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Wu H, Hu M, Yuan D, Wu H, Wang Y, Wang J, Li T, Qian C, Yu H. Electroacupuncture promotes the proliferation of endogenous neural stem cells and oligodendrocytes in the injured spinal cord of adult rats. Neural Regen Res 2015; 7:1138-44. [PMID: 25722706 PMCID: PMC4340030 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2012.15.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A contusive model of spinal cord injury at spinal segment T8-9 was established in rats. Huantiao (GB30) and Huatuojiaji (Ex-B05) were punctured with needles, and endogenous neural stem cells were labeled with 5-bromo-2’-deoxyuridine (BrdU) and NG2. Double immunofluorescence staining showed that electroacupuncture markedly increased the numbers of BrdU+/NG2+ cells at spinal cord tissue 15 mm away from the injury center in the rostral and caudal directions. The results suggest that electroacupuncture promotes the proliferation of endogenous neural stem cells and oligodendrocytes in rats with spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiying Wu
- Department of Emergency and Intensive Care Unit, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical College, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Min Hu
- Kunming University, Kunming 650118, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Dekai Yuan
- Kunming University, Kunming 650118, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Haiying Wu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical College, Kunming 650101, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Yunhui Wang
- Department of Emergency and Intensive Care Unit, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical College, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Emergency and Intensive Care Unit, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical College, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Emergency and Intensive Care Unit, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical College, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Chuanyun Qian
- Department of Emergency and Intensive Care Unit, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical College, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
| | - Hualin Yu
- Department of Minimally Invasive Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Kunming Medical College, Kunming 650032, Yunnan Province, China
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Vadivelu S, Stewart TJ, Qu Y, Horn K, Liu S, Li Q, Silver J, McDonald JW. NG2+ progenitors derived from embryonic stem cells penetrate glial scar and promote axonal outgrowth into white matter after spinal cord injury. Stem Cells Transl Med 2015; 4:401-11. [PMID: 25713464 DOI: 10.5966/sctm.2014-0107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The glial scar resulting from spinal cord injury is rich in chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG), a formidable barrier to axonal regeneration. We explored the possibility of breaching that barrier by first examining the scar in a functional in vitro model. We found that embryonic stem cell-derived neural lineage cells (ESNLCs) with prominent expression of nerve glial antigen 2 (NG2) survived, passed through an increasingly inhibitory gradient of CSPG, and expressed matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) at the appropriate stage of their development. Outgrowth of axons from ESNLCs followed because the migrating cells sculpted pathways in which CSPG was degraded. The degradative mechanism involved MMP-9 but not MMP-2. To confirm these results in vivo, we transplanted ESNLCs directly into the cavity of a contused spinal cord 9 days after injury. A week later, ESNLCs survived and were expressing both NG2 and MMP-9. Their axons had grown through long distances (>10 mm), although they preferred to traverse white rather than gray matter. These data are consistent with the concept that expression of inhibitory CSPG within the injury scar is an important impediment to regeneration but that NG2+ progenitors derived from ESNLCs can modify the microenvironment to allow axons to grow through the barrier. This beneficial action may be partly due to developmental expression of MMP-9. We conclude that it might eventually be possible to encourage axonal regeneration in the human spinal cord by transplanting ESNLCs or other cells that express NG2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudhakar Vadivelu
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Todd J Stewart
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Yun Qu
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kevin Horn
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Su Liu
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Qun Li
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jerry Silver
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - John W McDonald
- The International Center for Spinal Cord Injury, Hugo W. Moser Research Institute at the Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA; Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA; Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Zhang Q, Shao Y, Zhao C, Cai J, Sun S. N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist MK-801 prevents apoptosis in rats that have undergone fetal spinal cord transplantation following spinal hemisection. Exp Ther Med 2014; 8:1731-1736. [PMID: 25371724 PMCID: PMC4218703 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2014.2029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is the main cause of paraplegia, but effective therapies for it are lacking. Embryonic spinal cord transplantation is able to repair spinal cord injury, albeit with a large amount of neuronal apoptosis remaining in the spinal cord. MK-801, an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, is able to reduce cell death by decreasing the concentration of excitatory amino acids and preventing extracellular calcium ion influx. In this study, the effect of MK-801 on the apoptosis of spinal cord neurons in rats that have received a fetal spinal cord (FSC) transplant following spinal hemisection was investigated. Wistar rats were divided into three groups: Spinal cord hemisection injury with a combination of FSC transplantation and MK-801 treatment (group A); spinal cord hemisection injury with FSC transplantation (group B); and spinal cord injury with insertion of a Gelfoam pledget (group C). The rats were sacrificed 1, 3, 7 and 14 days after the surgery. Apoptosis in spinal slices from the injured spinal cord was examined by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling reaction, and the expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) was measured by immunohistochemistry. The positive cells were quantitatively analyzed using a computer image analysis system. The rate of apoptosis and the positive expression of Bcl-2 protein in the spinal cord neurons in the three groups decreased in the following order: C>B>A (P<0.05) and A>B>C (P<0.05), respectively. This indicates that treatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 prevents apoptosis in the spinal cord neurons of rats that have undergone FSC transplantation following spinal hemisection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, P.R. China
| | - Yang Shao
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210011, P.R. China
| | - Changsong Zhao
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, P.R. China
| | - Juan Cai
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, P.R. China
| | - Sheng Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, P.R. China
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Cruz-Martinez P, Martinez-Ferre A, Jaramillo-Merchán J, Estirado A, Martinez S, Jones J. FGF8 activates proliferation and migration in mouse post-natal oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e108241. [PMID: 25259688 PMCID: PMC4178127 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8) is a key molecular signal that is necessary for early embryonic development of the central nervous system, quickly disappearing past this point. It is known to be one of the primary morphogenetic signals required for cell fate and survival processes in structures such as the cerebellum, telencephalic and isthmic organizers, while its absence causes severe abnormalities in the nervous system and the embryo usually dies in early stages of development. In this work, we have observed a new possible therapeutic role for this factor in demyelinating disorders, such as leukodystrophy or multiple sclerosis. In vitro, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells were cultured with differentiating medium and in the presence of FGF8. Differentiation and proliferation studies were performed by immunocytochemistry and PCR. Also, migration studies were performed in matrigel cultures, where oligodendrocyte progenitor cells were placed at a certain distance of a FGF8-soaked heparin bead. The results showed that both migration and proliferation was induced by FGF8. Furthermore, a similar effect was observed in an in vivo demyelinating mouse model, where oligodendrocyte progenitor cells were observed migrating towards the FGF8-soaked heparin beads where they were grafted. In conclusion, the results shown here demonstrate that FGF8 is a novel factor to induce oligodendrocyte progenitor cell activation, migration and proliferation in vitro, which can be extrapolated in vivo in demyelinated animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Cruz-Martinez
- Neuroscience Institute, University Miguel Hernández (UMH-CSIC), San Juan, Alicante, Spain
| | | | | | - Alicia Estirado
- Neuroscience Institute, University Miguel Hernández (UMH-CSIC), San Juan, Alicante, Spain
| | - Salvador Martinez
- Neuroscience Institute, University Miguel Hernández (UMH-CSIC), San Juan, Alicante, Spain
- IMIB-Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Jonathan Jones
- Neuroscience Institute, University Miguel Hernández (UMH-CSIC), San Juan, Alicante, Spain
- * E-mail:
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55
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Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a major cause of disability with devastating neurological outcomes and limited therapeutic opportunities, even though there are thousands of publications on spinal cord injury annually. There are two major types of spinal cord injury, transaction of the spinal cord and spinal cord contusion. Both can theoretically be treated, but there is no well documented treatment in human being. As for spinal cord contusion, we have developed an operation with fabulous result.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gong Ju
- Institute of Neurosciences, Department of Neurobiology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Institute of Neurosciences, Department of Neurobiology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Yazhou Wang
- Institute of Neurosciences, Department of Neurobiology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xianghui Zhao
- Institute of Neurosciences, Department of Neurobiology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, Shaanxi Province, China
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56
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Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid microspheres encapsulated in Pluronic F-127 prolong hirudin delivery and improve functional recovery from a demyelination lesion. Biomaterials 2014; 35:8895-8902. [PMID: 25064804 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.06.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Components of the blood have been proposed as potential therapeutic targets for improving cellular regeneration after injury and neurodegenerative disease. In this work, thrombin is shown to increase endogenous neural progenitor proliferation in the intact murine spinal cord. A local injection of heparin before a spinal cord injury reduces cell proliferation and astrogliogenesis associated with scarring. We sought to create depot-formulations of PLGA microsphere and Pluronic F-127 for sustained local delivery of two thrombin inhibitors, heparin and hirudin. Each hydrogel depot-formulation showed delayed drug release compared to microspheres or hydrogel alone. Animals with a lateral demyelination lesion showed a reduction in CD68+ macrophages when treated with hirudin-loaded PLGA/F-127 gels compared to control and heparin-treated animals. Moreover, hirudin-loaded materials showed an accelerated recovery in coordinated stepping and increased oligodendrocyte densities. Together, these data demonstrate that controlled delivery of hirudin accelerates functional recovery from a demyelination lesion in the spinal cord.
