinones (SCQs) for the treatment of mitochondrial dysfunction due to their reversible redox characteristics. We hypothesised that a recently described potent mitoprotective SCQ (UTA77) could ameliorate UC symptoms and pathology. In a dextran sodium sulphate- (DSS-) induced acute colitis model in C57BL/6J mice, UTA77 substantially improved DSS-induced body weight loss, disease activity index (DAI), colon length, and histopathology. UTA77 administration also significantly increased the expression of tight junction (TJ) proteins occludin and zona-occludin 1 (ZO-1), which preserved intestinal barrier integrity. Similar responses were observed in the spontaneous Winnie model of chronic colitis, where UTA77 significantly improved DAI, colon length, and histopathology. Furthermore, UTA77 potently suppressed elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in colonic explants of both DSS-treated and Winnie mice. These results strongly suggest that UTA77 or its derivatives could be a promising novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of human UC.

Treasures from the forest: Evaluation of mushroom extracts as anti-cancer agents

Mushrooms provide a reliable source of bioactive compounds and have numerous nutritional values, which is one of the reasons why they are widely used for culinary purposes. They may also be a remedy for several medical conditions, including cancer diseases. Given the constantly increasing number of cancer incidents, the great anticancer potential of mushrooms has unsurprisingly become an object of interest to researchers. Therefore, this review aimed to collect and summarize all the available scientific data on the anti-cancer activity of mushroom extracts. Our research showed that mushroom extracts from 92 species, prepared using 12 different solvents, could reduce the viability of 38 various cancers. Additionally, we evaluated different experimental models: in vitro (cell model), in vivo (mice and rat model, case studies and randomized controlled trials), and in silico. Breast cancer proved to be sensitive to the highest number of mushroom extracts. The curative mechanisms of the studied mushrooms consisted in: inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, unregulated proportion of cells in cell cycle phases, induction of autophagy and phagocytosis, improved response of the immune system, and induction of apoptotic death of cells via upregulation of pro-apoptotic factors and downregulation of anti-apoptotic genes. The processes mainly involved the expression of caspases -3, -8, -9, AKT, p27, p53, BAX, and BCL2. The quoted results could lead to the classification of mushrooms as nutraceuticals used to prevent a variety of disorders or to support treatment of cancer diseases.

Potential Roles of Iridoid Glycosides and Their Underlying Mechanisms against Diverse Cancer Growth and Metastasis: Do They Have an Inhibitory Effect on Cancer Progression?

Iridoids are glycosides found in plants, having inherent roles in defending them against infection by viruses and microorganisms, and in the rapid repair of damaged areas. The emerging roles of iridoid glycosides on pharmacological properties have aroused the curiosity of many researchers, and studies undertaken indicate that iridoid glycosides exert inhibitory effects in numerous cancers. This review focuses on the roles and the potential mechanism of iridoid glycosides at each stage of cancer development such as proliferation, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), migration, invasion and angiogenesis. Overall, the reviewed literature indicates that iridoid glycosides inhibit cancer growth by inducing cell cycle arrest or by regulating apoptosis-related signaling pathways. In addition, iridoid glycosides suppress the expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), resulting in reduced cancer cell migration and invasiveness. The antiangiogenic mechanism of iridoid glycosides was found to be closely related to the transcriptional regulation of pro-angiogenic factors, i.e., vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) and cluster of differentiation 31 (CD31). Taken together, these results indicate the therapeutic potential of iridoid glycosides to alleviate or prevent rapid cancer progression and metastasis.

Anticancer Activity of Cell-Penetrating Redox Phospholipid Polymers

Redox-active molecules are promising anticancer compounds because cancer cells are vulnerable to oxidative stress. Anticancer drugs are often incorporated into synthetic polymers to improve water solubility, stability, and retention in the body. Most conventional redox-active polymers are regarded as stimuli-responsive polymers, which induce the release of anticancer drugs in response to the surrounding redox environment. Here, we prepared redox phospholipid polymers composed of 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine units and ferrocene or quinone units as anticancer redox polymers. Redox phospholipid polymers can disturb the intracellular redox state owing to their redox activity and cell membrane permeability. We observed that the redox potential of the polymers affected the reactivity with intracellular redox species and O₂, resulting in a different impact on the viability of human cancer and normal cells. Notably, the polymer with moderate reactivity with the intracellular redox species and O₂ was shown to suppress the viability of the cancer cells selectively.

