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Gard DE, Pleet MM, Bradley ER, Penn AD, Gallenstein ML, Riley LS, DellaCrosse M, Garfinkle EM, Michalak EE, Woolley JD. Evaluating the risk of psilocybin for the treatment of bipolar depression: A review of the research literature and published case studies. JOURNAL OF AFFECTIVE DISORDERS REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Kiraga MK, Mason NL, Uthaug MV, van Oorsouw KIM, Toennes SW, Ramaekers JG, Kuypers KPC. Persisting Effects of Ayahuasca on Empathy, Creative Thinking, Decentering, Personality, and Well-Being. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:721537. [PMID: 34658861 PMCID: PMC8517265 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.721537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Naturalistic and placebo-controlled studies have suggested that ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian beverage, could be helpful in the treatment of psychopathologies like depression and anxiety disorders by changing otherwise disturbed cognitive and emotional processes. To better understand its full therapeutic potential, one way is to study the effects on processes like flexible thinking, empathy, and well-being, which are normally compromised in stress-related psychopathologies. Materials and Methods: Volunteers attending ayahuasca ceremonies were asked to complete a test battery at three separate occasions: baseline, the morning after, and 1 week after the ceremony. We included the constructs of creative thinking (measured by Picture Concept Test), empathy (Multifaceted Empathy Test), satisfaction with life (Satisfaction with Life Scale), decentering (Experiences Questionnaire), and personality (Big Five Inventory) into the test battery. Additionally, the psychedelic experience was quantified with the Persisting Effects Questionnaire, the Ego Dissolution Scale, and Visual Analogue Scales. Results: In total, 43 attendees (males = 22; females = 21) completed parts of the baseline assessment, 20 (males = 12; females = 8) completed assessments in the morning after the ceremony, and 19 (males = 14; females = 5) completed assessments at the 1-week follow-up. At one and 7 days post-ceremony, cognitive empathy, satisfaction with life, and decentering increased, while divergent thinking (Fluency corrected for Originality) decreased, when compared to baseline. Implicit emotional empathy increased at 1-week follow-up, whereas ratings of the trait neuroticism decreased. Conclusion: The study suggests that a single ingestion of ayahuasca in a social setting is associated with enhancement of subjective well-being, an enhanced ability to take an objective and non-judging stance towards the self (decentering), and the ability to correctly recognize emotions in others, compared to baseline, lasting up to 1 week post-ceremony. To understand the therapeutic potential related to these effects, further research with clinical populations is needed in which these effects can be assessed, including its link with therapeutic outcomes. Together, this will increase our understanding of the effectiveness and breadth of future therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maggie K Kiraga
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Natasha L Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Malin V Uthaug
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Kim I M van Oorsouw
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Kim P C Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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van Oorsouw KI, Uthaug MV, Mason NL, Broers NJ, Ramaekers JG. Sub-acute and long-term effects of ayahuasca on mental health and well-being in healthy ceremony attendants: A replication study. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2021. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2021.00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background and aims
There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that the psychedelic plant tea, ayahuasca, holds therapeutic potential. Uthaug et al. (2018) demonstrated that a single dose of ayahuasca improved mental health sub-acutely and 4-weeks post-ceremony in healthy participants. The present study aimed to replicate and extend these findings. A first objective was to assess the sub-acute and long-term effects of ayahuasca on mental health and well-being in first-time and experienced users. A second aim was to extend the assessment of altered states of consciousness and how they relate to changes in mental health.
Method
Ayahuasca ceremony attendants (N = 73) were assessed before, the day after, and four weeks following the ceremony.
Results
We replicated the reduction in self-reported stress 4-weeks post ceremony, but, in contrast, found no reduction in depression. Also, increased satisfaction with life and awareness the day after the ceremony, and its return to baseline 4 weeks later, were replicated. New findings were: reduced ratings of anxiety and somatization, and increased levels of non-judging 4-weeks post-ceremony. We replicated the relation between altered states of consciousness (e.g., experienced ego dissolution during the ceremony) and mental health outcomes sub-acutely. The effects of ayahuasca did not differ between experienced and first-time users.
Conclusion
Partly in line with previous findings, ayahuasca produces long-term improvements in affect in non-clinical users. Furthermore, sub-acute mental health ratings are related to the intensity of the psychedelic experience. Although findings replicate and highlight the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca, this needs to be confirmed in placebo-controlled studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim I. van Oorsouw
- 1 Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | - Malin V. Uthaug
- 1 Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
- 2 Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Natasha L. Mason
- 3 Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | - Nick J. Broers
- 4 Department of Methodology and Statistics, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- 3 Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
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Basedow LA, Riemer TG, Reiche S, Kreutz R, Majić T. Neuropsychological Functioning in Users of Serotonergic Psychedelics - A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:739966. [PMID: 34603053 PMCID: PMC8481924 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.739966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Serotonergic psychedelics (SPs) like LSD, psilocybin, DMT, and mescaline are a heterogeneous group of substances that share agonism at 5-HT2a receptors. Besides the ability of these substances to facilitate profoundly altered states of consciousness, persisting psychological effects have been reported after single administrations, which outlast the acute psychedelic effects. In this review and meta-analysis, we investigated if repeated SP use associates with a characteristic neuropsychological profile indicating persisting effects on neuropsychological function. Methods: We conducted a systematic review of studies investigating the neuropsychological performance in SP users, searching studies in Medline, Web of Science, embase, ClinicalTrials.gov, and EudraCT. Studies were included if they reported at least one neuropsychological measurement in users of SPs. Studies comparing SP users and non-users that reported mean scores and standard deviations were included in an exploratory meta-analysis. Results: 13 studies (N = 539) published between 1969 and 2020 were included in this systematic review. Overall, we found that only three SPs were specifically investigated: ayahuasca (6 studies, n = 343), LSD (5 studies, n = 135), and peyote (1 study, n = 61). However, heterogeneity of the methodological quality was high across studies, with matching problems representing the most important limitation. Across all SPs, no uniform pattern of neuropsychological impairment was identified. Rather, the individual SPs seemed to be associated with distinct neuropsychological profiles. For instance, one study (n = 42) found LSD users to perform worse in trials A and B of the Trail-Making task, whereas meta-analytic assessment (5 studies, n = 352) of eleven individual neuropsychological measures indicated a better performance of ayahuasca users in the Stroop incongruent task (p = 0.03) and no differences in the others (all p > 0.05). Conclusion: The majority of the included studies were not completely successful in controlling for confounders such as differences in non-psychedelic substance use between SP-users and non-users. Our analysis suggests that LSD, ayahuasca and peyote may have different neuropsychological consequences associated with their use. While LSD users showed reduced executive functioning and peyote users showed no differences across domains, there is some evidence that ayahuasca use is associated with increased executive functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas A. Basedow
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Thomas G. Riemer
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Simon Reiche
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Reinhold Kreutz
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tomislav Majić
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Lukačovič M, Masaryk R. Use of hallucinogens in Slovakia: Does it differ from global trends? THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2021; 98:103385. [PMID: 34364200 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND People have been using hallucinogens for thousands of years and interest in these substances has grown in recent years. The aim of this study was to determine the basic socio-demographic data, preferences, experiences, and attitudes associated with hallucinogen use in Slovakia. METHODS A cross-sectional research design was used whereby an online survey included participants who had had at least one experience with hallucinogens (N = 422, age M = 27.78; SD = 7.84; SE = 0.38; 35.1% females). Due to the illegal, intimate, and minority nature of the phenomena studied, data was collected using the snowball sampling method via an online social network in groups that declared a drug focus. RESULTS Users of hallucinogens were mostly employed (61,8%) and in some form of partnership (57,6%); they usually have a high school diploma (46,68%) or a university degree (45,41%). They most often use psilocybin mushrooms, while the age of initial use (M = 19,61; SD = 5,39) as well as lifetime frequency use (M = 18,26; SD = 24,21; Median = 10) are similar to global trends. Free use without rituals was preferred to ceremonial use. In general, our sample of hallucinogen users considered the integration of psychedelic experiences to be simple rather than challenging. Concurrently, they tended to see hallucinogens as useful to humans, but realised that they are not without risk and can be somewhat dangerous. Males used hallucinogens for the first time at a younger age (p < .05, r = -.12), used more hallucinogens during their lifetime (p <.001, r = -.23), and demanded decriminalisation and legalisation more (p <.01, r = -.13) than females. CONCLUSION Slovak users of hallucinogens in our sample showed similar usage trends as users abroad. Even though both males and females perceive and evaluate hallucinogens very similarly, females are significantly more careful in using these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Lukačovič
- Institute of Applied Psychology, Faculty of social and economic sciences, Comenius University, Mlynské luhy 4, 821 05 Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | - Radomír Masaryk
- Institute of Applied Psychology, Faculty of social and economic sciences, Comenius University, Mlynské luhy 4, 821 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
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56
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Dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC. Ayahuasca, an ancient substance with traditional and contemporary use in neuropsychiatry and neuroscience. Epilepsy Behav 2021; 121:106300. [PMID: 31182391 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.04.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a botanical hallucinogenic preparation traditionally used for ritual and therapeutic purposes by native populations of the Northwestern Amazon. In the last decades, ayahuasca use has spread to Europe, the United States, Asia, and Africa, and interest in the possible therapeutic uses of ayahuasca for treating anxiety and mood disorder and substance-use disorders has increased both among the general public and the scientific community. Indeed, preclinical, observational, and preliminary clinical studies have corroborated some of these findings. In the present article, we present an overview of these studies and highlight the current uses of ayahuasca in neuroscience, such as a tool in the investigation of the neural basis of introspection and other complex cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Guimarães Dos Santos
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil; National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.