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57
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Franz S, Ciatipis M, Pfeifer K, Kierdorf B, Sandner B, Bogdahn U, Blesch A, Winner B, Weidner N. Thoracic rat spinal cord contusion injury induces remote spinal gliogenesis but not neurogenesis or gliogenesis in the brain. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102896. [PMID: 25050623 PMCID: PMC4106835 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
After spinal cord injury, transected axons fail to regenerate, yet significant, spontaneous functional improvement can be observed over time. Distinct central nervous system regions retain the capacity to generate new neurons and glia from an endogenous pool of progenitor cells and to compensate neural cell loss following certain lesions. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether endogenous cell replacement (neurogenesis or gliogenesis) in the brain (subventricular zone, SVZ; corpus callosum, CC; hippocampus, HC; and motor cortex, MC) or cervical spinal cord might represent a structural correlate for spontaneous locomotor recovery after a thoracic spinal cord injury. Adult Fischer 344 rats received severe contusion injuries (200 kDyn) of the mid-thoracic spinal cord using an Infinite Horizon Impactor. Uninjured rats served as controls. From 4 to 14 days post-injury, both groups received injections of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) to label dividing cells. Over the course of six weeks post-injury, spontaneous recovery of locomotor function occurred. Survival of newly generated cells was unaltered in the SVZ, HC, CC, and the MC. Neurogenesis, as determined by identification and quantification of doublecortin immunoreactive neuroblasts or BrdU/neuronal nuclear antigen double positive newly generated neurons, was not present in non-neurogenic regions (MC, CC, and cervical spinal cord) and unaltered in neurogenic regions (dentate gyrus and SVZ) of the brain. The lack of neuronal replacement in the brain and spinal cord after spinal cord injury precludes any relevance for spontaneous recovery of locomotor function. Gliogenesis was increased in the cervical spinal cord remote from the injury site, however, is unlikely to contribute to functional improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Franz
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mareva Ciatipis
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kathrin Pfeifer
- Department of Neurology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Birthe Kierdorf
- Department of Neurology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Beatrice Sandner
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ulrich Bogdahn
- Department of Neurology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Armin Blesch
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Beate Winner
- IZKF Junior Group III and BMBF Research Group Neuroscience, Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research, Nikolaus-Fiebiger Center for Molecular Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander University-Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Norbert Weidner
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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58
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Nonneman A, Robberecht W, Den Bosch LV. The role of oligodendroglial dysfunction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurodegener Dis Manag 2014; 4:223-39. [DOI: 10.2217/nmt.14.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY Healthy oligodendrocytes are crucial for neurons and abnormal functioning of these cells is involved in several neurodegenerative diseases. We will focus on oligodendroglial pathology in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), an adult-onset progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by selective motor neuron loss. Recent discoveries shed new light on the crucial role of oligodendrocytes in this fatal disease. We will first give an overview of the importance of good-functioning oligodendrocytes for neuronal health, in particular for motor neurons. Subsequently, we will discuss the recent data on oligodendroglial abnormalities in ALS. We conclude that oligodendrocytes should be considered as important contributors to motor neuron degeneration. As a consequence, oligodendrocytes are a promising new therapeutic target for ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annelies Nonneman
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Experimental Neurology and Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- VIB, Vesalius Research Center, Laboratory of Neurobiology, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wim Robberecht
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Experimental Neurology and Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- VIB, Vesalius Research Center, Laboratory of Neurobiology, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- University Hospitals Leuven, Department of Neurology, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ludo Van Den Bosch
- KU Leuven – University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Experimental Neurology and Leuven Research Institute for Neuroscience and Disease (LIND), B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
- VIB, Vesalius Research Center, Laboratory of Neurobiology, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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59
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Thomas AM, Seidlits SK, Goodman AG, Kukushliev TV, Hassani DM, Cummings BJ, Anderson AJ, Shea LD. Sonic hedgehog and neurotrophin-3 increase oligodendrocyte numbers and myelination after spinal cord injury. Integr Biol (Camb) 2014; 6:694-705. [PMID: 24873988 DOI: 10.1039/c4ib00009a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in loss of sensory and motor function below the level of injury and has limited available therapies. Multiple channel bridges have been investigated as a means to create a permissive environment for regeneration, with channels supporting axonal growth through the injury. Bridges support robust axon growth and myelination. Here, we investigated the cell types that myelinate axons in the bridges and whether over-expression of trophic factors can enhance myelination. Lentivirus encoding for neurotrophin-3 (NT3), sonic hedgehog (SHH) and the combination of these factors was delivered from bridges implanted into a lateral hemisection defect at T9/T10 in mice, and the response of endogenous progenitor cells within the spinal cord was investigated. Relative to control, the localized, sustained expression of these factors significantly increased growth of regenerating axons into the bridge and enhanced axon myelination 8 weeks after injury. SHH decreased the number of Sox2(+) cells and increased the number of Olig2(+) cells, whereas NT3 alone or in combination with SHH enhanced the numbers of GFAP(+) and Olig2(+) cells relative to control. For delivery of lentivirus encoding for either factor, we identified cells at various stages of differentiation along the oligodendrocyte lineage (e.g., O4(+), GalC(+)). Expression of NT3 enhanced myelination primarily by infiltrating Schwann cells, whereas SHH over-expression substantially increased myelination by oligodendrocytes. These studies further establish biomaterial-mediated gene delivery as a promising tool to direct activation and differentiation of endogenous progenitor cells for applications in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline M Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Stephanie K Seidlits
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.,Institute for BioNanotechnology in Medicine (IBNAM), Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Ashley G Goodman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Todor V Kukushliev
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Donna M Hassani
- Department of Psychology, Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Brian J Cummings
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.,Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Center, Irvine, CA, USA.,Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders (MIND), Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Aileen J Anderson
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.,Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Center, Irvine, CA, USA.,Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders (MIND), Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.,Institute for BioNanotechnology in Medicine (IBNAM), Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.,Center for Reproductive Science (CRS), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.,Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA.,Chemistry of Life Processes Institute (CLP), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
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60
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Sahinkaya FR, Milich LM, McTigue DM. Changes in NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes in a new model of intraspinal hemorrhage. Exp Neurol 2014; 255:113-26. [PMID: 24631375 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/22/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) evokes rapid deleterious and reparative glial reactions. Understanding the triggers for these responses is necessary for designing strategies to maximize repair. This study examined lesion formation and glial responses to vascular disruption and hemorrhage, a prominent feature of acute SCI. The specific role of hemorrhage is difficult to evaluate in trauma-induced lesions, because mechanical injury initiates many downstream responses. To isolate vascular disruption from trauma-induced effects, we created a novel and reproducible model of collagenase-induced intraspinal hemorrhage (ISH) and compared glial reactions between unilateral ISH and a hemi-contusion injury. Similar to contusion injuries, ISH lesions caused loss of myelin and axons and became filled with iron-laden macrophages. We hypothesized that intraspinal hemorrhage would also initiate reparative cellular responses including NG2+ oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) proliferation and oligodendrocyte genesis. Indeed, ISH induced OPC proliferation within 1d post-injury (dpi), which continued throughout the first week and resulted in a sustained elevation of NG2+ OPCs. ISH also caused oligodendrocyte loss within 4h that was sustained through 3d post-ISH. However, oligodendrogenesis, as determined by bromo-deoxyuridine (BrdU) positive oligodendrocytes, restored oligodendrocyte numbers by 7dpi, revealing that proliferating OPCs differentiated into new oligodendrocytes after ISH. The signaling molecules pERK1/2 and pSTAT3 were robustly increased acutely after ISH, with pSTAT3 being expressed in a portion of OPCs, suggesting that activators of this signaling cascade may initiate OPC responses. Aside from subtle differences in timing of OPC responses, changes in ISH tissue closely mimicked those in hemi-contusion tissue. These results are important for elucidating the contribution of hemorrhage to lesion formation and endogenous cell-mediated repair, and will provide the foundation for future studies geared toward identifying the role of specific blood components on injury and repair mechanisms. This understanding may provide new clinical targets for SCI and other devastating conditions such as intracerebral hemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Rezan Sahinkaya
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Studies Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Lindsay M Milich
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Dana M McTigue
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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61
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Zhou J, Lu P, Ren H, Zheng Z, Ji J, Liu H, Jiang F, Ling S, Heng BC, Hu X, Ouyang H. 17β-estradiol protects human eyelid-derived adipose stem cells against cytotoxicity and increases transplanted cell survival in spinal cord injury. J Cell Mol Med 2013; 18:326-43. [PMID: 24373095 PMCID: PMC3930419 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell transplantation represents a promising strategy for the repair of spinal cord injury (SCI). However, the low survival rate of the grafted cells is a major obstacle hindering clinical success because of ongoing secondary injury processes, which includes excitotoxicity, inflammation and oxidative stress. Previous studies have shown that 17b-estradiol (E2) protects several cell types against cytotoxicity. Thus, we examined the effects of E2 on the viability of human eyelid adipose-derived stem cells (hEASCs) in vitro with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced cell model and in vivo within a rat SCI model. Our results showed that E2 protected hEASCs against H2O2-induced cell death in vitro, and enhanced the survival of grafted hEASCs in vivo by reducing apoptosis. Additionally, E2 also enhanced the secretion of growth factors by hEASCs, thereby making the local microenvironment more conducive for tissue regeneration. Overall, E2 administration enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of hEASCs transplantation and facilitated motor function recovery after SCI. Hence, E2 administration may be an intervention of choice for enhancing survival of transplanted hEASCs after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhou
- Center for Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Hangzhou, China; Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical College, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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62
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McDonough A, Hoang AN, Monterrubio A, Greenhalgh S, Martínez-Cerdeño V. Compression injury in the mouse spinal cord elicits a specific proliferative response and distinct cell fate acquisition along rostro-caudal and dorso-ventral axes. Neuroscience 2013; 254:1-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2013] [Revised: 09/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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63
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Rizzo F, Riboldi G, Salani S, Nizzardo M, Simone C, Corti S, Hedlund E. Cellular therapy to target neuroinflammation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 71:999-1015. [PMID: 24100629 PMCID: PMC3928509 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1480-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by the selective vulnerability and progressive loss of discrete neuronal populations. Non-neuronal cells appear to significantly contribute to neuronal loss in diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson, and Alzheimer’s disease. In ALS, there is deterioration of motor neurons in the cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord, which control voluntary muscle groups. This results in muscle wasting, paralysis, and death. Neuroinflammation, characterized by the appearance of reactive astrocytes and microglia as well as macrophage and T-lymphocyte infiltration, appears to be highly involved in the disease pathogenesis, highlighting the involvement of non-neuronal cells in neurodegeneration. There appears to be cross-talk between motor neurons, astrocytes, and immune cells, including microglia and T-lymphocytes, which are subsequently activated. Currently, effective therapies for ALS are lacking; however, the non-cell autonomous nature of ALS may indicate potential therapeutic targets. Here, we review the mechanisms of action of astrocytes, microglia, and T-lymphocytes in the nervous system in health and during the pathogenesis of ALS. We also evaluate the therapeutic potential of these cellular populations, after transplantation into ALS patients and animal models of the disease, in modulating the environment surrounding motor neurons from pro-inflammatory to neuroprotective. We also thoroughly discuss the recent advances made in the field and caveats that need to be overcome for clinical translation of cell therapies aimed at modulating non-cell autonomous events to preserve remaining motor neurons in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Rizzo
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Neuroscience Section, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Neurology Unit, IRCCS Foundation Ca’Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20135 Milan, Italy
| | - Giulietta Riboldi
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Neuroscience Section, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Neurology Unit, IRCCS Foundation Ca’Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20135 Milan, Italy
| | - Sabrina Salani
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Neuroscience Section, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Neurology Unit, IRCCS Foundation Ca’Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20135 Milan, Italy
| | - Monica Nizzardo
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Neuroscience Section, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Neurology Unit, IRCCS Foundation Ca’Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20135 Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Simone
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Neuroscience Section, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Neurology Unit, IRCCS Foundation Ca’Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20135 Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Corti
- Dino Ferrari Centre, Neuroscience Section, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Neurology Unit, IRCCS Foundation Ca’Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20135 Milan, Italy
| | - Eva Hedlund
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius v. 8, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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Mesenchymal stromal-cell transplants induce oligodendrocyte progenitor migration and remyelination in a chronic demyelination model. Cell Death Dis 2013; 4:e779. [PMID: 23990019 PMCID: PMC3763464 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2013.304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Revised: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Demyelinating disorders such as leukodystrophies and multiple sclerosis are neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the progressive loss of myelin that may lead toward a chronic demyelination of the brain's white matter, impairing normal axonal conduction velocity and ultimately causing neurodegeneration. Current treatments modifying the pathological mechanisms are capable of ameliorating the disease; however, frequently, these therapies are not sufficient to repress the progressive demyelination into a chronic condition and permanent loss of function. To this end, we analyzed the effect that bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cell (BM-MSC) grafts exert in a chronically demyelinated mouse brain. As a result, oligodendrocyte progenitors were recruited surrounding the graft due to the expression of various trophic signals by the grafted MSCs. Although there was no significant reaction in the non-grafted side, in the grafted regions oligodendrocyte progenitors were detected. These progenitors were derived from the nearby tissue as well as from the neurogenic niches, including the subependymal zone and dentate gyrus. Once near the graft site, the cells matured to myelinating oligodendrocytes. Finally, electrophysiological studies demonstrated that axonal conduction velocity was significantly increased in the grafted side of the fimbria. In conclusion, we demonstrate here that in chronic demyelinated white matter, BM-MSC transplantation activates oligodendrocyte progenitors and induces remyelination in the tissue surrounding the stem cell graft.
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65
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Yuan YM, He C. The glial scar in spinal cord injury and repair. Neurosci Bull 2013; 29:421-35. [PMID: 23861090 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-013-1358-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial scarring following severe tissue damage and inflammation after spinal cord injury (SCI) is due to an extreme, uncontrolled form of reactive astrogliosis that typically occurs around the injury site. The scarring process includes the misalignment of activated astrocytes and the deposition of inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. Here, we first discuss recent developments in the molecular and cellular features of glial scar formation, with special focus on the potential cellular origin of scar-forming cells and the molecular mechanisms underlying glial scar formation after SCI. Second, we discuss the role of glial scar formation in the regulation of axonal regeneration and the cascades of neuro-inflammation. Last, we summarize the physical and pharmacological approaches targeting the modulation of glial scarring to better understand the role of glial scar formation in the repair of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Min Yuan
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology of Ministry of Education, Neuroscience Research Center of Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
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66
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Abstract
NG2 (nerve/glial antigen2)-expressing cells represent the largest population of postnatal progenitors in the central nervous system and have been classified as oligodendroglial progenitor cells, but the fate and function of these cells remain incompletely characterized. Previous studies have focused on characterizing these progenitors in the postnatal and adult subventricular zone and on analyzing the cellular and physiological properties of these cells in white and gray matter regions in the forebrain. In the present study, we examine the types of neural progeny generated by NG2 progenitors in the cerebellum by employing genetic fate mapping techniques using inducible Cre–Lox systems in vivo with two different mouse lines, the Plp-Cre-ERT2/Rosa26-EYFP and Olig2-Cre-ERT2/Rosa26-EYFP double-transgenic mice. Our data indicate that Olig2/Plp-positive NG2 cells display multipotential properties, primarily give rise to oligodendroglia but, surprisingly, also generate Bergmann glia, which are specialized glial cells in the cerebellum. The NG2+ cells also give rise to astrocytes, but not neurons. In addition, we show that glutamate signaling is involved in distinct NG2+ cell-fate/differentiation pathways and plays a role in the normal development of Bergmann glia. We also show an increase of cerebellar oligodendroglial lineage cells in response to hypoxic–ischemic injury, but the ability of NG2+ cells to give rise to Bergmann glia and astrocytes remains unchanged. Overall, our study reveals a novel Bergmann glia fate of Olig2/Plp-positive NG2 progenitors, demonstrates the differentiation of these progenitors into various functional glial cell types, and provides significant insights into the fate and function of Olig2/Plp-positive progenitor cells in health and disease.
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67
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Shechter R, Schwartz M. CNS sterile injury: just another wound healing? Trends Mol Med 2013; 19:135-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2012.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Revised: 11/26/2012] [Accepted: 11/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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68
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Remyelination reporter reveals prolonged refinement of spontaneously regenerated myelin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:4075-80. [PMID: 23431182 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1210293110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurological diseases and trauma often cause demyelination, resulting in the disruption of axonal function and integrity. Endogenous remyelination promotes recovery, but the process is not well understood because no method exists to definitively distinguish regenerated from preexisting myelin. To date, remyelinated segments have been defined as anything abnormally short and thin, without empirical data to corroborate these morphological assumptions. To definitively identify regenerated myelin, we used a transgenic mouse with an inducible membrane-bound reporter and targeted Cre recombinase expression to a subset of glial progenitor cells after spinal cord injury, yielding remarkably clear visualization of spontaneously regenerated myelin in vivo. Early after injury, the mean length of sheaths regenerated by Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes (OLs) was significantly shorter than control, uninjured myelin, confirming past assumptions. However, OL-regenerated sheaths elongated progressively over 6 mo to approach control values. Moreover, OL-regenerated myelin thickness was not significantly different from control myelin at most time points after injury. Thus, many newly formed OL sheaths were neither thinner nor shorter than control myelin, vitiating accepted dogmas of what constitutes regenerated myelin. We conclude that remyelination, once thought to be static, is dynamic and elongates independently of axonal growth, in contrast to stretch-based mechanisms proposed in development. Further, without clear identification, past assessments have underestimated the extent and quality of regenerated myelin.