Tridentate 3-Substituted Naphthoquinone Ruthenium Arene Complexes: Synthesis, Characterization, Aqueous Behavior, and Theoretical and Biological Studies

A series of nine Ru^II arene complexes bearing tridentate naphthoquinone-based N,O,O-ligands was synthesized and characterized. Aqueous stability and their hydrolysis mechanism were investigated via UV/vis photometry, HPLC-MS, and density functional theory calculations. Substituents with a positive inductive effect improved their stability at physiological pH (7.4) intensely, whereas substituents such as halogens accelerated hydrolysis and formation of dimeric pyrazolate and hydroxido bridged dimers. The observed cytotoxic profile is unusual, as complexes exhibited much higher cytotoxicity in SW480 colon cancer cells than in the broadly chemo- (incl. platinum-) sensitive CH1/PA-1 teratocarcinoma cells. This activity pattern as well as reduced or slightly enhanced ROS generation and the lack of DNA interactions indicate a mode of action different from established or previously investigated classes of metallodrugs.

Targeting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway in Lung Cancer: An Update Regarding Potential Drugs and Natural Products

Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers and has a high mortality rate. Due to its high incidence, the clinical management of the disease remains a major challenge. Several reports have documented a relationship between the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/ protein kinase B (AKT)/ mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and lung cancer. The recognition of this pathway as a notable therapeutic target in lung cancer is mainly due to its central involvement in the initiation and progression of the disease. Interest in using natural and synthetic medications to target these signaling pathways has increased in recent years, with promising results in vitro, in vivo, and in clinical trials. In this review, we focus on the current understanding of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling in tumor development. In addition to the signaling pathway, we highlighted the therapeutic potential of recently developed PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitors based on preclinical and clinical trials.

Synthesis and comparison of in vitro dual anti-infective activities of novel naphthoquinone hybrids and atovaquone

A principal factor that contributes towards the failure to eradicate leishmaniasis and tuberculosis infections is the reduced efficacy of existing chemotherapies, owing to a continuous increase in multidrug-resistant strains of the causative pathogens. This accentuates the dire need to develop new and effective drugs against both plights. A series of naphthoquinone-triazole hybrids was synthesized and evaluated in vitro against Leishmania (L.) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) strains. Their cytotoxicities were also evaluated, using the human embryonic kidney cell line (HEK-293). The hybrids were found to be non-toxic towards human cells and had demonstrated micromolar cellular antileishmanial and antimycobacterial potencies. Hybrid 13, i.e. 2-{[1-(4-methylbenzyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl]methoxy}naphthalene-1,4-dione was the most active of all. It was found with MIC₉₀ 0.5 µM potency against Mtb in a protein free medium, and with half-maxima inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) of 0.81 µM and 1.48 µM against the infective promastigote parasites of L. donavani and L. major, respectively, with good selectivity towards these pathogens (SI 22 - 65). Comparatively, the clinical naphthoquinone, atovaquone, although less cytotoxic, was found to be two-fold less antimycobacterial potent, and six- to twelve-fold less active against leishmania. Hybrid 13 may therefore stand as a potential anti-infective hit for further development in the search for new antitubercular and antileishmanial drugs. Elucidation of its exact mechanism of action and molecular targets will constitute future endeavour.

2-Methoxy-6-Acetyl-7-Methyljuglone: A Bioactive Phytochemical with Potential Pharmacological Activities

Natural products have been the focus of biomedical and pharmaceutical research to develop new therapies in recent years. 2-methoxy-6-acetyl-7-methyljuglone (2-methoxystypandrone, MAM), a natural bioactive juglone derivative, is known to have various levels of pharmacotherapeutic efficacies as an anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-HIV activity. MAM fights cancer progression by inducing apoptosis, necroptosis, and deregulating signaling pathways through H2O2-induced JNK/iNOS/NO and MAPK, ERK1/2 pathways, JNK activation, and the RIP1/RIP3 complex. In this review, we summarize the pharmacological importance of MAM in the field of drug discovery. Furthermore, this review not only emphasizes the medicinal properties of MAM but also discusses its potential efficacy in future medicinal products.