| | - Jaime Eduardo Cecilio Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil; National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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57
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Perkins D, Opaleye ES, Simonova H, Bouso JC, Tófoli LF, GalvÃo-Coelho NL, Schubert V, Sarris J. Associations between ayahuasca consumption in naturalistic settings and current alcohol and drug use: Results of a large international cross-sectional survey. Drug Alcohol Rev 2021; 41:265-274. [PMID: 34308566 DOI: 10.1111/dar.13348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Emerging evidence suggests that psychedelic compounds, including the Amazonian botanical decoction ayahuasca, may provide clinical benefit in the treatment of alcohol or other drug use disorders. This study investigates associations between ayahuasca consumption in naturalistic settings and current alcohol and other drug use. METHODS Online cross-sectional study of people who have consumed ayahuasca in religious, traditional and non-traditional settings in over 40 countries. A total of 8629 participants (53% male, average age 40 years) were included in the analysis. Logistic regressions were used to explore associations between ayahuasca drinking variables and the current use of alcohol and other drugs, as well as the influence of confounding factors, such as church or community membership. RESULTS The number of times ayahuasca had been consumed was strongly associated with increased odds of never or rarely drinking alcohol, never or rarely engaging in 'risky drinking' and having not consumed a range of drugs in the past month, with these effects greater for those with a prior substance use disorder compared to those without. The strength of ayahuasca drinkers subjective spiritual experience, number of personal self-insights obtained and drinking ayahuasca with an ayahuasca church were also associated with lower substance use in some models. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Consumption of ayahuasca in naturalistic settings is associated with lower self-reported current consumption of alcohol and other drugs for those with and without prior substance use disorders, with such effects present after adjusting for religious or social group effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Perkins
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Emerita S Opaleye
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - José C Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanic Education, Research and Service, Barcelona, Spain.,Medical Anthropology Research Center, University of Rovira I Virgili, Tarragona, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeião Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luís F Tófoli
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Nicole L GalvÃo-Coelho
- Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Violeta Schubert
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jerome Sarris
- NICM Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia.,Professorial Unit, The Melbourne Clinic, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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58
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O'Shaughnessy DM, Berlowitz I. Amazonian Medicine and the Psychedelic Revival: Considering the "Dieta". Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:639124. [PMID: 34149407 PMCID: PMC8210416 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.639124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: In Peruvian Amazonian medicine, plant diets (dietas) are a fundamental and highly flexible technique with a variety of uses: from treating and preventing illness, to increasing strength and resilience, to rites of passage, to learning even medicine itself. Many of the plants used in diets are psychoactive; for example, one now well-known plant that can be dieted is Banisteriopsis caapi—the vine also used in the psychoactive brew ayahuasca. The use of ayahuasca has attracted increasing clinical attention towards Amazonian medicine in recent decades, and much work has focused on the potent DMT-containing ayahuasca brew, thus placing the tradition within the purview of psychedelic science. Aims: In comparison to ayahuasca, the properties of diets have been studied less often. Our work draws on data from Amazonian healers to examine plant diets as medical practices, while also considering their fit within the “set and setting framework” that is central to psychedelic research. We argue that the framework is not sufficiently broad for understanding diets, and thus the investigation aimed to expand the conceptual field of Amazonian medicine, particularly in the context of a renewed psychedelic science and its theoretical concepts. Design: We used qualitative data from interviews with Amazonian healers, applying a thematic analysis and contrasting findings with the available literature. Setting: Interviews were conducted in various locations in the San Martín province of Peru between 2015 and 2017. Participants: We selected and interviewed eight healers who had been extensively trained in traditional Amazonian medicine. Measures: Semi-structured interviews were used to gain insight into the healers’ personal experiences with plant diets. Conclusions: Diets are complex but understudied medical practices that should not be explained by reference to pharmacology or psychology only. Intercultural and interdisciplinary research programmes are called for in order to not only better understand plant diets, but traditional Amazonian medicine on the whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M O'Shaughnessy
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Ilana Berlowitz
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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59
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Magaraggia I, Kuiperes Z, Schreiber R. Improving cognitive functioning in major depressive disorder with psychedelics: A dimensional approach. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2021; 183:107467. [PMID: 34048913 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The high symptomatic and biological heterogeneity of major depressive disorder (MDD) makes it very difficult to find broadly efficacious treatments that work against all symptoms. Concentrating on single core symptoms that are biologically well understood might consist of a more viable approach. The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework is a trans-diagnostic dimensional approach that focuses on symptoms and their underlying neurobiology. Evidence is accumulating that psychedelics may possess antidepressant activity, and this can potentially be explained through a multi-level (psychobiological, circuitry, (sub)cellular and molecular) analysis of the cognitive systems RDoC domain. Cognitive deficits, such as negative emotional processing and negativity bias, often lead to depressive rumination. Psychedelics can increase long-term cognitive flexibility, leading to normalization of negativity bias and reduction in rumination. We propose a theoretical model that explains how psychedelics can reduce the negativity bias in depressed patients. At the psychobiological level, we hypothesize that the negativity bias in MDD is due to impaired pattern separation and that psychedelics such as psilocybin help in depression because they enhance pattern separation and hence reduce negativity bias. Pattern separation is a mnemonic process that relies on adult hippocampal neurogenesis, where similar inputs are made more distinct, which is essential for optimal encoding of contextual information. Impairment in this process may underlie the negative cognitive bias in MDD by, for example, increased pattern separation of cues with a negative valence that can lead to excessive deliberation on aversive outcomes. On the (sub) cellular level, psychedelics stimulate hippocampal neurogenesis as well as synaptogenesis, spinogenesis and dendritogenesis in the prefrontal cortex. Together, these effects help restoring resilience to chronic stress and lead to modulation of the major connectivity hubs of the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala. Based on these observations, we propose a new translational framework to guide the development of a novel generation of therapeutics to treat the cognitive symptoms in MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Magaraggia
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Zilla Kuiperes
- Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences (FHML), the Netherlands
| | - Rudy Schreiber
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Section Neuropsychology & Psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
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Rush B, Marcus O, García S, Loizaga-Velder A, Loewinger G, Spitalier A, Mendive F. Protocol for Outcome Evaluation of Ayahuasca-Assisted Addiction Treatment: The Case of Takiwasi Center. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:659644. [PMID: 34093190 PMCID: PMC8170098 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.659644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study describes the protocol for the Ayahuasca Treatment Outcome Project (ATOP) with a special focus on the evaluation of addiction treatment services provided through Takiwasi Center, the first ATOP study site. The goal of the project is to assess treatment outcomes and understand the therapeutic mechanisms of an Ayahuasca-assisted, integrative treatment model for addiction rehabilitation in the Peruvian Amazon. The proposed intervention protocol highlights the significance of treatment setting in the design, delivery, and efficacy of an addiction rehabilitation program that involves the potent psychedelic tea known as Ayahuasca. After describing the context of the study, we put forth details about our mixed-methods approach to data collection and analysis, with which we seek to gain an understanding of why, how, and for whom this specific ayahuasca-assisted treatment program is effective across a range of outcomes. The ATOP protocol employs qualitative research methods as a means to determine which aspects of the setting are meaningful to clients and practitioners, and how this may correlate with outcome measures. This paper delineates the core principles, methods, and measures of the overall ATOP umbrella, then discusses the role of ATOP in the context of the literature on long-term residential programs. To conclude, we discuss the strengths and limitations of the protocol and the intended future of the project.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Rush
- Institute for Mental Health Policy Research, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Olivia Marcus
- Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
| | - Sara García
- Takiwasi Center for Rehabilitation of Drug Addicts and Research on Traditional Medicine, Tarapoto, Peru
| | - Anja Loizaga-Velder
- Nierika Institute, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Gabriel Loewinger
- School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States
| | | | - Fernando Mendive
- Takiwasi Center for Rehabilitation of Drug Addicts and Research on Traditional Medicine, Tarapoto, Peru
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61
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Gonzalez D, Cantillo J, Perez I, Carvalho M, Aronovich A, Farre M, Feilding A, Obiols JE, Bouso JC. The Shipibo Ceremonial Use of Ayahuasca to Promote Well-Being: An Observational Study. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:623923. [PMID: 34025402 PMCID: PMC8131827 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.623923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Promoting well-being is one of the main goals to improve health in the world. We examined the well-being and quality of life over the course of one year in a sample that participated in an Indigenous Shipibo healing program where traditional healers work in a series of ayahuasca ceremonies. We also explored the role of decentering as a mediator of psychological well-being. Participants who attended the program responded to an online survey that included a Psychological Well-Being Scale; Oxford Happiness Questionnaire; The World Health Organization Quality of Life Spirituality, Religiousness, and Personal Beliefs scale; the WHO Quality of Life-BREF scale; and Decentering scale. Baseline (T0) and postassessment (T1) were completed by 200 individuals. Of these, 101 completed the follow-up assessment at three months (T2), 91 at 6 months (T3), and 94 at 12 months follow-up (T4) after leaving the center. ANOVA test was performed in a representative subsample to control the passing of time two months before attending the program (T-1). Pearson’s test was performed to examine the relationship between psychological well-being and decentering during the period of T0 and T1. A significant increase was observed in all the scales at all time points (p ≤ 0.01). The subgroup analysis performed in a representative subsample allowed us to infer that the significant differences in outcomes are due to the effect of their stay at the center and not the passing of time. We found a relationship between decentering and the improvement of psychological well-being (r = 0.57; p < 0.01). Our results suggest that the Indigenous Shipibo healing work with ayahuasca has value to improve long-term well-being and quality of life for Westerners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora Gonzalez