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69
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Endogenous proliferation after spinal cord injury in animal models. Stem Cells Int 2012; 2012:387513. [PMID: 23316243 PMCID: PMC3539424 DOI: 10.1155/2012/387513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Revised: 10/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in motor and sensory deficits, the severity of which depends on the level and extent of the injury. Animal models for SCI research include transection, contusion, and compression mouse models. In this paper we will discuss the endogenous stem cell response to SCI in animal models. All SCI animal models experience a similar peak of cell proliferation three days after injury; however, each specific type of injury promotes a specific and distinct stem cell response. For example, the transection model results in a strong and localized initial increase of proliferation, while in contusion and compression models, the initial level of proliferation is lower but encompasses the entire rostrocaudal extent of the spinal cord. All injury types result in an increased ependymal proliferation, but only in contusion and compression models is there a significant level of proliferation in the lateral regions of the spinal cord. Finally, the fate of newly generated cells varies from a mainly oligodendrocyte fate in contusion and compression to a mostly astrocyte fate in the transection model. Here we will discuss the potential of endogenous stem/progenitor cell manipulation as a therapeutic tool to treat SCI.
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70
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Yoshioka N, Asou H, Hisanaga SI, Kawano H. The astrocytic lineage marker calmodulin-regulated spectrin-associated protein 1 (Camsap1): phenotypic heterogeneity of newly born Camsap1-expressing cells in injured mouse brain. J Comp Neurol 2012; 520:1301-17. [PMID: 22095662 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Calmodulin-regulated spectrin-associated protein 1 (Camsap1) has been recognized as a new marker for astrocytic lineage cells and is expressed on mature astrocytes in the adult brain (Yamamoto et al. [2009] J. Neurosci. Res. 87:503–513). In the present study, we found that newly born Camsap1-expressing cells exhibited regional heterogeneity in an early phase after stab injury of the mouse brain. In the surrounding area of the lesion site, Camsap1 was expressed on quiescent astrocytes. At 3 days after injury, Camsap1 immunoreactivity was upregulated on glial fibrillary acidic protein-immunoreactive (GFAP-ir) astrocytes. Some of these astrocytes incorporated bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) together with re-expression of the embryonic cytoskeleton protein nestin. In the neighboring region of the lesion cavity, Camsap1 was expressed on GFAP-negative cells. At 3 days after injury, GFAP-ir astrocytes were absent around the lesion cavity. At this stage, NG2-ir cells immunopositive for Camsap1 and immunonegative for GFAP were distributed in border of the lesion cavity. By 10 days, Camsap1 immunoreactivity was exclusively detected on GFAP-ir reactive astrocytes devoid of NG2 immunoreactivity. BrdU pulse-chase labeling assay suggested the differentiation of Camsap1+/NG2+ cells into Camsap1+/GFAP+ astrocytes. In the subependymal zone of the lateral ventricle, Camsap1-ir cells increased after injury. Camsap1 immunoreactivity was distributed on ependymal and subependymal cells bearing various astrocyte markers, and BrdU incorporation was enhanced on such Camsap1-ir cells after injury. These results suggest that newly born reactive astrocytes are derived from heterogeneous Camsap1-expressing cells in the injured brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nozomu Yoshioka
- Department of Brain Development and Neural Regeneration, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
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71
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Ju P, Zhang S, Yeap Y, Feng Z. Induction of neuronal phenotypes from NG2+ glial progenitors by inhibiting epidermal growth factor receptor in mouse spinal cord injury. Glia 2012; 60:1801-14. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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72
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Abrams MB, Nilsson I, Lewandowski SA, Kjell J, Codeluppi S, Olson L, Eriksson U. Imatinib enhances functional outcome after spinal cord injury. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38760. [PMID: 22723886 PMCID: PMC3378614 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated whether imatinib (Gleevec®, Novartis), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, could improve functional outcome in experimental spinal cord injury. Rats subjected to contusion spinal cord injury were treated orally with imatinib for 5 days beginning 30 minutes after injury. We found that imatinib significantly enhanced blood-spinal cord-barrier integrity, hindlimb locomotor function, sensorimotor integration, and bladder function, as well as attenuated astrogliosis and deposition of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, and increased tissue preservation. These improvements were associated with enhanced vascular integrity and reduced inflammation. Our results show that imatinib improves recovery in spinal cord injury by preserving axons and other spinal cord tissue components. The rapid time course of these beneficial effects suggests that the effects of imatinib are neuroprotective rather than neurorestorative. The positive effects on experimental spinal cord injury, obtained by oral delivery of a clinically used drug, makes imatinib an interesting candidate drug for clinical trials in spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew B Abrams
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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73
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Shimada IS, LeComte MD, Granger JC, Quinlan NJ, Spees JL. Self-renewal and differentiation of reactive astrocyte-derived neural stem/progenitor cells isolated from the cortical peri-infarct area after stroke. J Neurosci 2012; 32:7926-40. [PMID: 22674268 PMCID: PMC3398807 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4303-11.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2011] [Revised: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In response to stroke, subpopulations of cortical reactive astrocytes proliferate and express proteins commonly associated with neural stem/progenitor cells such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and Nestin. To examine the stem cell-related properties of cortical reactive astrocytes after injury, we generated GFAP-CreER(TM);tdRFP mice to permanently label reactive astrocytes. We isolated cells from the cortical peri-infarct area 3 d after stroke, and cultured them in neural stem cell medium containing epidermal growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor. We observed tdRFP-positive neural spheres in culture, suggestive of tdRFP-positive reactive astrocyte-derived neural stem/progenitor cells (Rad-NSCs). Cultured Rad-NSCs self-renewed and differentiated into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. Pharmacological inhibition and conditional knock-out mouse studies showed that Presenilin 1 and Notch 1 controlled neural sphere formation by Rad-NSCs after stroke. To examine the self-renewal and differentiation potential of Rad-NSCs in vivo, Rad-NSCs were transplanted into embryonic, neonatal, and adult mouse brains. Transplanted Rad-NSCs were observed to persist in the subventricular zone and secondary Rad-NSCs were isolated from the host brain 28 d after transplantation. In contrast with neurogenic postnatal day 4 NSCs and adult NSCs from the subventricular zone, transplanted Rad-NSCs differentiated into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, but not neurons, demonstrating that Rad-NSCs had restricted differentiation in vivo. Our results indicate that Rad-NSCs are unlikely to be suitable for neuronal replacement in the absence of genetic or epigenetic modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Issei S. Shimada
- Department of Medicine, Stem Cell Core, University of Vermont, Colchester, Vermont 05446
| | - Matthew D. LeComte
- Department of Medicine, Stem Cell Core, University of Vermont, Colchester, Vermont 05446
| | - Jerrica C. Granger
- Department of Medicine, Stem Cell Core, University of Vermont, Colchester, Vermont 05446
| | - Noah J. Quinlan
- Department of Medicine, Stem Cell Core, University of Vermont, Colchester, Vermont 05446
| | - Jeffrey L. Spees
- Department of Medicine, Stem Cell Core, University of Vermont, Colchester, Vermont 05446
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74
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A review of the role of stem cells in the development and treatment of glioma. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2012; 154:951-69; discussion 969. [PMID: 22527576 DOI: 10.1007/s00701-012-1338-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The neurosurgical management of patients with intrinsic glial cancers is one of the most rapidly evolving areas of practice. This has been fuelled by advances in surgical technique not only in cytoreduction but also in drug delivery. Further innovation will depend on a deeper understanding of the biology of the disease and an appreciation of the limitations of current knowledge. Here we review the controversial topic of cancer stem cells applied to glioma to provide neurosurgeons with a working overview. It is now recognised that the adult human brain contains regionally specified cell populations capable of self-renewal that may contribute to tumour growth and maintenance following accumulated mutational change. Tumour cells adapted to maintain growth demonstrate some stem-like characteristics and as such constitute a legitimate therapeutic target. Cellular reprogramming technologies raise the potential of developing stem cells as novel surgical tools to target disease and possibly ameliorate some of the consequences of treatment. Achieving these goals remains a significant challenge to neurosurgical oncologists, not least in challenging how we think about treating brain cancer. This review will briefly examine our understanding of adult stem cells within the brain, the evidence that they contribute to the development of brain tumours as tumour-initiating cells, and the potential implications for therapy. It will also look at the role stem cells may play in the future management of glioma.