Pre-Clinical Activity of Amino-Alcohol Dimeric Naphthoquinones as Potential Therapeutics for Acute Myeloid Leukemia

BACKGROUND

The clinical outcomes of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) remain unsatisfactory, therefore the development of more efficacious and better-tolerated therapy for AML is critical. We have previously reported the anti-leukemic activity of synthetic halohydroxyl dimeric naphthoquinones (BiQ) and aziridinyl BiQ.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to improve the potency and bioavailability of BiQ compounds and investigate the anti-leukemic activity of the lead compound in vitro and in a human AML xenograft mouse model.

METHODS

We designed, synthesized, and performed structure-activity relationship of several rationally designed BiQ analogues that possess amino alcohol functional groups on the naphthoquinone core rings. The compounds were screened for anti-leukemic activity and the mechanism as well as in vivo tolerability and efficacy of our lead compound was investigated.

RESULTS

We report that a dimeric naphthoquinone (designated BaltBiQ) demonstrated potent nanomolar anti-leukemic activity in AML cell lines. BaltBiQ treatment resulted in the generation of reactive oxygen species, induction of DNA damage, and inhibition of indoleamine dioxygenase 1. Although BaltBiQ was tolerated well in vivo, it did not significantly improve survival as a single agent, but in combination with the specific Bcl-2 inhibitor, Venetoclax, tumor growth was significantly inhibited compared to untreated mice.

CONCLUSION

We synthesized a novel amino alcohol dimeric naphthoquinone, investigated its main mechanisms of action, reported its in vitro anti-AML cytotoxic activity, and showed its in vivo promising activity combined with a clinically available Bcl-2 inhibitor in a patient-derived xenograft model of AML.

Transforming iodoquinol into broad spectrum anti-tumor leads: Repurposing to modulate redox homeostasis

We managed to repurpose the old drug iodoquinol to a series of novel anticancer 7-iodo-quinoline-5,8-diones. Twelve compounds were identified as inhibitors of moderate to high potency on an inhouse MCF-7 cell line, of which 2 compounds (5 and 6) were capable of reducing NAD level in MCF-7 cells in concentrations equivalent to half of their IC₅₀s, potentially due to NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) inhibition. The same 2 compounds (5 and 6) were capable of reducing p53 expression and increasing reactive oxygen species levels, which further supports the NQO-1 inhibitory activity. Furthermore, 4 compounds (compounds 5-7 and 10) were qualified by the Development Therapeutic Program (DTP) division of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) for full panel five-dose in vitro assay to determine their GI₅₀ on the 60 cell lines. All five compounds showed broad spectrum sub-micromolar to single digit micromolar GI₅₀ against a wide range of cell lines. Cell cycle analysis and dual staining assays with annexin V-FITC/propidium iodide on MCF-7 cells confirmed the capability of the most active compound (compound 5) to induce cell cycle arrest at Pre-G1 and G2/M phases as well as apoptosis. Both cell cycle arrest and apoptosis were affirmed at the molecular level by the ability of compound 5 to enhance the expression levels of caspase-3 and Bax together with suppressing that of CDK1 and Bcl-2. Additionally, an anti-angiogenic effect was evident with compound 5 as supported by the decreased expression of VEGF. Interesting binding modes within NQO-1 active site had been identified and confirmed by both molecular docking and dymanic experiments.

Caspase-3: A primary target for natural and synthetic compounds for cancer therapy

Caspases, a group of protease enzymes (cysteine proteases), exist as inactive zymogens in the cells and execute apoptosis (programmed cell death). Caspase-3, an executioner caspase, plays an imperative role in apoptosis and becomes a primary target for cancer treatment. A number of analogues of quinazoline, quinazolinone, indoloquinazolines, quinone, naphthoquinones, pyrroloiminoquinones, styrylquinolines, tetheredtetrahydroquinoline, fluoroquinolone, thiosemicarbazones, benzotriazole, pyrimidines, chalcone, and carbazoles have been reported till date, representing caspase-3 mediated apoptosis for cancer therapy. Simultaneously, plant isolates, including lysicamine, podophyllotoxin, and majoranolide, have also been claimed for caspase-3-mediated apoptosis-induced cytotoxicity. Procaspase-activating compound-1 (PAC-1) is the first FDA approved orphan drug, and its synthetic derivative WF-208 also showed fascinating caspase-3 mediated anticancer activity. Till date, a large number of compounds have been reported and patented for their caspase-3-mediated cytotoxicity and now scientist is also focusing to introduce new compounds in market to encompass anticancer activity.