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain.,PHI Association, Barcelona, Spain.,Fundación BeckleyMed, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Cantillo
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Irene Perez
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Adam Aronovich
- Medical Anthropology Research Center, Department of Anthropology, Philosophy and Social Work, University of Rovira I Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Magi Farre
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias I Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias I Pujol (IGTP), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicoloy, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Amanda Feilding
- Fundación BeckleyMed, Barcelona, Spain.,The Beckley Foundation, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jordi E Obiols
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain.,Medical Anthropology Research Center, Department of Anthropology, Philosophy and Social Work, University of Rovira I Virgili, Tarragona, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Brazil
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Perkins D, Schubert V, Simonová H, Tófoli LF, Bouso JC, Horák M, Galvão-Coelho NL, Sarris J. Influence of Context and Setting on the Mental Health and Wellbeing Outcomes of Ayahuasca Drinkers: Results of a Large International Survey. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:623979. [PMID: 33967757 PMCID: PMC8097729 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.623979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a traditional plant decoction containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and various β-carbolines including harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine, which has been used ceremonially by Amazonian Indigenous groups for healing and spiritual purposes. Use of the brew has now spread far beyond its original context of consumption to North America, Europe, and Australia in neo-shamanic settings as well as Christian syncretic churches. While these groups have established their own rituals and protocols to guide use, it remains unknown the extent to which the use of traditional or non-traditional practices may affect drinkers' acute experiences, and longer term wellbeing and mental health outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to provide the first detailed assessment of associations between ceremony/ritual characteristics, additional support practices, motivations for drinking, and mental health and wellbeing outcomes. The paper uses data from a large cross-sectional study of ayahuasca drinkers in more than 40 countries who had used ayahuasca in various contexts (n = 6,877). It captured detailed information about participant demographics, patterns and history of ayahuasca drinking, the setting of consumption, and ritualistic practices employed. Current mental health status was captured via the Kessler 10 psychological distress scale and the mental health component score of the SF-12 Health Questionnaire, while reported change in prior clinically diagnosed anxiety or depression (n = 1276) was evaluated using a (PGIC) Patient Global Impression of Change tool. Various intermediate outcomes were also assessed including perceived change in psychological wellbeing, number of personal self-insights attained, and subjective spiritual experience measured via the spirituality dimension of the Persisting Effects Questionnaire (PEQ) and Short Index of Mystical Orientation. Regression models identified a range of significant associations between set and setting variables, and intermediate and final mental health and wellbeing outcomes. A generalized structural equation model (GSEM) was then used to verify relationships and associations between endogenous, mediating and final outcome variables concurrently. The present study sheds new light on the influence of ceremonial practices, additional supports and motivations on the therapeutic effects of ayahuasca for mental health and wellbeing, and ways in which such factors can be optimized in naturalistic settings and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Perkins
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Violeta Schubert
- School of Social and Political Science, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Luís Fernando Tófoli
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (ICARO), School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanic Education, Research and Service (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain
- Medical Anthropology Research Center, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Miroslav Horák
- Faculty of Regional Development and International Studies, Department of Languages and Cultural Studies, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Nicole Leite Galvão-Coelho
- Postgraduate Program in Psychobiology and Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Jerome Sarris
- NICM Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Westmead, NSW, Australia
- Professorial Unit, The Melbourne Clinic, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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63
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Kettner H, Rosas FE, Timmermann C, Kärtner L, Carhart-Harris RL, Roseman L. Psychedelic Communitas: Intersubjective Experience During Psychedelic Group Sessions Predicts Enduring Changes in Psychological Wellbeing and Social Connectedness. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:623985. [PMID: 33995022 PMCID: PMC8114773 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.623985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Recent years have seen a resurgence of research on the potential of psychedelic substances to treat addictive and mood disorders. Historically and contemporarily, psychedelic studies have emphasized the importance of contextual elements ('set and setting') in modulating acute drug effects, and ultimately, influencing long-term outcomes. Nevertheless, current small-scale clinical and laboratory studies have tended to bypass a ubiquitous contextual feature of naturalistic psychedelic use: its social dimension. This study introduces and psychometrically validates an adapted Communitas Scale, assessing acute relational experiences of perceived togetherness and shared humanity, in order to investigate psychosocial mechanisms pertinent to psychedelic ceremonies and retreats. Methods: In this observational, web-based survey study, participants (N = 886) were measured across five successive time-points: 2 weeks before, hours before, and the day after a psychedelic ceremony; as well as the day after, and 4 weeks after leaving the ceremony location. Demographics, psychological traits and state variables were assessed pre-ceremony, in addition to changes in psychological wellbeing and social connectedness from before to after the retreat, as primary outcomes. Using correlational and multiple regression (path) analyses, predictive relationships between psychosocial 'set and setting' variables, communitas, and long-term outcomes were explored. Results: The adapted Communitas Scale demonstrated substantial internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.92) and construct validity in comparison with validated measures of intra-subjective (visual, mystical, challenging experiences questionnaires) and inter-subjective (perceived emotional synchrony, identity fusion) experiences. Furthermore, communitas during ceremony was significantly correlated with increases in psychological wellbeing (r = 0.22), social connectedness (r = 0.25), and other salient mental health outcomes. Path analyses revealed that the effect of ceremony-communitas on long-term outcomes was fully mediated by communitas experienced in reference to the retreat overall, and that the extent of personal sharing or 'self-disclosure' contributed to this process. A positive relationship between participants and facilitators, and the perceived impact of emotional support, facilitated the emergence of communitas. Conclusion: Highlighting the importance of intersubjective experience, rapport, and emotional support for long-term outcomes of psychedelic use, this first quantitative examination of psychosocial factors in guided psychedelic settings is a significant step toward evidence-based benefit-maximization guidelines for collective psychedelic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Kettner
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - F. E. Rosas
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Data Science Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Complexity Science, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - C. Timmermann
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - L. Kärtner
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - R. L. Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - L. Roseman
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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64
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Examining changes in personality following shamanic ceremonial use of ayahuasca. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6653. [PMID: 33758236 PMCID: PMC7987971 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84746-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study examines the association between the ceremonial use of ayahuasca-a decoction combining the Banistereopsis caapi vine and N,N-Dimethyltryptamine-containing plants-and changes in personality traits as conceived by the Five-Factor model (FFM). We also examine the degree to which demographic characteristics, baseline personality, and acute post-ayahuasca experiences affect personality change. Participants recruited from three ayahuasca healing and spiritual centers in South and Central America (N = 256) completed self-report measures of personality at three timepoints (Baseline, Post, 3-month Follow-up). Informant-report measures of the FFM were also obtained (N = 110). Linear mixed models were used to examine changes in personality and the moderation of those changes by covariates. The most pronounced change was a reduction in Neuroticism dzself-reportT1-T2 = - 1.00; dzself-reportT1-T3 = - .85; dzinformant-reportT1-T3 = - .62), reflected in self- and informant-report data. Moderation of personality change by baseline personality, acute experiences, and purgative experiences was also observed.
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65
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Guimarães IC, Tófoli LF, Sussulini A. Determination of the Elemental Composition of Ayahuasca and Assessments Concerning Consumer Safety. Biol Trace Elem Res 2021; 199:1179-1184. [PMID: 32504397 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-020-02226-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The consumption of ayahuasca, a brew prepared from the decoction of two Amazon plants, has increased worldwide in the last decades. This fact raised questions about the safety in its oral administration. In this sense, information concerning the chemical composition of ayahuasca is essential to find a comprehensive reply. Therefore, the aim of this study consisted of determining the elemental composition of ready-to-consume ayahuasca samples produced in Brazil, in order to evaluate the safety in the oral administration of this beverage, considering recommended macroelement and microelement daily intake values and the permitted limits of potentially toxic heavy metals. Real ayahuasca samples, obtained from Brazilian religious groups, underwent microwave radiation-assisted acid decomposition, and Li, Al, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb concentrations were determined by ICP-MS, while Ca, Mg, K, and P concentrations were determined by ICP OES. Method accuracy was assessed by analyte addition and recovery assays. Recoveries ranged from 80 and 118%, indicating satisfactory accuracy. Limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) values were lower than 1 mg L-1 for the macroelements determined by ICP OES and lower than 3.5 μg L-1 for the microelements determined by ICP-MS. The concentrations of the elements determined in the samples were lower than the recommended or tolerable limits; hence, it is possible to affirm that ayahuasca presents safe administration levels regarding total elemental content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivanilce Cristina Guimarães
- Laboratory of Bioanalytics and Integrated Omics (LaBIOmics), Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil
| | - Luís Fernando Tófoli
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (ICARO), School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Sussulini
- Laboratory of Bioanalytics and Integrated Omics (LaBIOmics), Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil.
- National Institute of Science and Technology for Bioanalytics - INCTBio, Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, Campinas, SP, 13083-970, Brazil.
