Biomimetic Metal-Organic Framework Nanoparticles for Cooperative Combination of Antiangiogenesis and Photodynamic Therapy for Enhanced Efficacy

Multifunctional MnO2/Ag3SbS3 Nanotheranostic Agent for Single-Laser-Triggered Tumor Synergistic Therapy in the NIR-II Biowindow

Regulating the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a tumor is an efficient and innovative anticancer strategy. However, the therapeutic efficacy of ROS-based therapies, such as chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), offers finite outcomes due to the oxygen dependence and limited concentration of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and overexpression of glutathione (GSH) within the tumor microenvironment (TME), so a single therapeutic strategy is insufficient to completely eliminate tumors. Therefore, we demonstrated an omnipotent nanoplatform MnO₂/Ag₃SbS₃ (abbreviated as MA) with strong optical absorbance in the NIR-II biowindow and oxygen self-sufficient ROS-mediated ability, which not only relieves tumor hypoxia significantly but also enhances the photothermal therapy (PTT)/PDT/CDT efficacy. By 1064 nm laser irradiation, MnO₂/Ag₃SbS₃ nanoparticles (NPs) reveal a favorable photothermal conversion efficiency of 23.15% and achieve a single-laser-triggered NIR-II PTT/PDT effect, resulting in effective tumor elimination. Once internalized into the tumor, MnO₂/Ag₃SbS₃ NPs will be degraded to Mn²⁺ and Ag₃SbS₃. The released Ag₃SbS₃ NPs as a NIR-II phototherapy agent could be utilized for photoacoustic imaging-guided NIR-II PDT/PTT. Mn²⁺ could be used as a Fenton-like catalyst to continuously catalyze endogenous H₂O₂ for generating highly virulent hydroxyl radicals (^•OH) for CDT and O₂ for PDT, enhancing the efficiency of PDT and CDT, respectively. Meanwhile, Mn²⁺ realizes magnetic resonance imaging-guided accurate tumor therapy. Moreover, the MnO₂/Ag₃SbS₃ NPs could deplete intracellular GSH in TME to promote oxidative stress of the tumor, further strengthening ROS-mediated antitumor treatment efficacy. Overall, this work presents a distinctive paradigm of TME-responsive PDT/CDT/PTT in the second near-infrared biowindow by depleting GSH and decomposing H₂O₂ for efficient and precise cancer treatment.

Stimuli-Responsive Nanoparticles for Controlled Drug Delivery in Synergistic Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has achieved promising clinical progress over the recent years for its potential to treat metastatic tumors and inhibit their recurrences effectively. However, low patient response rates and dose-limiting toxicity remain as major dilemmas for immunotherapy. Stimuli-responsive nanoparticles (srNPs) combined with immunotherapy offer the possibility to amplify anti-tumor immune responses, where the weak acidity, high concentration of glutathione, overexpressions of enzymes, and reactive oxygen species, and external stimuli in tumors act as triggers for controlled drug release. This review highlights the design of srNPs based on tumor microenvironment and/or external stimuli to combine with different anti-tumor drugs, especially the immunoregulatory agents, which eventually realize synergistic immunotherapy of malignant primary or metastatic tumors and acquire a long-term immune memory to prevent tumor recurrence. The authors hope that this review can provide theoretical guidance for the construction and clinical transformation of smart srNPs for controlled drug delivery in synergistic cancer immunotherapy.

Advances in antitumor nanomedicine based on functional metal-organic frameworks beyond drug carriers

Nanoscale metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have attracted widespread interest due to their unique properties including a tunable porous structure, high drug loading capacity, structural diversity, and outstanding biocompatibility. MOFs have been extensively explored as drug nanocarriers in biotherapeutics. However, by harnessing the functionality of ligands and metal ions or clusters in MOFs, the applications of MOFs can be extended beyond drug delivery vehicles. Based on the intrinsic properties of the components of MOFs (e.g. magnetic moments of metal ions and fluorescence of ligands), different imaging modes can be achieved with varied MOFs. With careful design of the composition of MOFs (e.g. modification of organic linkers), they can respond to tumor microenvironments to realize on-demand treatment. By incorporating porphyrin-based ligands (photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy) or high-Z metal ions (radiosensitizers for radiotherapy) into the scaffold of MOFs, MOFs themselves can act as anticancer therapeutic agents. In this review, we highlight the application of MOFs from the above-mentioned aspects and discuss the prospects and challenges for using MOFs in stimuli-responsive imaging-guided antitumor therapy.