(3,3'-Methylene)bis-2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinones induce cytotoxicity against DU145 and PC3 cancer cells by inhibiting cell viability and promoting cell cycle arrest

We developed a novel method for the synthesis of bis-naphthoquinones (BNQ), which are hybrids of lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone) and 3-hydroxy-juglone (3,5-dihydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone). The anticancer activity of three synthesized compounds, named 4 (RC10), 5 (RCDFC), and 6 (RCDOH) was evaluated in vitro against two metastatic prostate cancer (PCa) cell lines, DU145 and PC3, using MTT assays. We found that 4 (RC10) and 5 (RCDFC) induced cytotoxicity against DU145 and PC3 cells. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that these two compounds promoted cell cycle arrest in G1/S and G2/M phases, increased Sub-G1 peak and induced inhibition in cell viability. We also showed that these effects are cell-type context dependent and more selective for these tested PCa cells than for HUVEC non-tumor cells. The two BNQ compounds 4 (RC10) and 5 (RCDFC) displayed promising anticancer activity against the two tested metastatic PCa cell lines, DU145 and PC3. Their effects are mainly associated with inhibition of cell viability, possibly through apoptotic cell death, besides altering the SubG1, G1/S and G2/M phases of cell cycle. 5 (RCDFC) compound was found to be more selective than 4 (RC10), when comparing their cytotoxic effects in relation to HUVEC non-tumoral cells. Future work should also test these compounds in combination with other chemotherapeutic drugs to evaluate their effects on further sensitizing drug-resistant metastatic PCa cells.

Naphthoquinones and Their Derivatives: Emerging Trends in Combating Microbial Pathogens

In the current era, an ever-emerging threat of multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens pose serious health challenges to mankind. Researchers are uninterruptedly putting their efforts to design and develop alternative, innovative strategies to tackle the antibiotic resistance displayed by varied pathogens. Among several naturally derived and chemically synthesized compounds, quinones have achieved a distinct position to defeat microbial pathogens. This review unleashes the structural diversity and promising biological activities of naphthoquinones (NQs) and their derivatives documented in the past two decades. Further, realizing their functional potentialities, researchers were encouraged to approach NQs as lead molecules. We have retrieved information that is dedicated on biological applications (antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic) of NQs. The multiple roles of NQs offer them a promising armory to combat microbial pathogens including MDR and the ESKAPE (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp.) group. In bacteria, NQs may exhibit their function in the following ways (1) plasmid curing, (2) inhibiting efflux pumps (EPs), (3) generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), (4) the inhibition of topoisomerase activity. Sparse but meticulous literature suggests the mechanistic roles of NQs. We have highlighted the possible mechanisms of NQs and how the targeted drug synthesis can be achieved via molecular docking analysis. This bioinformatics-oriented approach will explicitly lead to the development of effective and most potent drugs against targeted pathogens. The mechanistic approaches of emerging molecules like NQs might prove a milestone to defeat the battle against microbial pathogens.

Structure-Property Relationship in Selected Naphtho- and Anthra-Quinone Derivatives on the Basis of Density Functional Theory and Car–Parrinello Molecular Dynamics