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66
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Oña G, Bouso JC. Therapeutic Potential of Natural Psychoactive Drugs for Central Nervous System Disorders: A Perspective from Polypharmacology. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:53-68. [PMID: 31830883 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666191212103330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In the drug development, the formation of highly selective ligands has been unsuccessful in the treatment of central nervous system disorders. Multi-target ligands, from the polypharmacology paradigm, are being proposed as treatments for these complex disorders, since they offer enhanced efficacy and a strong safety profile. Natural products are the best examples of multi-target compounds, so they are of high interest within this paradigm. Additionally, recent research on psychoactive drugs of natural origin, such as ayahuasca and cannabis, has demonstrated the promising therapeutic potential for the treatment of some psychiatric and neurological disorders. In this text, we describe how research on psychoactive drugs can be effectively combined with the polypharmacology paradigm, providing ayahuasca and cannabis research as examples. The advantages and disadvantages are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genís Oña
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Service (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Service (ICEERS), Barcelona, Spain
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67
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Révész D, Ona G, Rossi GN, Rocha JM, Dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC, Alcázar-Córcoles MÁ, Bouso JC. Cross-Sectional Associations Between Lifetime Use of Psychedelic Drugs and Psychometric Measures During the COVID-19 Confinement: A Transcultural Study. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:687546. [PMID: 34220590 PMCID: PMC8242180 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.687546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: One of the main public health strategies adopted at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic consisted of implementing strict lockdowns to stop the transmission of the virus. Despite being an effective measure, the confinement and the associated social isolation create a stressful, potentially lengthy situations that has been proven to have several psychological consequences. Given the potential benefits that certain psychedelic drugs have shown for the treatment of psychological disorders, this study aimed to assess the impact of lifetime psychedelic drug use on mental health in relation to the first strict lockdown adopted by various countries (April-July 2020). Methods: Subjects completed an online survey that inquired about sociodemographic factors, activities, and lifestyle factors during confinement, as well as health and mental health related factors. Subjects were asked about their lifetime use of psychedelic drugs (MDMA, ayahuasca, psilocybin-containing mushrooms, LSD, peyote, San Pedro, Bufo alvarius or 5-MeO-DMT, and others), being classified as regular users (more than once per 6 months), occasional users, or non-users. The survey included psychometric tests used to assess psychological distress, peritraumatic stress, social support, psychopathological symptoms, and personality. Linear regressions were performed with psychedelic drug users as the independent variable and psychometric factors as the outcomes, while correcting for age, gender, language, religion, spirituality, and use of non-psychedelic drugs. Results: The study included 2,974 English, Portuguese, and Spanish speakers (497 regular users of psychedelic drugs, 606 occasional users, and 1,968 non-users). On average, respondents were 36 years old and 70% were female. Psychedelic drug users, especially regular ones, reported less psychological distress, less peritraumatic stress, and more social support. Regarding personality measures, psychedelic drug users scored higher on the novelty-seeking and self-transcendence scales, and lower on cooperativeness. Conclusion: Our findings showed that regular users of psychedelic drugs had less psychological stress and some personality differences when compared to occasional users and non-users. This suggests that either the use of psychedelics might be a protective factor itself or people with certain previous traits are more prone to frequently using psychedelic drugs. Future prospective longitudinal research should investigate the underlying processes observed in this study to develop consistent hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dóra Révész
- Center of Research on Psychological and Somatic Disorders (CoRPS), Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands
| | - Genís Ona
- ICEERS-International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service, Barcelona, Spain.,Medical Anthropology Research Center (MARC), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Giordano N Rossi
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Juliana M Rocha
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Rafael G Dos Santos
- ICEERS-International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jaime E C Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Miguel Á Alcázar-Córcoles
- Department of Biological and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Autonomous University of Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - José C Bouso
- ICEERS-International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Service, Barcelona, Spain.,Medical Anthropology Research Center (MARC), Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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68
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O'Shaughnessy DM, Berlowitz I, Rodd R, Sarnyai Z, Quirk F. Within-treatment changes in a novel addiction treatment program using traditional Amazonian medicine. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2021; 11:2045125320986634. [PMID: 33717431 PMCID: PMC7841703 DOI: 10.1177/2045125320986634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The therapeutic use of psychedelics is regaining scientific momentum, but similarly psychoactive ethnobotanical substances have a long history of medical (and other) uses in indigenous contexts. Here we aimed to evaluate patient outcomes in a residential addiction treatment center that employs a novel combination of Western and traditional Amazonian methods. METHODS The study was observational, with repeated measures applied throughout treatment. All tests were administered in the center, which is located in Tarapoto, Peru. Data were collected between 2014 and 2015, and the study sample consisted of 36 male inpatients who were motivated to seek treatment and who entered into treatment voluntarily. Around 58% of the sample was from South America, 28% from Europe, and the remaining 14% from North America. We primarily employed repeated measures on a psychological test battery administered throughout treatment, measuring perceived stress, craving frequency, mental illness symptoms, spiritual well-being, and physical and emotional health. Addiction severity was measured on intake, and neuropsychological performance was assessed in a subsample from intake to at least 2 months into treatment. RESULTS Statistically significant and clinically positive changes were found across all repeated measures. These changes appeared early in the treatment and were maintained over time. Significant improvements were also found for neuropsychological functioning. CONCLUSION These results provide evidence for treatment safety in a highly novel addiction treatment setting, while also suggesting positive therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M O'Shaughnessy
- College of Medicine and Dentistry, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
| | - Ilana Berlowitz
- Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Robin Rodd
- Division of Social Sciences, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zoltán Sarnyai
- Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroscience, Centre for Molecular Discovery, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Frances Quirk
- New England Institute of Healthcare Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
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69
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Kočárová R, Horáček J, Carhart-Harris R. Does Psychedelic Therapy Have a Transdiagnostic Action and Prophylactic Potential? Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:661233. [PMID: 34349678 PMCID: PMC8327748 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.661233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Addressing global mental health is a major 21st-century challenge. Current treatments have recognized limitations; in this context, new ones that are prophylactic and effective across diagnostic boundaries would represent a major advance. The view that there exists a core of transdiagnostic overlap between psychiatric disorders has re-emerged in recent years, and evidence that psychedelic therapy holds promise for a range of psychiatric disorders supports the position that it may be transdiagnostically effective. Here, we propose that psychedelic therapy's core, transdiagnostically relevant action lies in its ability to increase neuronal and mental plasticity, thus enhancing the potential for change, which we consider to be a key to its therapeutic benefits. Moreover, we suggest that enhanced plasticity via psychedelics, combined with a psychotherapeutic approach, can aid healthy adaptability and resilience, which are protective factors for long-term well-being. We present candidate neurological and psychological markers of this plasticity and link them with a predictive processing model of the action of psychedelics. We propose that a model of psychedelic-induced plasticity combined with an adequate therapeutic context has prophylactic and transdiagnostic potential, implying that it could have a broad, positive impact on public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Kočárová
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.,Beyond Psychedelics, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jiří Horáček
- Department of Applied Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Robin Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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70
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Mendes Rocha J, Rossi GN, Osório FL, Bouso Saiz JC, Silveira GDO, Yonamine M, Crevelin EJ, Queiroz ME, Cecílio Hallak JE, Dos Santos RG. Effects of Ayahuasca on Personality: Results of Two Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trials in Healthy Volunteers. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:688439. [PMID: 34421675 PMCID: PMC8377499 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.688439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Previous studies with the serotonergic hallucinogens LSD and psilocybin showed that these drugs induced changes in personality traits, such as increases in Openness. However, results are inconsistent, and the effects of ayahuasca on personality were never investigated in a controlled trial. Objectives: To assess the effects of ayahuasca on personality in two randomized, placebo-controlled trials in healthy volunteers. Methods: Data from two parallel-group, randomized, placebo-controlled trials in healthy volunteers were included. In the first trial, 15 volunteers ingested ayahuasca or placebo, while in the second trial 15 volunteers received placebo+ayahuasca or cannabidiol (CBD)+ayahuasca. Personality was assessed with the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) at baseline and 21 days post-treatment. Results: There were significant differences between groups in baseline Openness scores, but not on day 21. A significant increase in Openness scores was observed in the placebo + ayahuasca group in study 2. No other within-group differences were observed for any other domain. Conclusions: Ayahuasca produced inconsistent effects on personality since it induced significant increase in Openness 21 days post-drug intake only in one of the trials. The absence of significant differences in the other ayahuasca groups could be due to small sample sizes and baseline differences among groups. The effects of ayahuasca and other serotonergic hallucinogens on personality should be further investigated in clinical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Mendes Rocha
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Giordano Novak Rossi
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Flávia L Osório
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - José Carlos Bouso Saiz
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services, ICEERS Foundation, Barcelona, Spain.,Medical Anthopology Research Center, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | | | - Mauricio Yonamine
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Maria Eugênia Queiroz
- National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,Departamento of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Jaime E Cecílio Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Rafael Guimarães Dos Santos
- Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,National Institute of Science and Technology-Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil.,International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services, ICEERS Foundation, Barcelona, Spain
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71
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Inserra A, De Gregorio D, Gobbi G. Psychedelics in Psychiatry: Neuroplastic, Immunomodulatory, and Neurotransmitter Mechanisms. Pharmacol Rev 2020; 73:202-277. [PMID: 33328244 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.120.000056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence suggests safety and efficacy of psychedelic compounds as potential novel therapeutics in psychiatry. Ketamine has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration in a new class of antidepressants, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is undergoing phase III clinical trials for post-traumatic stress disorder. Psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are being investigated in several phase II and phase I clinical trials. Hence, the concept of psychedelics as therapeutics may be incorporated into modern society. Here, we discuss the main known neurobiological therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics, which are thought to be mediated by the effects of these compounds on the serotonergic (via 5-HT2A and 5-HT1A receptors) and glutamatergic [via N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors] systems. We focus on 1) neuroplasticity mediated by the modulation of mammalian target of rapamycin-, brain-derived neurotrophic factor-, and early growth response-related pathways; 2) immunomodulation via effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, nuclear factor ĸB, and cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin 1, 6, and 10 production and release; and 3) modulation of serotonergic, dopaminergic, glutamatergic, GABAergic, and norepinephrinergic receptors, transporters, and turnover systems. We discuss arising concerns and ways to assess potential neurobiological changes, dependence, and immunosuppression. Although larger cohorts are required to corroborate preliminary findings, the results obtained so far are promising and represent a critical opportunity for improvement of pharmacotherapies in psychiatry, an area that has seen limited therapeutic advancement in the last 20 years. Studies are underway that are trying to decouple the psychedelic effects from the therapeutic effects of these compounds. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Psychedelic compounds are emerging as potential novel therapeutics in psychiatry. However, understanding of molecular mechanisms mediating improvement remains limited. This paper reviews the available evidence concerning the effects of psychedelic compounds on pathways that modulate neuroplasticity, immunity, and neurotransmitter systems. This work aims to be a reference for psychiatrists who may soon be faced with the possibility of prescribing psychedelic compounds as medications, helping them assess which compound(s) and regimen could be most useful for decreasing specific psychiatric symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Inserra
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Danilo De Gregorio
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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72
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Gandy S, Forstmann M, Carhart-Harris RL, Timmermann C, Luke D, Watts R. The potential synergistic effects between psychedelic administration and nature contact for the improvement of mental health. Health Psychol Open 2020; 7:2055102920978123. [PMID: 33335742 PMCID: PMC7724423 DOI: 10.1177/2055102920978123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic psychedelic administration and contact with nature have been
associated with the same psychological mechanisms: decreased
rumination and negative affect, enhanced psychological connectedness
and mindfulness-related capacities, and heightened states of awe and
transcendent experiences, all processes linked to improvements in
mental health amongst clinical and healthy populations. Nature-based
settings can have inherently psychologically soothing properties which
may complement all stages of psychedelic therapy (mainly preparation
and integration) whilst potentiating increases in nature relatedness,
with associated psychological benefits. Maximising enhancement of
nature relatedness through therapeutic psychedelic administration may
constitute an independent and complementary pathway towards
improvements in mental health that can be elicited by
psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Gandy
- Centre for Psychedelic Research,
Imperial College London, UK
- Synthesis Institute, The
Netherlands
- Sam Gandy, Synthesis Institute B.V.,
Korte Leidsedwarsstraat 12, 1017 RC Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | - David Luke
- Centre for Psychedelic Research,
Imperial College London, UK
- University of Greenwich, UK
| | - Rosalind Watts
- Centre for Psychedelic Research,
Imperial College London, UK
- Synthesis Institute, The
Netherlands
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73
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Johnstad PG. The Psychedelic Personality: Personality Structure and Associations in a Sample of Psychedelics Users. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 53:97-103. [PMID: 33252034 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1842569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Research on the relationship between personality and psychedelics use has found evidence of a two-way influence where the personality structure predicts individual responses to psychedelics, and psychedelics use results in lasting changes to the individual's personality structure. This study used brief personality measures in the form of the Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) and a simplified version of the Risk Taking Index (RTI) in order to measure personality traits in a sample of psychedelics users (N = 319). The participants in the study scored consistently higher than norms on each of the Big Five traits except Extraversion, and on every dimension of risk taking in the RTI. In multivariate logistic regression analyses, personality structure was associated with characteristics of the psychedelic experience that included the feelings of fear, love, and peace as well as states of perceived contact with non-ordinary beings and transcendent forces.