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75
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Honsa P, Pivonkova H, Dzamba D, Filipova M, Anderova M. Polydendrocytes display large lineage plasticity following focal cerebral ischemia. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36816. [PMID: 22590616 PMCID: PMC3349640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 04/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Polydendrocytes (also known as NG2 glial cells) constitute a fourth major glial cell type in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) that is distinct from other cell types. Although much evidence suggests that these cells are multipotent in vitro, their differentiation potential in vivo under physiological or pathophysiological conditions is still controversial. To follow the fate of polydendrocytes after CNS pathology, permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo), a commonly used model of focal cerebral ischemia, was carried out on adult NG2creBAC:ZEG double transgenic mice, in which enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) is expressed in polydendrocytes and their progeny. The phenotype of the EGFP+ cells was analyzed using immunohistochemistry and the patch-clamp technique 3, 7 and 14 days after MCAo. In sham-operated mice (control), EGFP+ cells in the cortex expressed protein markers and displayed electrophysiological properties of polydendrocytes and oligodendrocytes. We did not detect any co-labeling of EGFP with neuronal, microglial or astroglial markers in this region, thus proving polydendrocyte unipotent differentiation potential under physiological conditions. Three days after MCAo the number of EGFP+ cells in the gliotic tissue dramatically increased when compared to control animals, and these cells displayed properties of proliferating cells. However, in later phases after MCAo a large subpopulation of EGFP+ cells expressed protein markers and electrophysiological properties of astrocytes that contribute to the formation of glial scar. Importantly, some EGFP+ cells displayed membrane properties typical for neural precursor cells, and moreover these cells expressed doublecortin (DCX) – a marker of newly-derived neuronal cells. Taken together, our data indicate that polydendrocytes in the dorsal cortex display multipotent differentiation potential after focal ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Honsa
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
- 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Helena Pivonkova
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
- 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - David Dzamba
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
- 2nd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marcela Filipova
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslava Anderova
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
- * E-mail:
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76
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Lowry N, Goderie SK, Lederman P, Charniga C, Gooch MR, Gracey KD, Banerjee A, Punyani S, Silver J, Kane RS, Stern JH, Temple S. The effect of long-term release of Shh from implanted biodegradable microspheres on recovery from spinal cord injury in mice. Biomaterials 2012; 33:2892-901. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2011] [Accepted: 12/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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77
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Kumamaru H, Saiwai H, Ohkawa Y, Yamada H, Iwamoto Y, Okada S. Age-related differences in cellular and molecular profiles of inflammatory responses after spinal cord injury. J Cell Physiol 2012; 227:1335-46. [PMID: 21604270 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.22845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Previous experimental and clinical studies have suggested that the behavioral and pathological outcomes of spinal cord injury (SCI) are affected by the individual's age at the time of injury. However, the underlying mechanism responsible for these differences remains elusive because it is difficult to match injuries of similar severities between young and adult animals due to differences in the sizes of their respective spinal cords. In this study, the spinal cord size-matched young (4-week-old) and adult (10-week-old) mice were compared to evaluate their locomotor functions and inflammatory cellular/molecular responses after standardized contusion SCI. During the acute phase of SCI, young mice showed better functional recovery and lower pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines compared to adult mice. Flow-cytometric analysis revealed that the time courses of leukocyte infiltration were comparable between both groups, while the number of infiltrating neutrophils significantly decreased from 6 h after SCI in young mice. By combining flow-cytometric isolation and gene expression analysis of each inflammatory cell fraction, we found that microglial cells immediately initiate the production of several cytokines in response to SCI, which serve as major sources of IL-6, TNFa, and CXCL1 in injured spinal cord. Interestingly, the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines but not anti-inflammatory cytokines by microglia was significantly lower in young mice compared to that in adult mice at 3 h after SCI, which will be attributed to the attenuation of the subsequent neutrophil infiltration. These results highlight age-related differences in pro-inflammatory properties of microglial cells that contribute to the amplification of detrimental inflammatory responses after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromi Kumamaru
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan
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78
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Kim WR, Kim JY, Moon Y, Kim HJ, Kim H, Sun W. Regional difference of reactive astrogliosis following traumatic brain injury revealed by hGFAP-GFP transgenic mice. Neurosci Lett 2012; 513:155-9. [PMID: 22343312 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Revised: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/08/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Reactive astrocytes greatly influence the wound healing and neuronal regeneration processes following brain injury. However, the origin and fate of reactive astrocytes appear to be different depending on the type, severity and duration of brain injury. Using the cryogenic traumatic brain injury model, here we comprehensively addressed the regional differences of reactive astrocytes in the injured cortex. In the proximal region of injury site, NG2-expressing and cytoplasmic Olig2-labeled cells were densely localized 3 days after the injury. Next to this proximal layer, most of reactive astrocytes did not express NG2 but exhibited radial glia-like shape with elongated processes. Accordingly, they expressed the progenitor or radial glial markers, such as vimentin, brain lipid binding protein (BLBP) and the green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the human GFAP (hGFAP) promoter. However, only few glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expressing astrocytes were found in this layer. Distal to the injury site, most of astrocytes strongly expressed GFAP with hypertonic morphology. At day 15 after injury, all layers expressing GFAP and other marker expressions disappeared, indicating the termination of reactive astrogliosis. Taken together, our data suggest that reactive astrogliosis occurs in a regionally segregated manner in the early phase of brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woon Ryoung Kim
- Department of Anatomy, BK21 Program, Korea University College of Medicine, 126-1 Anam-Dong, Sungbuk-Gu, Seoul 136-705, Republic of Korea
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79
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Morrens J, Van Den Broeck W, Kempermann G. Glial cells in adult neurogenesis. Glia 2011; 60:159-74. [PMID: 22076934 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Adult neurogenesis is an exceptional feature of the adult brain and in an intriguing way bridges between neuronal and glial neurobiology. Essentially, all classes of glial cells are directly or indirectly linked to this process. Cells with astrocytic features, for example, serve as radial glia-like stem cells in the two neurogenic regions of the adult brain, the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles, producing new neurons, create a microenvironment permissive for neurogenesis, and are themselves generated alongside the new neurons in an associated but independently regulated process. Oligodendrocytes are generated from precursor cells intermingled with those generating neurons in an independent lineage. NG2 cells have certain precursor cell properties and are found throughout the brain parenchyma. They respond to extrinsic stimuli and injury but do not generate neurons even though they can express some preneuronal markers. Microglia have positive and negative regulatory effects as constituents of the "neurogenic niche". Ependymal cells play incompletely understood roles in adult neurogenesis, but under certain conditions might exert (back-up) precursor cell functions. Glial contributions to adult neurogenesis can be direct or indirect and are mediated by mechanisms ranging from gap-junctional to paracrine and endocrine. As the two neurogenic regions differ between each other and both from the non-neurogenic rest of the brain, the question arises in how far regionalization of both the glia-like precursor cells as well as of the glial cells determines site-specific "neurogenic permissiveness." In any case, however, "neurogenesis" appears to be an essentially glial achievement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Morrens
- Department of Morphology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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80
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Figueroa JD, Cordero K, Baldeosingh K, Torrado AI, Walker RL, Miranda JD, Leon MD. Docosahexaenoic acid pretreatment confers protection and functional improvements after acute spinal cord injury in adult rats. J Neurotrauma 2011; 29:551-66. [PMID: 21970623 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2011.2141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, few interventions have been shown to successfully limit the progression of secondary damage events associated with the acute phase of spinal cord injury (SCI). Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 n-3) is neuroprotective when administered following SCI, but its potential as a pretreatment modality has not been addressed. This study used a novel DHA pretreatment experimental paradigm that targets acute cellular and molecular events during the first week after SCI in rats. We found that DHA pretreatment reduced functional deficits during the acute phase of injury, as shown by significant improvements in Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor scores, and the detection of transcranial magnetic motor evoked potentials (tcMMEPs) compared to vehicle-pretreated animals. We demonstrated that, at 7 days post-injury, DHA pretreatment significantly increased the percentage of white matter sparing, and resulted in axonal preservation, compared to the vehicle injections. We found a significant increase in the survival of NG2+, APC+, and NeuN+ cells in the ventrolateral funiculus (VLF), dorsal corticospinal tract (dCST), and ventral horns, respectively. Interestingly, these DHA protective effects were observed despite the lack of inhibition of inflammatory markers for monocytes/macrophages and astrocytes, ED1/OX42 and GFAP, respectively. DHA pretreatment induced levels of Akt and cyclic AMP responsive element binding protein (CREB) mRNA and protein. This study shows for the first time that DHA pretreatment ameliorates functional deficits, and increases tissue sparing and precursor cell survival. Further, our data suggest that DHA-mediated activation of pro-survival/anti-apoptotic pathways may be independent of its anti-inflammatory effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnny D Figueroa
- Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine and Department of Basic Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, USA
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81
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Macroglial plasticity and the origins of reactive astroglia in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurosci 2011; 31:11914-28. [PMID: 21849552 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1759-11.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulations of hypertrophic, intensely glial fibrillary acidic protein-positive (GFAP(+)) astroglia, which also express immunoreactive nestin and vimentin, are prominent features of multiple sclerosis lesions. The issues of the cellular origin of hypertrophic GFAP(+)/vimentin(+)/nestin(+) "reactive" astroglia and also the plasticities and lineage relationships among three macroglial progenitor populations-oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), astrocytes and ependymal cells-during multiple sclerosis and other CNS diseases remain controversial. We used genetic fate-mappings with a battery of inducible Cre drivers (Olig2-Cre-ER(T2), GFAP-Cre-ER(T2), FoxJ1-Cre-ER(T2) and Nestin-Cre-ER(T2)) to explore these issues in adult mice with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The proliferative rate of spinal cord OPCs rose fivefold above control levels during EAE, and numbers of oligodendroglia increased as well, but astrogenesis from OPCs was rare. Spinal cord ependymal cells, previously reported to be multipotent, did not augment their low proliferative rate, nor give rise to astroglia or OPCs. Instead, the hypertrophic, vimentin(+)/nestin(+), reactive astroglia that accumulated in spinal cord in this multiple sclerosis model were derived by proliferation and phenotypic transformation of fibrous astroglia in white matter, and solely by phenotypic transformation of protoplasmic astroglia in gray matter. This comprehensive analysis of macroglial plasticity in EAE helps to clarify the origins of astrogliosis in CNS inflammatory demyelinative disorders.