Intra- and inter-molecular interactions were studied in 2,3-dichloro-5,8-dihydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone and 1,4-dihydroxy-anthraquinone to shed more light on the molecular assembly phenomena. The electronic ground and excited states features of the compounds were investigated to find structure-property dependencies. The theoretical study was carried out on the basis of Density Functional Theory (DFT), its Time-Dependent (TD-DFT) extension, and using Car–Parrinello Molecular Dynamics (CPMD). In order to show how the environmental effects modulate the physico-chemical properties, the simulations were performed in vacuo, with the solvent reaction field (Polarizable Continuum Model (PCM) and water as a solvent) and crystalline phase. The intramolecular hydrogen bonds and the bridged proton dynamics were analyzed in detail. The aromatic rings and electronic structure changes were estimated using the Harmonic Oscillator Model of Aromaticity (HOMA) and Atoms in Molecules (AIM) theory. The Symmetry-Adapted Perturbation Theory (SAPT) was employed for interaction energy decomposition in the studied dimers and trimers. It was found that the presence of a polar solvent decreased the energy barrier for the bridged proton transfer. However, it did not significantly affect the aromaticity and electronic structure. The SAPT results showed that the mutual polarization of the monomers in the dimer was weak and that the dispersion was responsible for most of the intermolecular attraction. The intermolecular hydrogen bonds seem to be much weaker than the intramolecular bridges. The TD-DFT results confirmed that the electronic excitations do not play any significant role in the intramolecular proton transfer. The CPMD results indicated that the protons are very labile in the hydrogen bridges. Short proton transfer and proton-sharing events were observed, and a correlation between them in the twin bridges was noticed, especially for the first investigated compound.

Identification of two novel thiophene analogues as inducers of autophagy mediated cell death in breast cancer cells

Natural compounds isolated from different medicinal plants remain one of the major resources of anticancer drugs due to their enormous chemical diversity. Studies suggested therapeutic potential for various tanshinones, key bioactive lipophilic compounds from the root extracts of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, against multiple cancers including breast carcinoma. We designed, synthesized and evaluated anti-cancer properties of a series of condensed and doubly condensed furophenanthraquinones of tanshinone derivatives on two breast cancer lines - MCF7 and MDA-MB-231. We identified two thiophene analogues - compounds 48 and 52 with greater anti-proliferative efficiency (~4 fold) as compared to the natural tanshinones. Mechanistically, we showed that both compounds induced autophagy mediated cell death and partial but significant restoration of cell death in the presence of autophagy inhibitor further supported this notion. Both compounds transcriptionally activated several autophagy genes responsible for autophagosome formation along with two death regulators - GADD34 and CHOP for inducing cell death. Altogether, our studies provide strong evidence to support compounds 48 and 52 as promising leads for further development as anticancer agents through modulating autophagy mechanism.

Characterization and trypanocidal activity of a β-lapachone-containing drug carrier

The treatment of Chagas disease (CD), a neglected parasitic condition caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is still based on only two drugs, nifurtimox (Nif) and benznidazole (Bz), both of which have limited efficacy in the late chronic phase and induce severe side effects. This scenario justifies the continuous search for alternative drugs, and in this context, the natural naphthoquinone β-lapachone (β-Lap) and its derivatives have demonstrated important trypanocidal activities. Unfortunately, the decrease in trypanocidal activity in the blood, high toxicity to mammalian cells and low water solubility of β-Lap limit its systemic administration and, consequently, clinical applications. For this reason, carriers as drug delivery systems can strategically maximize the therapeutic effects of this drug, overcoming the above mentioned restrictions. Accordingly, the aim of this study is to investigate the in vitro anti-T. cruzi effects of β-Lap encapsulated in2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (2HP-β-CD) and its potential toxicity to mammalian cells.

MTMS-Based Aerogel Constructs for Immobilization of Plant Hairy Roots: Effects on Proliferation of Rindera graeca Biomass and Extracellular Secretion of Naphthoquinones

Unique biosynthetic abilities revealed by plants determine in vitro cultures of hairy roots as a suitable source of pharmaceutically relevant bioactive compounds. The basic aim of the study was to examine the applicability of aerogel composed of methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMS) for immobilization of Rindera graeca hairy roots by identifying quantitative effects of biomass proliferation and naphthoquinones extracellular secretion in the aerogel-supported culture system. R. graeca hairy roots were simultaneously cultured for 28-days, as (i) nonimmobilized biomass (reference system), (ii) biomass immobilized on macroporous polyurethane foam (PUF), (iii) biomass with disintegrated MTMS aerogel, (iv) biomass immobilized on polypropylene (PP) fibers (as control), and (v) biomass immobilized on monolithic PP-reinforced MTMS aerogel. MTMS aerogel exhibited high level of biocompatibility toward R. graeca hairy roots which grew into the structure of monolithic aerogel-based constructs. Monolithic MTMS-based constructs significantly promoted the proliferation of hairy roots, resulting in 55% higher fresh mass than the reference system. The highest level of naphthoquinones productivity, i.e., 653 µg g_DW^-1, was noted for PUF-supported culture system.