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74
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Lanaro R, Mello SM, da Cunha KF, Silveira G, Corrêa-Neto NF, Hyslop S, Cabrices OG, Costa JL, Linardi A. Kinetic profile of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and β-carbolines in saliva and serum after oral administration of ayahuasca in a religious context. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:664-678. [PMID: 33119972 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a beverage obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi plus Psychotria viridis. B. caapi contains the β-carbolines harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine that are monoamine oxidase inhibitors and P. viridis contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) that is responsible for the visionary effects of the beverage. Ayahuasca use is becoming a global phenomenon, and the recreational use of DMT and similar alkaloids has also increased in recent years; such uncontrolled use can lead to severe intoxications. In this investigation, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to study the kinetics of alkaloids over a 24 h period in saliva and serum of 14 volunteers who consumed ayahuasca twice a month in a religious context. We compared the area under the curve (AUC), maximum concentration (Cmax ), time to reach Cmax (Tmax ), mean residence time (MRT), and half-life (t1/2 ), as well as the serum/saliva ratios of these parameters. DMT and β-carboline concentrations (Cmax ) and AUC were higher in saliva than in serum and the MRT was 1.5-3.0 times higher in serum. A generalized estimation equations (GEEs) model suggested that serum concentrations could be predicted by saliva concentrations, despite large individual variability in the saliva and serum alkaloid concentrations. The possibility of using saliva as a biological matrix to detect DMT, β-carbolines, and their derivatives is very interesting because it allows fast noninvasive sample collection and could be useful for detecting similar alkaloids used recreationally that have considerable potential for intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Lanaro
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil.,Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Sueli Moreira Mello
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Kelly Francisco da Cunha
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Silveira
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Stephen Hyslop
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Oscar G Cabrices
- Global Technical Science - Forensics Testing, Sciex, 1201 Radio Road, Redwood City, CA, 94065, USA
| | - Jose Luiz Costa
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil.,Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Linardi
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Santa Casa de São Paulo School of Medical Sciences, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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75
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Brito-da-Costa AM, Dias-da-Silva D, Gomes NGM, Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Madureira-Carvalho Á. Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics of Ayahuasca Alkaloids N, N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Harmine, Harmaline and Tetrahydroharmine: Clinical and Forensic Impact. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:ph13110334. [PMID: 33114119 PMCID: PMC7690791 DOI: 10.3390/ph13110334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic botanical beverage originally used by indigenous Amazonian tribes in religious ceremonies and therapeutic practices. While ethnobotanical surveys still indicate its spiritual and medicinal uses, consumption of ayahuasca has been progressively related with a recreational purpose, particularly in Western societies. The ayahuasca aqueous concoction is typically prepared from the leaves of the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Psychotria viridis, and the stem and bark of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of harmala alkaloids. Herein, the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of the psychoactive DMT and harmala alkaloids harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine, are comprehensively covered, particularly emphasizing the psychological, physiological, and toxic effects deriving from their concomitant intake. Potential therapeutic utility, particularly in mental and psychiatric disorders, and forensic aspects of DMT and ayahuasca are also reviewed and discussed. Following administration of ayahuasca, DMT is rapidly absorbed and distributed. Harmala alkaloids act as potent inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), preventing extensive first-pass degradation of DMT into 3-indole-acetic acid (3-IAA), and enabling sufficient amounts of DMT to reach the brain. DMT has affinity for a variety of serotonergic and non-serotonergic receptors, though its psychotropic effects are mainly related with the activation of serotonin receptors type 2A (5-HT2A). Mildly to rarely severe psychedelic adverse effects are reported for ayahuasca or its alkaloids individually, but abuse does not lead to dependence or tolerance. For a long time, the evidence has pointed to potential psychotherapeutic benefits in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders; and although misuse of ayahuasca has been diverting attention away from such clinical potential, research onto its therapeutic effects has now strongly resurged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Machado Brito-da-Costa
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
| | - Diana Dias-da-Silva
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: (D.D.-d.-S.); (R.J.D.-O.); Tel.: +351-224-157-216 (R.J.D.-O.)
| | - Nelson G. M. Gomes
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: (D.D.-d.-S.); (R.J.D.-O.); Tel.: +351-224-157-216 (R.J.D.-O.)
| | - Áurea Madureira-Carvalho
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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76
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Neu P. [Ayahuasca - religion, life-style or drug?]. FORTSCHRITTE DER NEUROLOGIE-PSYCHIATRIE 2020; 88:669-673. [PMID: 32544955 DOI: 10.1055/a-1149-9187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive drug which has been used by indigenous cultures in the amazonas basin for hundreds of years for medical and religious purpose. Backpackers who came in contact with ayahuasca exported its use in the western world and increased its popularity. By presenting a case report of a patient seeking medical help due to psychotic symptoms after having attended an ayahuasca ritual we give an short overview of pharmacology, legal status, use and side effects of the substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Neu
- Clinic of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Jüdisches Krankenhaus Berlin - Akademisches Lehrkrankenhaus der Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin
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77
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Kaasik H, Souza RCZ, Zandonadi FS, Tófoli LF, Sussulini A. Chemical Composition of Traditional and Analog Ayahuasca. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 53:65-75. [PMID: 32896230 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1815911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Traditional ayahuasca can be defined as a brew made from Amazonian vine Banisteriopsis caapi and Amazonian admixture plants. Ayahuasca is used by indigenous groups in Amazonia, as a sacrament in syncretic Brazilian religions, and in healing and spiritual ceremonies internationally. The study aimed to determine concentrations of the main bio- and psychoactive components of ayahuasca used in different locations and traditions. We collected 102 samples of brews from ayahuasca-using communities. Concentrations of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), tetrahydroharmine, harmine, and harmaline were determined by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Qualitative analyses for non-traditional additives (moclobemide, psilocin, yuremamine) were performed by high resolution mass spectrometry. Higher and more variable concentrations of DMT in neoshamanic ayahuasca samples compared to indigenous samples may indicate use of higher and more variable proportions of DMT-containing admixture plants. From European samples, we found two related samples of analog ayahuasca containing moclobemide, psilocin, DMT, yuremamine, and very low concentrations of B. caapi alkaloids. Some analogs of ayahuasca (Peganum harmala, Mimosa tenuiflora) were used in Europe. No analogs were found from Brazil or Santo Daime ceremonies in Europe. We recommend awareness about the constituents of the brew and ethical self-regulation among practitioners of ayahuasca ceremonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Kaasik
- School of Theology and Religious Studies; and Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Rita C Z Souza
- Laboratory of Bioanalytics and Integrated Omics (LaBIOmics), Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Flávia S Zandonadi
- Laboratory of Bioanalytics and Integrated Omics (LaBIOmics), Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Luís Fernando Tófoli
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (ICARO), School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Sussulini
- Laboratory of Bioanalytics and Integrated Omics (LaBIOmics), Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
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78
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Aday JS, Davoli CC, Bloesch EK. Psychedelics and virtual reality: parallels and applications. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2020; 10:2045125320948356. [PMID: 32922734 PMCID: PMC7446267 DOI: 10.1177/2045125320948356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic drugs and virtual reality (VR) each have the capacity to disrupt the rigidity and limitations of typical conscious experience. This article delineates the parallels among psychedelic and VR states as well as their potential synergistic applications in clinical and recreational settings. Findings indicate that, individually, psychedelics and VR are used in analogous ways to alter sensory experience and evoke awe. They are also both used in tandem with traditional therapies to treat a variety of mood disorders; their shared capacity to transiently alter perspective and disrupt rigid patterns of mental experience may underly their analogous and transdiagnostic therapeutic uses. In terms of their combined applications, a number of recreational users currently utilize psychedelics and VR together to enhance their experience. We propose that VR may be a useful tool for preparing hallucinogen-naïve participants in clinical trials for the sensory distortions experienced in psychedelic states. Given the critical role of "setting" in psychedelic treatment outcomes, we also detail how VR could be used to optimize the environment in psychedelic sessions. Finally, we provide considerations for future studies and detail how advancements in psychedelic and VR research can inform one another. Collectively, this article outlines a number of connections between psychedelics and VR, and, more broadly, is representative of growing scientific interest into the interactions among technology, psychopharmacology, and mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob S. Aday
- Department of Psychology, Central Michigan University, 101 Sloan Hall, Mount Pleasant, MI 48858, USA
| | | | - Emily K. Bloesch
- Department of Psychology, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
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79
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Giovannetti C, Garcia Arce S, Rush B, Mendive F. Pilot Evaluation of a Residential Drug Addiction Treatment Combining Traditional Amazonian Medicine, Ayahuasca and Psychotherapy on Depression and Anxiety. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 52:472-481. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1789247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cecile Giovannetti
- Institute for Tropical Medicine and International Health, Charité Universitätmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sara Garcia Arce
- Takiwasi Center for Rehabilitation of Drug Addicts and Research on Traditional Medicine, Tarapoto, Peru
| | - Brian Rush
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Departments of Psychiatry and Public Health Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Fernando Mendive
- Takiwasi Center for Rehabilitation of Drug Addicts and Research on Traditional Medicine, Tarapoto, Peru
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80
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Kangaslampi S, Hausen A, Rauteenmaa T. Mystical Experiences in Retrospective Reports of First Times Using a Psychedelic in Finland. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 52:309-318. [PMID: 32511073 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1767321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Despite their acutely inebriating and sometimes unpleasant effects, some people report positive changes in life satisfaction, well-being, or mental health after taking psychedelic drugs. One explanation may be the ability of psychedelics to trigger mystical-type experiences. We examined the validity, reliability, and factor structure of a novel Finnish translation of the Revised Mystical Experiences Questionnaire (MEQ30) among 288 people retrospectively reporting on their first time using a psychedelic. We found evidence for internal consistency reliability and preliminary evidence for criterion and discriminant validity of the Finnish MEQ30. A four-factor structure with factors for mystical qualities, positive mood, transcendence, and ineffability had the best, fair to reasonable fit to the data. MEQ30 scores and having a full mystical experience were highly associated with describing the experience as mystical, spiritual, or religious, and as personally significant, and somewhat associated with the experience being sad or difficult. Mystical experiences were especially associated with positive changes in relationships with nature and oneself and in creativity. Mystical experiences were more common with larger doses. Increasing research suggests mystical-type experiences to relate to positive changes after taking psychedelics. The Finnish MEQ30 is able to tap into relevant information about this aspect of people's psychedelic experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuli Kangaslampi
- Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, Tampere University , Tampere, Finland
| | - Aino Hausen
- Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, Tampere University , Tampere, Finland
| | - Tarina Rauteenmaa
- Faculty of Social Sciences/Psychology, Tampere University , Tampere, Finland
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81