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82
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Durham-Lee JC, Wu Y, Mokkapati VUL, Paulucci-Holthauzen AA, Nesic O. Induction of angiopoietin-2 after spinal cord injury. Neuroscience 2011; 202:454-64. [PMID: 22020092 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.09.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) have opposing effects on blood vessels, with Ang-2 being mainly induced during the endothelial barrier breakdown. It is known that spinal cord injury (SCI) induces lasting decreases in Ang-1 levels, underlying endothelial barrier disruption, but the expression of Ang-2 in spinal cord injury has not been studied. We characterized Ang-2 after SCI using a clinically relevant rat model of contusion SCI. We found that SCI induces marked and persistent upregulation of Ang-2 (up to 10 weeks after SCI), which does not reflect well-characterized temporal profile of the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) breakdown after SCI, and thus suggests other role(s) for Ang-2 in injured spinal cords. Furthermore, we also found that higher Ang-2 levels were associated with more successful locomotor recovery after SCI, both in SCI rats with markedly better spontaneous motor recovery and in SCI rats receiving a neuroprotective pharmacological intervention (amiloride), suggesting a beneficial role for Ang-2 in injured spinal cords. Immunocytochemical analyses revealed that Ang-2 was not induced in endothelial cells, but in perivascular and non-vascular cells labeled with glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) or with chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (NG2). Therefore, it is unlikely that induction of Ang-2 contributes to vascular dysfunction underlying functional impairment after SCI, but rather that it contributes to the beneficial pro-angiogenic and/or gliogenic processes underlying recovery processes after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Durham-Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-1072, USA
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83
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Target populations for first-in-human embryonic stem cell research in spinal cord injury. Cell Stem Cell 2011; 8:468-75. [PMID: 21549321 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2011.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Geron recently announced that it had begun enrolling patients in the world's first-in-human clinical trial involving cells derived from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). This trial raises important questions regarding the future of hESC-based therapies, especially in spinal cord injury (SCI) patients. We address some safety and efficacy concerns with this research, as well as the ethics of fair subject selection. We consider other populations that might be better for this research: chronic complete SCI patients for a safety trial, subacute incomplete SCI patients for an efficacy trial, and perhaps primary progressive multiple sclerosis (MS) patients for a combined safety and efficacy trial.
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84
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Sosa RA, Forsthuber TG. The critical role of antigen-presentation-induced cytokine crosstalk in the central nervous system in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2011; 31:753-68. [PMID: 21919736 PMCID: PMC3189551 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2011.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 06/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a debilitating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that has been extensively studied using the animal model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). It is believed that CD4(+) T lymphocytes play an important role in the pathogenesis of this disease by mediating the demyelination of neuronal axons via secretion of proinflammatory cytokines resulting in the clinical manifestations. Although a great deal of information has been gained in the last several decades about the cells involved in the inflammatory and disease mediating process, important questions have remained unanswered. It has long been held that initial neuroantigen presentation and T cell activation events occur in the immune periphery and then translocate to the CNS. However, an increasing body of evidence suggests that antigen (Ag) presentation might initiate within the CNS itself. Importantly, it has remained unresolved which antigen presenting cells (APCs) in the CNS are the first to acquire and present neuroantigens during EAE/MS to T cells, and what the conditions are under which this takes place, ie, whether this occurs in the healthy CNS or only during inflammatory conditions and what the related cytokine microenvironment is comprised of. In particular, the central role of interferon-γ as a primary mediator of CNS pathology during EAE has been challenged by the emergence of Th17 cells producing interleukin-17. This review describes our current understanding of potential APCs in the CNS and the contribution of these and other CNS-resident cells to disease pathology. Additionally, we discuss the question of where Ag presentation is initiated and under what conditions neuroantigens are made available to APCs with special emphasis on which cytokines may be important in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca A Sosa
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, Texas 78249, USA
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85
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Durham-Lee JC, Mokkapati VUL, Johnson KM, Nesic O. Amiloride improves locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2011; 28:1319-26. [PMID: 21534729 PMCID: PMC3136742 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2011.1921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amiloride is a drug approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration, which has shown neuroprotective effects in different neuropathological conditions, including brain injury or brain ischemia, but has not been tested in spinal cord injury (SCI). We tested amiloride's therapeutic potential in a clinically relevant rat model of contusion SCI inflicted at the thoracic segment T10. Rats receiving daily administration of amiloride from 24 h to 35 days after SCI exhibited a significant improvement in hindlimb locomotor ability at 21, 28, and 35 days after injury, when compared to vehicle-treated SCI rats. Rats receiving amiloride treatment also exhibited a significant increase in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) levels 35 days after SCI at the site of injury (T10) when compared to vehicle-treated controls, which indicated a partial reverse in the decrease of MOG observed with injury. Our data indicate that higher levels of MOG correlate with improved locomotor recovery after SCI, and that this may explain the beneficial effects of amiloride after SCI. Given that amiloride treatment after SCI caused a significant preservation of myelin levels, and improved locomotor recovery, it should be considered as a possible therapeutic intervention after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julieann C. Durham-Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Venkata Usha L. Mokkapati
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Kathia M. Johnson
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Olivera Nesic
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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86
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Rehermann MI, Santiñaque FF, López-Carro B, Russo RE, Trujillo-Cenóz O. Cell proliferation and cytoarchitectural remodeling during spinal cord reconnection in the fresh-water turtle Trachemys dorbignyi. Cell Tissue Res 2011; 344:415-33. [PMID: 21574060 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-011-1173-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Accepted: 04/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In fresh-water turtles, the bridge connecting the proximal and caudal stumps of transected spinal cords consists of regenerating axons running through a glial cellular matrix. To understand the process leading to the generation of the scaffold bridging the lesion, we analyzed the mitotic activity triggered by spinal injury in animals maintained alive for 20-30 days after spinal cord transection. Flow cytometry and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-labeling experiments revealed a significant increment of cycling cells around the lesion epicenter. BrdU-tagged cells maintained a close association with regenerating axons. Most dividing cells expressed the brain lipid-binding protein (BLBP). Cells with BrdU-positive nuclei expressed glial fibrillary acidic protein. As spinal cord regeneration involves dynamic cell rearrangements, we explored the ultra-structure of the bridge and found cells with the aspect of immature oligodendrocytes forming an embryonic-like microenvironment. These cells supported and ensheathed regenerating axons that were recognized by immunocytological and electron-microscopical procedures. Since functional recovery depends on proper impulse transmission, we examined the anatomical axon-glia relationships near the lesion epicenter. Computer-assisted three-dimensional models revealed helical axon-glial junctions in which the intercellular space appeared to be reduced (5-7 nm). Serial-sectioning analysis revealed that fibril-containing processes provided myelinating axon sheaths. Thus, disruption of the ependymal layer elicits mitotic activity predominantly in radial glia expressing BLBP on the lateral aspects of the ependyma. These cycling cells seem to migrate and contribute to the bridge providing the main support and sheaths for regenerating axons.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Inés Rehermann
- Departamento de Neurofisiología Celular y Molecular, Avenida Italia 3318, Montevideo, Uruguay
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87
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Abstract
Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are particularly susceptible to the toxicity of the acute lesion environment after spinal cord injury (SCI). They undergo both necrosis and apoptosis acutely, with apoptosis continuing at chronic time points. Loss of OLs causes demyelination and impairs axon function and survival. In parallel, a rapid and protracted OL progenitor cell proliferative response occurs, especially at the lesion borders. Proliferating and migrating OL progenitor cells differentiate into myelinating OLs, which remyelinate demyelinated axons starting at 2 weeks post-injury. The progression of OL lineage cells into mature OLs in the adult after injury recapitulates development to some degree, owing to the plethora of factors within the injury milieu. Although robust, this endogenous oligogenic response is insufficient against OL loss and demyelination. First, in this review we analyze the major spatial-temporal mechanisms of OL loss, replacement, and myelination, with the purpose of highlighting potential areas of intervention after SCI. We then discuss studies on OL protection and replacement. Growth factors have been used both to boost the endogenous progenitor response, and in conjunction with progenitor transplantation to facilitate survival and OL fate. Considerable progress has been made with embryonic stem cell-derived cells and adult neural progenitor cells. For therapies targeting oligogenesis to be successful, endogenous responses and the effects of the acute and chronic lesion environment on OL lineage cells must be understood in detail, and in relation, the optimal therapeutic window for such strategies must also be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshata Almad
- Neuroscience Graduate Studies Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
| | - F. Rezan Sahinkaya
- Neuroscience Graduate Studies Program, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
| | - Dana M. McTigue
- Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, 788 Biomedical Research Tower, 460 W. 12th Ave, Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
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88
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Barnabé-Heider F, Göritz C, Sabelström H, Takebayashi H, Pfrieger FW, Meletis K, Frisén J. Origin of new glial cells in intact and injured adult spinal cord. Cell Stem Cell 2011; 7:470-82. [PMID: 20887953 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2010.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 436] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Revised: 03/11/2010] [Accepted: 07/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Several distinct cell types in the adult central nervous system have been suggested to act as stem or progenitor cells generating new cells under physiological or pathological conditions. We have assessed the origin of new cells in the adult mouse spinal cord by genetic fate mapping. Oligodendrocyte progenitors self-renew, give rise to new mature oligodendrocytes, and constitute the dominating proliferating cell population in the intact adult spinal cord. In contrast, astrocytes and ependymal cells, which are restricted to limited self-duplication in the intact spinal cord, generate the largest number of cells after spinal cord injury. Only ependymal cells generate progeny of multiple fates, and neural stem cell activity in the intact and injured adult spinal cord is confined to this cell population. We provide an integrated view of how several distinct cell types contribute in complementary ways to cell maintenance and the reaction to injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanie Barnabé-Heider