NMR Structure Elucidation of Naphthoquinones from Quambalaria cyanescens

Naphthoquinones isolated from Quambalaria cyanescens (quambalarines) are natural pigments possessing significant cytotoxic and antimicrobial properties. Determining the structure of naphthoquinone compounds is important for the understanding of their biological activities and the informed synthesis of related analogues. Identifying quambalarines is challenging, because they contain a hydroxylated naphthoquinone scaffold and have limited solubility. Here, we report a detailed structural study of quambalarine derivatives, which form strong intramolecular hydrogen bonds (IMHBs) that enable the formation of several tautomers; these tautomers may complicate structural investigation due to their fast interconversion. To investigate tautomeric equilibria and identify new quambalarines, we complemented the experimental NMR spectroscopy data with density functional theory (DFT) calculations.

Alkannin-Induced Oxidative DNA Damage Synergizes With PARP Inhibition to Cause Cancer-Specific Cytotoxicity

Background: Oncogenic transformation is associated with elevated oxidative stress that promotes tumor progression but also renders cancer cells vulnerable to further oxidative insult. Agents that stimulate ROS generation or suppress antioxidant systems can drive oxidative pressure to toxic levels selectively in tumor cells, resulting in oxidative DNA damage to endanger cancer cell survival. However, DNA damage response signaling protects cancer cells by activating DNA repair and genome maintenance mechanisms. In this study, we investigated the synergistic effects of combining the pro-oxidative natural naphthoquinone alkannin with inhibition of DNA repair by PARP inhibitors. Methods and Results: The results showed that sublethal doses of alkannin induced ROS elevation and oxidative DNA damage in colorectal cancer but not normal colon epithelial cells. Blocking DNA repair with the PARP inhibitor olaparib markedly synergized with alkannin to yield synergistic cytotoxicity in colorectal cancer cells at nontoxic doses of both drugs. Synergy between alkannin and olaparib resulted from interrupted repair of alkannin-induced oxidative DNA damage and PARP-trapping, as it was significantly attenuated by NAC or by OGG1 inhibition and the non-trapping PARP inhibitor veliparib did not yield synergism. Mechanistically, the combination of alkannin and olaparib caused intense replication stress and DNA strand breaks in colorectal cancer cells, leading to apoptotic cancer cell death after G2 arrest. Consequently, coadministration of alkannin and olaparib induced significant regression of tumor xenografts in vivo, while each agent alone had no effect. Conclusion: These studies clearly show that combining alkannin and olaparib can result in synergistic cancer cell lethality at nontoxic doses of the drugs. The combination exploits a cancer vulnerability driven by the intrinsic oxidative pressure in most cancer cells and hence provides a promising strategy to develop broad-spectrum anticancer therapeutics.

Mechanism of Naphthoquinone Selectivity of Thymidylate Synthase ThyX

Naphthoquinones (NQs) are natural and synthetic compounds with a wide range of biological activities commonly attributed to their redox activity and/or chemical reactivity. However, genetic and biochemical experiments have recently demonstrated that 2-hydroxy-NQs (2-OH-NQs) act as highly specific noncovalent inhibitors of the essential bacterial thymidylate synthase ThyX in a cellular context. We used biochemical experiments and molecular dynamics simulations to elucidate the selective inhibition mechanism of NQ inhibitors of ThyX from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Free energy simulations rationalized how ThyX recognizes the natural substrate dUMP in the N3-ionized form using an arginine, Arg199, in Mtb. The results further demonstrated that 2-OH-NQ, similar to dUMP, binds to ThyX in the ionized form, and the strong and selective binding of 2-OH-NQ to ThyX is also explained by electrostatic interactions with Arg199. The stronger binding of the close analog 5F-dUMP to ThyX and its inhibitory properties compared with dUMP were explained by the stronger acidity of the uracil N3 atom. Our results, therefore, revealed that the ionization of 2-OH-NQs drives their biological activities by mimicking the interactions with the natural substrate. Our observations encourage the rational design of optimized ThyX inhibitors that ultimately may serve as antibiotics.