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Apud Peláez IE. Personality Traits in Former Spanish Substance Users Recovered with Ayahuasca. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 52:264-272. [PMID: 32362241 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1752960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive brew that contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine and monoamine oxidase-inhibiting alkaloids. It is originally from the Amazon rainforest, but since the 1990s it has expanded worldwide. The compound is used in different religious, spiritual, and therapeutic settings. One of its common applications is for the treatment of addiction. The current study is an assessment of the impact of ayahuasca on personality traits in former substance users from Catalonia and surrounding areas. When compared with a control group, the ayahuasca group had statistically significantly higher scores in the dimensions Novelty Seeking and Self-Transcendence, and in the traits Attachment, Impulsivity, Compassion, and Spiritual Acceptance. Results suggest that recovery could be related less to a reduction of Impulsivity and Novelty Seeking, main features of substance use disorder (SUD), and more to an increase of Character dimensions and traits, especially Self-Transcendence and Cooperativeness. Those changes could be triggered by self-reflective, prosocial, and transcendental ayahuasca ritual experiences, which in the qualitative part of the research were described by the participants as being of great importance for their recovery, helping with the reconstruction of personal goals, gratifications, social bonds, and the general life's projection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismael Eduardo Apud Peláez
- Faculty of Psychology (UdelaR, Montevideo, Uruguay), National System of Researchers (ANII, Montevideo, Uruguay), Medical Anthropology Research Center (URV, Tarragona, Spain)
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82
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Orsolini L, Chiappini S, Papanti D, Latini R, Volpe U, Fornaro M, Tomasetti C, Vellante F, De Berardis D. How does ayahuasca work from a psychiatric perspective? Pros and cons of the entheogenic therapy. Hum Psychopharmacol 2020; 35:e2728. [PMID: 32220028 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic plant preparation, traditionally consumed in sacred ceremonies by indigenous North-Westerner Amazonian countries like Colombia, Peru, Brazil, and Ecuador. It is fundamental to carefully balance benefits/risks related to the ayahuasca intake, both during ceremonies and experimental settings. The aim is at evaluating and comparing the potential therapeutic benefits versus health risks related to ayahuasca intake (both acutely and chronically), focusing on its application in psychedelic psychiatry. DESIGN A comprehensive mini overview focusing on psychiatric outcomes following ayahuasca intake both in healthy volunteers and in clinical samples. RESULTS Preclinical, observational, and experimental studies in healthy volunteers as well as in clinical samples suggest that ayahuasca may be beneficial as an antidepressant, emotional regulator, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive drug, by exerting fast-acting and enduring clinical effects. Ayahuasca appears to be safe and well tolerated, nausea and emesis being the most reported and transient side effects. Some findings suggest not to use ayahuasca in bipolar or psychotic patients because of an increased risk of manic switch and/or psychotic onset. CONCLUSIONS Further research should be carried out in randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, by implementing neuroimaging studies, in order to better evaluate therapeutic potential of ayahuasca in mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Orsolini
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Department of Clinical Neurosciences/DIMSC, School of Medicine, Section of Psychiatry, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy.,Polyedra, Polyedra Research, Teramo, Italy
| | - Stefania Chiappini
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Duccio Papanti
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Roberto Latini
- Neomesia Mental Health, Villa Jolanda Hospital, Maiolati Spontini, Italy
| | - Umberto Volpe
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences/DIMSC, School of Medicine, Section of Psychiatry, Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Michele Fornaro
- Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry and Psychopharmacotherapeutics, Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, University School of Medicine "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Carmine Tomasetti
- Polyedra, Polyedra Research, Teramo, Italy.,Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry and Psychopharmacotherapeutics, Section of Psychiatry, Department of Neuroscience, University School of Medicine "Federico II", Naples, Italy.,NHS, Department of Mental Health, Psychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment, Hospital "SS. Annunziata", Giulianova, Italy
| | - Federica Vellante
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Science, University of "G. D'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy
| | - Domenico De Berardis
- Polyedra, Polyedra Research, Teramo, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Science, University of "G. D'Annunzio", Chieti, Italy.,NHS, Department of Mental Health, Psychiatric Service of Diagnosis and Treatment, Hospital "G. Mazzini", Teramo, Italy
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83
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de Oliveira Silveira G, Guimarães dos Santos R, Rebello Lourenço F, Novak Rossi G, Hallak JEC, Yonamine M. Stability Evaluation of DMT and Harmala Alkaloids in Ayahuasca Tea Samples. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25092072. [PMID: 32365548 PMCID: PMC7248686 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25092072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca tea is a hallucinogenic beverage used for religious purposes in Brazil and many other countries that has therapeutic potential in the treatment of some mental health disorders. In the context of psychedelic research, quantification of the tea's main alkaloids prior to its administration in animal or human studies is essential. For this reason, this study aims to provide information regarding the stability of the main ayahuasca alkaloids (dimethyltryptamine, DMT; harmine, HRM; tetrahydroharmine, THH; harmaline, HRL) in three different conditions: (1) A year stored in a refrigerator either in plastic or glass containers, (2) seven days at 37 °C to reproduce usual mail transportation, and (3) after three freeze-thaw cycles. Samples were quantified after a dilute-and-shoot procedure using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). There was no significant degradation of DMT concentration over time in all tested conditions. Harmala alkaloids (THH, HRL, and HRM) showed important variations after long-term and high-temperature storages. Although DMT has proven to be stable in all studied conditions, the harmala alkaloids revealed intense degradation and even concentration increment. This may be caused by degradation, alkaloid inter-conversion, and leaching from tea precipitate material. Therefore, ayahuasca quantification before administration in controlled sets is mandatory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela de Oliveira Silveira
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
- Correspondence:
| | - Rafael Guimarães dos Santos
- Department of Neurosciences and Behaviour, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil; (R.G.d.S.); (G.N.R.); (J.E.C.H.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology—Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Felipe Rebello Lourenço
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
| | - Giordano Novak Rossi
- Department of Neurosciences and Behaviour, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil; (R.G.d.S.); (G.N.R.); (J.E.C.H.)
| | - Jaime E. C. Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behaviour, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil; (R.G.d.S.); (G.N.R.); (J.E.C.H.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology—Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Yonamine
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
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Kaasik H, Kreegipuu K. Ayahuasca Users in Estonia: Ceremonial Practices, Subjective Long-Term Effects, Mental Health, and Quality of Life. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 52:255-263. [PMID: 32299306 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1748773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The study aims to describe ayahuasca users in Estonia and compare their mental health and quality of life to those of nonusers. Ceremonial practices, motivation for ayahuasca use, use-related experiences, and subjective consequences of use are described. We conducted a cross-sectional case-controlled study of thirty ayahuasca users and thirty nonusers matched by gender, age, and education. The participants completed questionnaires, standardized psychometric tests, and neuropsychiatric interviews. Ayahuasca use in Estonia occurred mainly in (neo)shamanic group ceremonies. The main motives for ayahuasca use were spiritual development, self-knowledge, and spiritual experiences. The users reported mostly positive subjective consequences of ayahuasca use for their health and life. However, some difficult experiences and adverse effects were reported. No abuse of ayahuasca or addiction to it was found. Screening test indicators of depression and anxiety were lower in the ayahuasca-using group. No deterioration of the mental health of ayahuasca users in comparison to nonusers was found. The participants perceive their use of ayahuasca as a spiritual practice with mostly favorable outcomes for their health and life. They also perceive ayahuasca use in Estonia as a reasonably safe and self-limiting form of spiritual practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Kaasik
- School of Theology and Religious Studies, University of Tartu , Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kairi Kreegipuu
- Institute of Psychology, University of Tartu , Tartu, Estonia
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85
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Cameron LP, Nazarian A, Olson DE. Psychedelic Microdosing: Prevalence and Subjective Effects. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 52:113-122. [PMID: 31973684 PMCID: PMC7282936 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1718250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Anecdotal reports suggest that the administration of sub-hallucinogenic doses of psychedelic compounds on a chronic, intermittent schedule - a practice known as psychedelic microdosing - is becoming increasingly popular among young adults due to its purported ability to reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety while improving cognitive function and promoting social interaction. Using an anonymous online survey, we collected data from 2347 people to 1) assess the prevalence of psychedelic microdosing and characterize the demographics of microdosers, 2) determine whether microdosers associate the practice with changes in mood, cognitive function, social interaction, or physiology, and 3) investigate frequent motives for discontinuing the practice. Fifty-nine percent of respondents (NT = 2183) reported familiarity with the concept of psychedelic microdosing, with 17% (383 respondents, NT = 2200) having engaged in this practice. Microdosers attributed psychedelic microdosing with improving their mood, decreasing their anxiety, and enhancing their memory, attention, and sociability. The most frequently cited reasons for quitting microdosing (NT = 243) were the risks associated with taking an illegal substance (24.28%) and the difficulty of obtaining psychedelic compounds (22.63%). Overall, our findings suggest that psychedelic microdosing is relatively common and is subjectively associated with a broad spectrum of socio-affective, cognitive, and physical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay P. Cameron
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Davis, 1544 Newton Ct, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - Angela Nazarian
- Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis, 267 Cousteau Place, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - David E. Olson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, 2700 Stockton Blvd, Suite 2102, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, 1544 Newton Ct, Davis, CA 95618, USA
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86
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Murphy-Beiner A, Soar K. Ayahuasca's 'afterglow': improved mindfulness and cognitive flexibility in ayahuasca drinkers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:1161-1169. [PMID: 31927605 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05445-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE There is a growing body of evidence demonstrating the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca for treating depression and anxiety. However, the mechanisms of action involved in ayahuasca's therapeutic effects are unclear. Mindfulness and cognitive flexibility may be two possible psychological mechanisms. Like other classic psychedelics, ayahuasca also leads to an 'afterglow' effect of improved subjective well-being that persists after the acute effects have subsided. This period may offer a window of increased therapeutic potential. OBJECTIVE To explore changes in mindfulness and cognitive flexibility before and within 24 h after ayahuasca use. METHODS Forty-eight participants (54% female) were assessed on measures of mindfulness (Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)), decentering (Experiences Questionnaire (EQ)), and cognitive flexibility (Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS)), and completed the Stroop and Wisconsin Picture Card Sorting Task (WPCST) before drinking ayahuasca, and again within 24 h. RESULTS Mindfulness (FFMQ total scores and four of the five mindfulness facets: observe, describe, act with awareness, and non-reactivity) and decentering (EQ) significantly increased in the 24 h after ayahuasca use. Cognitive flexibility (CFS and WPCST) significantly improved in the 24 h after ayahuasca use. Changes in both mindfulness and cognitive flexibility were not influenced by prior ayahuasca use. CONCLUSIONS The present study supports ayahuasca's ability to enhance mindfulness and further reports changes in cognitive flexibility in the 'afterglow' period occur, suggesting both could be possible psychological mechanisms concerning the psychotherapeutic effects of ayahuasca. Given psychological gains occurred regardless of prior ayahuasca use suggests potentially therapeutic effects for both naïve and experienced ayahuasca drinkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Murphy-Beiner
- School of Psychology, University of East London, Water Lane, London, E15 4LZ, UK
| | - K Soar
- School of Psychology, University of East London, Water Lane, London, E15 4LZ, UK.