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institute, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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89
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Domowicz MS, Henry JG, Wadlington N, Navarro A, Kraig RP, Schwartz NB. Astrocyte precursor response to embryonic brain injury. Brain Res 2011; 1389:35-49. [PMID: 21396923 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Revised: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Penetrating traumatic insult during pregnancy is a leading cause of human fetal demise; in particular, trauma to the brain may lead to devastating long-term cognitive sequelae. Perinatal brain injury involves glial precursors, but the neural mechanisms controlling astrocyte ontogeny after injury remain incompletely understood, partly due to a lack of appropriate markers and animal models. We analyzed astrocyte precursor response to injury at the beginning (E11) and peak (E15) of gliogenesis in an avian tectal model of penetrating embryonic brain trauma, without confounding maternal and sibling effects. At both ages, lateral ventricular dilatation, necrotic foci, periventricular cysts and intraventricular hemorrhages were observed distal to stab wounds two days after a unilateral stab injury to optic tecta. Neuronal (TUBB3) and oligodendrocyte precursor (PLP) markers were down-regulated, even far-removed from the wound site. In contrast, the mature astrocyte marker, GFAP, was up-regulated at the wound site, around necrotic areas and cysts, plus in usual areas of GFAP expression. Increased inflammatory response and apoptotic cell death were also confirmed in the injured tecta. Increased expression of NFIA, SOX9 and GLAST at the wound site and in the ventricular zone (VZ) of the injured tecta indicated an astroglial precursor response. However, cell division increased in the VZ only in early (E11) injury, but not later (E15), indicating that in late injury the astrogliogenesis occurring after acute injury is predominantly due to precursor differentiation rather than precursor proliferation. The inability to replenish the glial precursor pool during the critical period of vulnerability to injury may be an important cause of subsequent developmental abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam S Domowicz
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Chicago Medical Center, 5841 S. Maryland Avenue, MC 5058, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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90
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Robel S, Berninger B, Götz M. The stem cell potential of glia: lessons from reactive gliosis. Nat Rev Neurosci 2011; 12:88-104. [PMID: 21248788 DOI: 10.1038/nrn2978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 388] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Astrocyte-like cells, which act as stem cells in the adult brain, reside in a few restricted stem cell niches. However, following brain injury, glia outside these niches acquire or reactivate stem cell potential as part of reactive gliosis. Recent studies have begun to uncover the molecular pathways involved in this process. A comparison of molecular pathways activated after injury with those involved in the normal neural stem cell niches highlights strategies that could overcome the inhibition of neurogenesis outside the stem cell niche and instruct parenchymal glia towards a neurogenic fate. This new view on reactive glia therefore suggests a widespread endogenous source of cells with stem cell potential, which might potentially be harnessed for local repair strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Robel
- Physiological Genomics, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Germany
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91
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92
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McTigue DM, Sahinkaya FR. The fate of proliferating cells in the injured adult spinal cord. Stem Cell Res Ther 2011; 2:7. [PMID: 21345248 PMCID: PMC3092147 DOI: 10.1186/scrt48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous cell proliferation and gliogenesis have been extensively documented in spinal cord injury, particularly in terms of proliferating oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. Despite the characterization of different proliferating cell types in the intact and injured spinal cord, the exact sources of new glial cells have remained elusive. Most studies on cell fate within the spinal cord have focused on following the progeny of one specific population of dividing cells, thus making it difficult to understand the relative contributions of each mitotic cell population to the formation of new glia after spinal cord injury. A recent study from the Frisen laboratory is the first to quantitatively and qualitatively characterize the response of ependymal cells, oligodendrocyte progenitors, and astrocytes in parallel by using transgenic reporter mice corresponding to each cell type. The investigators characterize the distribution and phenotype of progeny, along with the quantitative contributions of each progenitor type to newly formed cells. Their findings provide valuable insight into the endogenous cell replacement response to spinal cord injury, thus paving the way for advances in modulating specific populations of progenitor cells with the goal of promoting structural and functional recovery after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana M McTigue
- The Center for Brain and Spinal Cord Repair, The Ohio State University, 795 12th Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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93
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Muja N, Cohen ME, Zhang J, Kim H, Gilad AA, Walczak P, Ben-Hur T, Bulte JWM. Neural precursors exhibit distinctly different patterns of cell migration upon transplantation during either the acute or chronic phase of EAE: a serial MR imaging study. Magn Reson Med 2011; 65:1738-49. [PMID: 21305597 DOI: 10.1002/mrm.22757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2010] [Revised: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
As the complex pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis contributes to spatiotemporal variations in the trophic micromilieu of the central nervous system, the optimal intervention period for cell-replacement therapy must be systematically defined. We applied serial, 3D high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging to transplanted neural precursor cells (NPCs) labeled with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine, and compared the migration pattern of NPCs in acute inflamed (n = 10) versus chronic demyelinated (n = 9) brains of mice induced with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). Serial in vivo and ex-vivo 3D magnetic resonance imaging revealed that NPCs migrated 2.5 ± 1.3 mm along the corpus callosum in acute EAE. In chronic EAE, cell migration was slightly reduced (2.3 ± 1.3 mm) and only occurred in the lateral side of transplantation. Surprisingly, in 6/10 acute EAE brains, NPCs were found to migrate in a radial pattern along RECA-1(+) cortical blood vessels, in a pattern hitherto only reported for migrating glioblastoma cells. This striking radial biodistribution pattern was not detected in either chronic EAE or disease-free control brains. In both acute and chronic EAE brain, Iba1(+) microglia/macrophage number was significantly higher in central nervous system regions containing migrating NPCs. The existence of differential NPC migration patterns is an important consideration for implementing future translational studies in multiple sclerosis patients with variable disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naser Muja
- Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Division of MR Research, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205-2195, USA
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94
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Dityatev A, Seidenbecher CI, Schachner M. Compartmentalization from the outside: the extracellular matrix and functional microdomains in the brain. Trends Neurosci 2011; 33:503-12. [PMID: 20832873 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2010.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2010] [Revised: 08/13/2010] [Accepted: 08/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the central nervous system is well recognized as a migration and diffusion barrier that allows for the trapping and presentation of growth factors to their receptors at the cell surface. Recent data highlight the importance of ECM molecules as synaptic and perisynaptic scaffolds that direct the clustering of neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic compartment and that present barriers to reduce the lateral diffusion of membrane proteins away from synapses. The ECM also contributes to the migration and differentiation of stem cells in the neurogenic niche and organizes the polarized localization of ion channels and transporters at contacts between astrocytic processes and blood vessels. Thus, the ECM contributes to functional compartmentalization in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Dityatev
- Department of Neuroscience and Brain Technologies, Italian Institute of Technology, via Morego 30, Genova, Italy.
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95
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Kang SH, Fukaya M, Yang JK, Rothstein JD, Bergles DE. NG2+ CNS glial progenitors remain committed to the oligodendrocyte lineage in postnatal life and following neurodegeneration. Neuron 2011; 68:668-81. [PMID: 21092857 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2010.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 573] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The mammalian CNS contains a ubiquitous population of glial progenitors known as NG2+ cells that have the ability to develop into oligodendrocytes and undergo dramatic changes in response to injury and demyelination. Although it has been reported that NG2+ cells are multipotent, their fate in health and disease remains controversial. Here, we generated PDGFαR-CreER transgenic mice and followed their fate in vivo in the developing and adult CNS. These studies revealed that NG2+ cells in the postnatal CNS generate myelinating oligodendrocytes, but not astrocytes or neurons. In regions of neurodegeneration in the spinal cord of ALS mice, NG2+ cells exhibited enhanced proliferation and accelerated differentiation into oligodendrocytes but remained committed to the oligodendrocyte lineage. These results indicate that NG2+ cells in the normal CNS are oligodendrocyte precursors with restricted lineage potential and that cell loss and gliosis are not sufficient to alter the lineage potential of these progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin H Kang
- The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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96
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NG2 glia generate new oligodendrocytes but few astrocytes in a murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model of demyelinating disease. J Neurosci 2011; 30:16383-90. [PMID: 21123584 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3411-10.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The adult mammalian brain and spinal cord contain glial precursors that express platelet-derived growth factor receptor α subunit (PDGFRA) and the NG2 proteoglycan. These "NG2 cells" descend from oligodendrocyte precursors in the perinatal CNS and continue to generate myelinating oligodendrocytes in the gray and white matter of the postnatal brain. It has been proposed that NG2 cells can also generate reactive astrocytes at sites of CNS injury or demyelination. To test this we examined the fates of PDGFRA/NG2 cells in the mouse spinal cord during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)--a demyelinating condition that models some aspects of multiple sclerosis in humans. We administered tamoxifen to Pdgfra-CreER(T2):Rosa26R-YFP mice to induce yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) expression in PDGFRA/NG2 cells and their differentiated progeny. We subsequently induced EAE and observed a large (>4-fold) increase in the local density of YFP(+) cells, >90% of which were oligodendrocyte lineage cells. Many of these became CC1-positive, NG2-negative differentiated oligodendrocytes that expressed myelin markers CNP and Tmem10/Opalin. PDGFRA/NG2 cells generated very few GFAP(+)-reactive astrocytes (1-2% of all YFP(+) cells) or NeuN(+) neurons (<0.02%). Thus, PDGFRA/NG2 cells act predominantly as a reservoir of new oligodendrocytes in the demyelinated spinal cord.