Structural Changes Induced by Quinones: High-Resolution Microwave Study of 1,4-Naphthoquinone

1,4-Naphthoquinone (1,4-NQ) is an important product of naphthalene oxidation, and it appears as a motif in many biologically active compounds. We have investigated the structure of 1,4-NQ using chirped-pulse Fourier transform microwave spectroscopy and quantum chemistry calculations. The rotational spectra of the parent species, and its 13 C and 18 O isotopologues were observed in natural abundance, and their spectroscopic parameters were obtained. This allowed the determination of the substitution rs , mass-weighted rm and semi-experimental reSE structures of 1,4-NQ. The obtained structural parameters show that the quinone moiety mainly changes the structure of the benzene ring where it is inserted, modifying the C-C bonds to having predominantly single or double bond character. Furthermore, the molecular electrostatic surface potential reveals that the quinone ring becomes electron deficient while the benzene ring remains a nucleophile. The most electrophilic areas are the hydrogens attached to the double bond in the quinone ring. Knowledge of the nucleophilic and electrophilic areas in 1,4-NQ will help understanding its behaviour interacting with other molecules and guide modifications to tune its properties.

Novel 2-amino-1,4-naphthoquinone hybrids: Design, synthesis, cytotoxicity evaluation and in silico studies

In the present work, a novel series of 2-amino-1,4-naphthoquinones bearing oxyphenyl moiety (5a-5m) were designed and synthesized via a two-step route and evaluated for their in vitro cytotoxic activity against three different cancer cell lines (MCF-7, HL-60 and U937) and normal human cell line (HEK-293) by MTT assay. Compounds 5b (4-nitro-benzyl-) and 5k (4-bromo-benzyl-) were identified to possess the highest cytotoxic activity against MCF-7 cancerous cells (IC₅₀ values of 27.76 and 27.86 μM, respectively). At the same time, none of the compounds exert significant toxicity against HEK-293 normal human kidney cells. Cell cycle analysis showed that the selected derivatives increased the population of MCF-7 cells in the S phase at 25 and 50 μM concentrations. Annexin V-FITC/PI staining assay also confirmed that compounds 5b and 5k induced apoptosis in the cell death pathway. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics studies were also performed to evaluate the probable interactions between the hybrids and human ATP binding domain of topo IIα protein. Our findings may provide new insight for further development of novel naphthoquinone-containing compounds.

Hegazy ME, Naqishbandi AM, Efferth T. Induction of Apoptosis, Autophagy and Ferroptosis by Thymus vulgaris and Arctium lappa Extract in Leukemia and Multiple Myeloma Cell Lines

Thymus vulgaris and Arctium lappa have been used as a folk remedy in the Iraqi Kurdistan region to deal with different health problems. The aim of the current study is to investigate the cytotoxicity of T. vulgaris and A. lappa in leukemia and multiple myeloma (MM) cell lines and determine the mode of cell death triggered by the most potent cytotoxic fractions of both plants in MM. Resazurin assay was used to evaluate cytotoxic and ferroptosis activity, apoptosis, and modulation in the cell cycle phase were investigated via Annexin V-FITC/PI dual stain and cell-cycle arrest assays. Furthermore, we used western blotting assay for the determination of autophagy cell death. n-Hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and butanol fractions of T. vulgaris and A. lappa exhibited cytotoxicity in CCRF-CEM and CEM/ADR 5000 cell lines at concentration range 0.001–100 μg/mL with potential activity revealed by chloroform and ethyl acetate fractions. NCI-H929 displayed pronounced sensitivity towards T. vulgaris (TCF) and A. lappa (ACF) chloroform fractions with IC₅₀ values of 6.49 ± 1.48 and 21.9 ± 0.69 μg/mL, respectively. TCF induced apoptosis in NCI-H929 cells with a higher ratio (71%), compared to ACF (50%) at 4 × IC₅₀. ACF demonstrated more potent autophagy activity than TCF. TCF and ACF induced cell cycle arrest and ferroptosis. Apigenin and nobiletin were identified in TCF, while nobiletin, ursolic acid, and lupeol were the main compounds identified in ACF. T. vulgaris and A. lappa could be considered as potential herbal drug candidates, which arrest cancer cell proliferation by induction of apoptosis, autophagic, and ferroptosis.