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87
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Jiménez-Garrido DF, Gómez-Sousa M, Ona G, Dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC, Alcázar-Córcoles MÁ, Bouso JC. Effects of ayahuasca on mental health and quality of life in naïve users: A longitudinal and cross-sectional study combination. Sci Rep 2020; 10:4075. [PMID: 32139811 PMCID: PMC7057990 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-61169-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic decoction used as a traditional medicine in several Amazonian regions. The ritualistic use of ayahuasca has spread throughout many countries, making it necessary to study its risks and benefits. Two sub-studies were designed for this investigation. In sub-study 1, a psychiatric interview and a battery of questionnaires were administered to subjects (n = 40) before their first ayahuasca use. Two follow-ups were conducted at 1 and 6 months. In sub-study 2, the same interview and battery of questionnaires were administered to long-term ayahuasca users (n = 23) and their scores were compared with those of the ayahuasca-naïve group. In the first assessment, nearly half (45%) of the naïve users were found to meet the diagnostic criteria for a psychiatric disorder. After the ayahuasca use, more than 80% of those subjects showed clinical improvements that persisted at 6 months. The questionnaires showed significant reductions in depression and psychopathology. Regarding sub-study 2, long-term users showed lower depression scores, and higher scores for self-transcendence and quality of life, as compared to their peers in sub-study 1. Further controlled and observational naturalistic studies assessing the eventual risks and potential benefits of ayahuasca are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel F Jiménez-Garrido
- ICEERS - International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Services, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Gómez-Sousa
- ICEERS - International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Services, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Genís Ona
- ICEERS - International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Services, Barcelona, Spain.,Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Department of Anthropology, Philosophy and Social Work, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Rafael G Dos Santos
- ICEERS - International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Services, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Jaime E C Hallak
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,National Institute for Translational Medicine (INCT-TM), CNPq, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Miguel Ángel Alcázar-Córcoles
- Department of Biological & Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Madrid Autonomous University, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- ICEERS - International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research, and Services, Barcelona, Spain.
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88
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Foldi CJ, Liknaitzky P, Williams M, Oldfield BJ. Rethinking Therapeutic Strategies for Anorexia Nervosa: Insights From Psychedelic Medicine and Animal Models. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:43. [PMID: 32116500 PMCID: PMC7015070 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Anorexia nervosa (AN) has the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disease, yet available pharmacological treatments are largely ineffective due, in part, to an inadequate understanding of the neurobiological drivers that underpin the condition. The recent resurgence of research into the clinical applications of psychedelic medicine for a range of mental disorders has highlighted the potential for classical psychedelics, including psilocybin, to alleviate symptoms of AN that relate to serotonergic signaling and cognitive inflexibility. Clinical trials using psychedelics in treatment-resistant depression have shown promising outcomes, although these studies are unable to circumvent some methodological biases. The first clinical trial to use psilocybin in patients with AN commenced in 2019, necessitating a better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms through which psychedelics act. Animal models are beneficial in this respect, allowing for detailed scrutiny of brain function and behavior and the potential to study pharmacology without the confounds of expectancy and bias that are impossible to control for in patient populations. We argue that studies investigating the neurobiological effects of psychedelics in animal models, including the activity-based anorexia (ABA) rodent model, are particularly important to inform clinical applications, including the subpopulations of patients that may benefit most from psychedelic medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire J Foldi
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.,Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul Liknaitzky
- Faculty of Health, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia
| | - Martin Williams
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Psychedelic Research in Science and Medicine Inc., Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Brian J Oldfield
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.,Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Clayton, VIC, Australia
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89
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Modulatory effects of ayahuasca on personality structure in a traditional framework. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:3161-3171. [PMID: 32700023 PMCID: PMC7524857 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05601-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Ayahuasca is a psychoactive plant brew containing dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). It originates from the Amazon basin, where it is used primarily for ceremonial purposes. Ayahuasca tourists are now entering certain communities seeking alternative physical or psychological healing, as well as spiritual growth. RATIONALE Recent evidence has shown that the similar acting psychedelic compound, psilocybin, facilitated long-term increases in trait openness following a single administration. OBJECTIVES This paper assesses the impact of ayahuasca on personality in a traditional framework catering for ayahuasca tourists. METHOD Within a mixed design, we examined the effect of ayahuasca on participants' personality (measured by the NEO Personality Inventory 3 questionnaire) across time (pre- to post-ayahuasca administration, and 6-month follow-up), relative to a comparison group (who did not ingest ayahuasca). RESULTS The results demonstrated significant increases in agreeableness pre- and post-ayahuasca administration and significant reductions in neuroticism in 24 participants, relative to the comparison group. Both of these changes were sustained at 6-month follow-up, and trait level increases were also observed in openness at this stage. Additionally, greater perceived mystical experience (measured using the Mystical Experience Questionnaire 30) was associated with increased reductions in neuroticism. CONCLUSIONS These findings, which indicate a positive mediating effect of ayahuasca on personality, support the growing literature suggesting potential therapeutic avenues for serotonergic psychedelics.
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90
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González D, Cantillo J, Pérez I, Farré M, Feilding A, Obiols JE, Bouso JC. Therapeutic potential of ayahuasca in grief: a prospective, observational study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:1171-1182. [PMID: 31938878 PMCID: PMC7113212 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05446-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Recent studies have assessed the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca for the treatment of depression with promising preliminary results. OBJECTIVES Here, we examine the course of grief over 1 year of follow-up in a bereaved sample that attended a center in Peru to participate in indigenous Shipibo ayahuasca ceremonies. We also explore the roles of experiential avoidance and decentering as mechanisms of change. METHODS Bereaved participants who attended the ayahuasca center responded to an online survey that included the Texas Revised Inventory of Grief, Symptom Assessment-45, WHO Quality of Life-Bref, Acceptance and Action Questionnaire, and Decentering. Baseline assessment was completed by 50 individuals (T0). Of these, 39 completed the post-assessment at 15 days (T1), 31 at 3 months (T2), 29 at 6 months (T3), and 27 at 12 months (T4) after leaving the retreat. Pearson's analysis was performed to examine the relationship between the severity of grief and mechanisms of change during the period of T0 and T1. RESULTS A significant decrease in Texas Revised Inventory was observed at all time points (T1: Cohen's d = 0.84; T2: Cohen's d = 1.38; T3: Cohen's d = 1.16; T4: Cohen's d = 1.39). We found a relationship between experiential avoidance (r = 0.55; p < .01), decentering (r = - 0.47; p < .01), and a reduction in the severity of grief. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the ceremonial use of ayahuasca has therapeutic value by reducing the severity of grief. Acceptance and decentering are both psychological processes that mediate the improvement of grief symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora González
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Carrer de Sepúlveda, 65, Office 2, 08015, Barcelona, Spain.