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97
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Rivera FJ, Steffenhagen C, Kremer D, Kandasamy M, Sandner B, Couillard-Despres S, Weidner N, Küry P, Aigner L. Deciphering the oligodendrogenic program of neural progenitors: cell intrinsic and extrinsic regulators. Stem Cells Dev 2010; 19:595-606. [PMID: 19938982 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2009.0293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the developing and adult CNS, neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) and oligodendroglial progenitor cells (OPCs) follow an oligodendrogenic process with the aim of myelinating axons. This process is to a high degree regulated by an oligodendrogenic program (OPr) composed of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that modulate the different steps required for NSPCs to differentiate into myelinating oligodendrocytes. Even though NSPCs and OPCs are present in the diseased CNS and have the capacity to generate oligodendrocytes, sparse remyelination of axons constitutes a major constraint in therapies toward multiple sclerosis (MS) and spinal cord injury (SCI). Lack of pro-oligodendrogenic factors and presence of anti-oligodendrogenic activities are thought to be the main reasons for this limitation. Thus, molecular and cellular strategies aiming at remyelination and at targeting such pro- and anti-oligodendrogenic mechanisms are currently under investigation. The present review summarizes the current knowledge on the OPr; it implements our own findings on mesenchymal stem cell-derived pro-oligodendroglial factors and on the role of p57/kip2 in oligodendroglial differentiation. Moreover, it describes molecular and cellular approaches for the development of future therapies toward remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Rivera
- Institute of Molecular Regenerative Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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98
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Sun F, Lin CLG, McTigue D, Shan X, Tovar CA, Bresnahan JC, Beattie MS. Effects of axon degeneration on oligodendrocyte lineage cells: dorsal rhizotomy evokes a repair response while axon degeneration rostral to spinal contusion induces both repair and apoptosis. Glia 2010; 58:1304-19. [PMID: 20607865 PMCID: PMC3045846 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Wallerian degeneration in the dorsal columns (DC) after spinal cord injury (SCI) is associated with microglial activation and prolonged oligodendrocyte (OL) apoptosis that may contribute to demyelination and dysfunction after SCI. But, there is an increase in OL lineage cells after SCI that may represent a reparative response, and there is evidence for remyelination after SCI. To assess the role of axonal degeneration per se in OL apoptosis and proliferation, we cut the L2-S2 dorsal roots producing massive axonal degeneration and microglial activation in the DC, and found no evidence of OL loss or apoptosis. Rather, the numbers of OL-lineage cells positive for NG2 and APC (CC1) increased, and BrdU studies suggested new OL formation. We then tested contusion SCI (cSCI) that results in comparable degeneration in the DC rostral to the injury, microglial activation, and apoptosis of DC OLs by eight days. NG2+ cell proliferation and oligodendrogenesis was seen as after rhizotomy. The net result of this combination of proliferation and apoptosis was a reduction in DC OLs, confirming earlier studies. Using an antibody to oxidized nucleic acids, we found rapid and prolonged RNA oxidation in OLs rostral to cSCI, but no evidence of oxidative stress in DC OLs after rhizotomy. These results suggest that signals associated with axonal degeneration are sufficient to induce OL proliferation, and that secondary injury processes associated with the central SCI, including oxidative stress, rather than axonal degeneration per se, are responsible for OL apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
- Neuroscience Graduate Studies Program, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
- Children’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Chien-Liang Glenn Lin
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
| | - Dana McTigue
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
- Spinal Trauma and Repair Laboratories, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
| | - Xiu Shan
- Department of Pathology, Division of Neuropathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore Maryland, 21205
| | - C Amy Tovar
- Spinal Trauma and Repair Laboratories, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
| | - Jacqueline C. Bresnahan
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
- Brain and Spinal Injury Center, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
| | - Michael S. Beattie
- Department of Neuroscience, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, 43210
- Brain and Spinal Injury Center, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143
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99
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White BD, Nathe RJ, Maris DO, Nguyen NK, Goodson JM, Moon RT, Horner PJ. Beta-catenin signaling increases in proliferating NG2+ progenitors and astrocytes during post-traumatic gliogenesis in the adult brain. Stem Cells 2010; 28:297-307. [PMID: 19960516 DOI: 10.1002/stem.268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Wnt/beta-catenin signaling can influence the proliferation and differentiation of progenitor populations in the hippocampus and subventricular zone, known germinal centers in the adult mouse brain. It is not known whether beta-catenin signaling occurs in quiescent glial progenitors in cortex or spinal cord, nor is it known whether beta-catenin is involved in the activation of glial progenitor populations after injury. Using a beta-catenin reporter mouse (BATGAL mouse), we show that beta-catenin signaling occurs in NG2 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan+ (NG2) progenitors in the cortex, in subcallosal zone (SCZ) progenitors, and in subependymal cells surrounding the central canal. Interestingly, cells with beta-catenin signaling increased in the cortex and SCZ following traumatic brain injury (TBI) but did not following spinal cord injury. Initially after TBI, beta-catenin signaling was predominantly increased in a subset of NG2+ progenitors in the cortex. One week following injury, the majority of beta-catenin signaling appeared in reactive astrocytes but not oligodendrocytes. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) paradigms and Ki-67 staining showed that the increase in beta-catenin signaling occurred in newly born cells and was sustained after cell division. Dividing cells with beta-catenin signaling were initially NG2+; however, by four days after a single injection of BrdU, they were predominantly astrocytes. Infusing animals with the mitotic inhibitor cytosine arabinoside prevented the increase of beta-catenin signaling in the cortex, confirming that the majority of beta-catenin signaling after TBI occurs in newly born cells. These data argue for manipulating the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway after TBI as a way to modify post-traumatic gliogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan D White
- Program in Neurobiology and Behavior, University of Washington School of Medicine and Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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Spadafora R, Gonzalez FF, Derugin N, Wendland M, Ferriero D, McQuillen P. Altered fate of subventricular zone progenitor cells and reduced neurogenesis following neonatal stroke. Dev Neurosci 2010; 32:101-13. [PMID: 20453463 DOI: 10.1159/000279654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Accepted: 01/21/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of neonatal stroke on progenitor cells lining the lateral ventricles. METHODS Intraventricular injection of replication-incompetent green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing lentivirus was performed in postnatal day 1 (P1) rats to specifically label radial glia/type B neural stem cells and ependymal cells of the lateral ventricle. A subset of animals was exposed to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) at P7, with mild or moderate injury confirmed by diffusion-weighted MRI and histology. Newborn cells were identified by GFP expression, location and expression of cell type-specific markers in the striatum, cortex and olfactory bulb using confocal microscopy and systematic random sampling. RESULTS Three weeks lentiviral GFP transduction of cells in the lateral ventricle, abundant GFP-expressing neurons and glia were identified in the rostral migratory stream, olfactory bulb and striatum as expected from labeling the subventricular zone (SVZ) type B neural stem cell lineage. Two weeks following mild or severe focal stroke at P7, no GFP-expressing neurons were detected in striatum or cortex although some single-labeled doublecortin+ immature neurons were detected in the penumbra. The densities of GFP+/ glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)+ astrocytes and GFP+/O4+ oligodendrocytes were reduced in the striatum following MCAO (4.8 +/- 1.02 vs. 2.5 +/- 0.4 cells/high-power field, HPF; p = 0.005; 2.8+/- 1 vs. 0.5 +/- 0.2 cells/HPF, p = 0.008). Furthermore, there was a reduction of GFP+ cells in the olfactory bulb following MCAO (58.8 +/- 14.9 vs. 19.6 +/- 5.4 cells/HPF, p = 0.025). Finally, there was an increased percentage of GFP+/GFAP+ cells (70 vs. 50%), with a decreased proportion of GFP+/O4+ cells (14 vs. 30%) in injured animals. CONCLUSION Neurogenesis originating from cells of the lateral ventricle, including SVZ type B cells, is significantly reduced following neonatal stroke. Furthermore, neonatal stroke disrupts gliogenesis in the striatum, decreasing overall numbers of new glia and shifting the population towards astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruggero Spadafora
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0663, USA
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