- PHI Asociation, Passeig del Calvell 35-37, 08005, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Jordi Cantillo
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Carrer de Sepúlveda, 65, Office 2, 08015, Barcelona, Spain
- PHI Asociation, Passeig del Calvell 35-37, 08005, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Irene Pérez
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Carrer de Sepúlveda, 65, Office 2, 08015, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Ctra. de Can Ruti s/n, 08916, Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicoloy, Universitat, Autònoma de Barcelona, Avinguda de Can Doménech, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | | | - Jordi E Obiols
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra Campus, Building B, Office B5/016b, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services (ICEERS), Carrer de Sepúlveda, 65, Office 2, 08015, Barcelona, Spain
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dos Santos RG, Hallak JEC. Therapeutic use of serotoninergic hallucinogens: A review of the evidence and of the biological and psychological mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 108:423-434. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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92
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Gandy S. Psychedelics and potential benefits in “healthy normals”: A review of the literature. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
We are in the midst of a psychedelic research renaissance. With research examining the efficacy of psychedelics as a treatment for a range of mental health indications still in its early stages, there is an increasing body of research to show that careful use of psychedelics can yield a variety of benefits in “healthy normals” and so lead to “the betterment of well people.” Psychedelics have been found to modulate neuroplasticity, and usage in a supportive setting can result in enduring increases in traits such as well-being, life satisfaction, life meaning, mindfulness, and a variety of measures associated with prosocial behaviors and healthy psychological functioning. The effect of psychedelic experience on measures of personality trait openness and is potential implications is examined, and the potential role of awe as a mediator of the benefits of the psychedelic experience is discussed. Special attention is given to the capacity of psychedelics to increase measures of nature relatedness in an enduring sense, which is being correlated with a broad range of measures of psychological well-being as well as a key predictor of pro-environmental awareness and behavior. The effects of particular classical psychedelic compounds on healthy people are discussed, with special attention given to the mystical-type experiences occasioned by high doses of psychedelics, which appear to be an important mediator of long-term benefits and psychotherapeutic gains. Research looking at the potential benefits of psychedelic microdosing is discussed. Potential future research avenues are explored, focusing on the potential development of psychedelics as agents of ecotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Gandy
- 1 Independent Researcher, Leicestershire, UK
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93
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Kettner H, Gandy S, Haijen ECHM, Carhart-Harris RL. From Egoism to Ecoism: Psychedelics Increase Nature Relatedness in a State-Mediated and Context-Dependent Manner. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E5147. [PMID: 31888300 PMCID: PMC6949937 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16245147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: There appears to be a growing disconnection between humans and their natural environments which has been linked to poor mental health and ecological destruction. Previous research suggests that individual levels of nature relatedness can be increased through the use of classical psychedelic compounds, although a causal link between psychedelic use and nature relatedness has not yet been established. (2) Methods: Using correlations and generalized linear mixed regression modelling, we investigated the association between psychedelic use and nature relatedness in a prospective online study. Individuals planning to use a psychedelic received questionnaires 1 week before (N = 654), plus one day, 2 weeks, 4 weeks, and 2 years after a psychedelic experience. (3) Results: The frequency of lifetime psychedelic use was positively correlated with nature relatedness at baseline. Nature relatedness was significantly increased 2 weeks, 4 weeks and 2 years after the psychedelic experience. This increase was positively correlated with concomitant increases in psychological well-being and was dependent on the extent of ego-dissolution and the perceived influence of natural surroundings during the acute psychedelic state. (4) Conclusions: The here presented evidence for a context- and state-dependent causal effect of psychedelic use on nature relatedness bears relevance for psychedelic treatment models in mental health and, in the face of the current ecological crisis, planetary health.
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94
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Muttoni S, Ardissino M, John C. Classical psychedelics for the treatment of depression and anxiety: A systematic review. J Affect Disord 2019; 258:11-24. [PMID: 31382100 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2019.07.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Depression and anxiety are prevalent psychiatric disorders that carry significant morbidity. Pharmacological and psychosocial interventions are used to manage these conditions, but their efficacy is limited. Recent interest into the use of psychedelic-assisted therapy using ayahuasca, psilocybin or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) may be a promising alternative for patients unresponsive to traditional treatments. This review aims to determine the efficacy and tolerability of psychedelics in the management of resistant depression. METHODS Clinical trials investigating psychedelics in patients with depression and/or anxiety were searched via MEDLINE, EMBASE and PsychINFO. Efficacy was assessed by measuring symptom improvement from baseline, and tolerability was evaluated by noting the incidence and type of adverse effects reported. Risk of bias was assessed. RESULTS Seven studies, with 130 patients, were analysed in this review. Three were conducted in patients with depression, two in patients with anxiety and two in patients with both. In a supportive setting, ayahuasca, psilocybin, and LSD consistently produced immediate and significant anti-depressant and anxiolytic effects that were endured for several months. Psychedelics were well-tolerated. The most common adverse effects were transient anxiety, short-lived headaches, nausea and mild increases in heart rate and blood pressure. LIMITATIONS At present, the number of studies on this subject is very limited; and the number of participating patients within these is also limited as the treatment under investigations is a relatively novel concept. CONCLUSIONS Though further evidence is required, psychedelics appear to be effective in significantly reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety and are well-tolerated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Muttoni
- Imperial College London, School of Medicine, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Maddalena Ardissino
- Imperial College London, School of Medicine, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom; Magill Department of Anaesthesia, Intensive Care and Pain Management, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, London, SW10 9NH, United Kingdom.
| | - Christopher John
- Imperial College London, School of Medicine, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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95
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Luoma JB, Sabucedo P, Eriksson J, Gates N, Pilecki BC. Toward a contextual psychedelic-assisted therapy: Perspectives from Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and contextual behavioral science. JOURNAL OF CONTEXTUAL BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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96
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Aday JS, Bloesch EK, Davoli CC. Can Psychedelic Drugs Attenuate Age-Related Changes in Cognition and Affect? JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s41465-019-00151-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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97
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Estrella-Parra EA, Almanza-Pérez JC, Alarcón-Aguilar FJ. Ayahuasca: Uses, Phytochemical and Biological Activities. NATURAL PRODUCTS AND BIOPROSPECTING 2019; 9:251-265. [PMID: 31134518 PMCID: PMC6646606 DOI: 10.1007/s13659-019-0210-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca (caapi, yajé), is a psychoactive brew from the Amazon Basin region of South America traditionally considered a "master plant." It is prepared as a decoction from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which it is thought that it stimulates creative thinking and visual creativity. Native healers of the Orinoco and Amazon basins have used traditionally ayahuasca as a healing tool for multiple purposes, particularly to treat psychological disorders in the patients, with some beneficial effects experimentally and clinically validated. Recently, several syncretic religions, as the "União de Vegetal" (UDV) group in Brazil, have been spread around the world. The use of ayahuasca has been popularized by internet and smart-shops, bringing the psychoactive substance to new highs, emerging new "ayahuasqueros." Ayahuasca has alkaloids as β-carbolines and dimethyltryptamines, which inhibit the monoamine oxidase and active the 5-HT2A (5-hydroxytryptamine) receptor, respectively, resulting in hallucinations in the users. Ayahuasca induces a psychedelic change in the anteroposterior coupling of the electrophysiological brain oscillations in humans. Traditional ayahuasca beverage is generating pharmacological, commercial and spiritual interest among the scientific community, government people, and different populations worldwide. The goal of this article is to report about the uses, chemistry and biological activities of ayahuasca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Antonio Estrella-Parra
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Fitoquímica, Laboratorio de Farmacognosia, Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal, Unidad UBIPRO, FES-Iztacala, UNAM, Tlalnepantla de Baz, 54090, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
| | - Julio Cesar Almanza-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
| | - Francisco Javier Alarcón-Aguilar
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico.
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Cameron L, Benson CJ, DeFelice BC, Fiehn O, Olson DE. Chronic, Intermittent Microdoses of the Psychedelic N, N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) Produce Positive Effects on Mood and Anxiety in Rodents. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:3261-3270. [PMID: 30829033 PMCID: PMC6639775 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs capable of ameliorating symptoms of depression and anxiety while also improving cognitive function and sociability are highly desirable. Anecdotal reports have suggested that serotonergic psychedelics administered in low doses on a chronic, intermittent schedule, so-called "microdosing", might produce beneficial effects on mood, anxiety, cognition, and social interaction. Here, we test this hypothesis by subjecting male and female Sprague Dawley rats to behavioral testing following the chronic, intermittent administration of low doses of the psychedelic N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). The behavioral and cellular effects of this dosing regimen were distinct from those induced following a single high dose of the drug. We found that chronic, intermittent, low doses of DMT produced an antidepressant-like phenotype and enhanced fear extinction learning without impacting working memory or social interaction. Additionally, male rats treated with DMT on this schedule gained a significant amount of body weight during the course of the study. Taken together, our results suggest that psychedelic microdosing may alleviate symptoms of mood and anxiety disorders, though the potential hazards of this practice warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay
P. Cameron
- Neuroscience
Graduate Program, University of California,
Davis, 1544 Newton Ct, Davis, California 95618, United States
| | - Charlie J. Benson
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California,
Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Brian C. DeFelice
- West
Coast Metabolomics Center, University of
California, Davis, One
Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Oliver Fiehn
- West
Coast Metabolomics Center, University of
California, Davis, One
Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Biochemistry
Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi-Arabia
| | - David E. Olson
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California,
Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Department
of Biochemistry & Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, 2700 Stockton Blvd, Suite 2102, Sacramento, California 95817, United States
- Center for
Neuroscience, University of California,
Davis, 1544 Newton Ct, Davis, California 95618, United States
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99
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Aixalá M, Ona G, Parés Ò, Bouso JC. Patterns of use, desired effects, and mental health status of a sample of natural psychoactive drug users. DRUGS-EDUCATION PREVENTION AND POLICY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/09687637.2019.1611739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marc Aixalá
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research & Services, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Genís Ona
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research & Services, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Òscar Parés
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research & Services, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research & Services, Barcelona, Spain
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100
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Hamill J, Hallak J, Dursun SM, Baker G. Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:108-128. [PMID: 29366418 PMCID: PMC6343205 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x16666180125095902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian decoction with psychoactive properties, is made from bark of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine (containing beta-carboline alkaloids) and leaves of the Psychotria viridis bush (supplying the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT). Originally used by indigenous shamans for the purposes of spirit communi-cation, magical experiences, healing, and religious rituals across several South American countries, ayahuasca has been in-corporated into folk medicine and spiritual healing, and several Brazilian churches use it routinely to foster a spiritual experi-ence. More recently, it is being used in Europe and North America, not only for religious or healing reasons, but also for rec-reation. Objective: To review ayahuasca’s behavioral effects, possible adverse effects, proposed mechanisms of action and potential clinical uses in mental illness. Method: We searched Medline, in English, using the terms ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, Banisteriopsis caapi, and Psy-chotria viridis and reviewed the relevant publications. Results: The following aspects of ayahuasca are summarized: Political and legal factors; acute and chronic psychological ef-fects; electrophysiological studies and imaging; physiological effects; safety and adverse effects; pharmacology; potential psychiatric uses. Conclusion: Many years of shamanic wisdom have indicated potential therapeutic uses for ayahuasca, and several present day studies suggest that it may be useful for treating various psychiatric disorders and addictions. The side effect profile ap-pears to be relatively mild, but more detailed studies need to be done. Several prominent researchers believe that government regulations with regard to ayahuasca should be relaxed so that it could be provided more readily to recognized, credible re-searchers to conduct comprehensive clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Hamill
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jaime Hallak
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior and National Institute of Science and Technology (Translational Medicine), Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - Serdar M Dursun
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Glen Baker
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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