Metal-Organic Frameworks and Their Composites Towards Biomedical Applications

Owing to their unique features, including high cargo loading, biodegradability, and tailorability, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and their composites have attracted increasing attention in various fields. In this review, application strategies of MOFs and their composites in nanomedicine with emphasis on their functions are presented, from drug delivery, therapeutic agents for different diseases, and imaging contrast agents to sensor nanoreactors. Applications of MOF derivatives in nanomedicine are also introduced. Besides, we summarize different functionalities related to MOFs, which include targeting strategy, biomimetic modification, responsive moieties, and other functional decorations. Finally, challenges and prospects are highlighted about MOFs in future applications.

High proton conductivity in a charge carrier-induced Ni(ii) metal–organic framework

A new tetradentate phosphonate ligand-based Ni-MOF has been synthesized and employed as an efficient proton-conducting material upon doping with sulphuric acid.

Biomimetically constructing a hypoxia-activated programmable phototheranostics at the molecular level

A programmable strategy at the molecular level to modulate the ratio of a catalyst and photosensitizer to maximize the collaborative efficiency of anti-angiogenesis and PDT.

Biomimetic smart nanoplatform for dual imaging-guided synergistic cancer therapy

A biomimetic nanoplatform for MRI and fluorescence imaging-guided synergetic cancer therapies has been constructed using a folate-functionalized erythrocyte membrane-coated metal–organic framework as both a photosensitizer and a nanocarrier.

An autophagy-inhibitory MOF nanoreactor for tumor-targeted synergistic therapy

An autophagy-inhibitory metal-organic framework (MOF) nanoreactor was developed for tumor-targeted synergistic therapy. The nanoreactor could inhibit autophagy to enhance the glucose oxidase (GOx)-mediated starvation therapy. And the H2O2 generated in...

Photosensitizer-based metal-organic frameworks for highly effective photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses a photosensitizer, molecular oxygen, and visible light as an alternative clinical protocol against located malignant tumors and other diseases. More recently, PDT has been combined to immunotherapy as a promising option to treat metastatic cancer. However, previous generations of photosensitizers (PSs) revealed clinical difficulties such as long-term skin photosensitivity (first generation), the need for drug delivery vehicles (second generation), and intracellular self-aggregation (third generation), which have generated a somewhat confusing scenario in PDT approaches and evolution. Recently, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with exceptionally high PS loading as a building unit of MOF framework have emerged as fourth-generation PS and presented outstanding outcomes under pre-clinical studies. For PS-based MOFs, the inorganic building unit (metal ions/clusters) plays an important role as a coadjuvant in PDT to alleviate hypoxia, to decrease antioxidant species, to yield ROS, or to act as a contrast agent for imaging-guided therapy. In this review, we intend to carry out a broad update on the recent history and the characteristics of PS-based MOFs from basic chemistry to the structure relationship with biological application in PDT. The details and variables that result in different photophysics, size, and morphology, are discussed. Also, we present an overview of the achievements on the pre-clinical assays in combination with other strategies, including alleviating hypoxia in solid tumors, chemotherapy, and the most recent immunotherapy for cancer.

Cellular defense system-destroying nanoparticles as a platform for enhanced chemotherapy against drug-resistant cancer

Cellular defense system represented by glutathione (GSH) greatly weakens the outcomes of cancer therapy by antioxidation and detoxification. GSH depletion has been proved to be an effective way to enhance the efficacy of reactive oxygen species (ROS)-based therapies and chemotherapy. However, the existing strategies of GSH depletion still face the problems of unclear biosafety and high complexity of multicomponent co-delivery. In this study, we developed a GSH-depleting carrier platform based on disulfide-bridged mesoporous organosilica nanoparticles (MONs) to destroy the cellular defense system for cancer therapy. Responding to the high level of GSH in cancer cells, the disulfide bonds in the framework of MONs could be broken and consumed substantial GSH at the same time. Moreover, this process also promoted the degradation of MONs. In order to evaluate the effect of this platform in cancer therapy, chemotherapeutic drug cisplatin was loaded into MONs (Pt@MONs) to treat drug-resistant non-small cell lung cancer. In vitro and in vivo results indicated that Pt@MONs efficiently triggered GSH depletion, promoted platinum-DNA adduct formation, and induced cell apoptosis, resulting in significant tumor growth inhibition without marked toxicity. Taken together, the cellular defense system-destroying nanoparticles provide a promising platform for enhanced cancer therapy.

Tumor microenvironment-responsive dynamic inorganic nanoassemblies for cancer imaging and treatment

Dynamic inorganic nanoassemblies (DINAs) have emerged as smart nanomedicine platforms with promising potential for bioimaging and targeted drug delivery. In this review, we keep abreast of the advances in development of tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive DINAs to meet the challenges associated with precise cancer therapy. TME-responsive DINAs are designed to achieve precise switches of structures/functions in response to TME-specific stimuli including reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced pH and hypoxia, so as to enhance the tumor accumulation of nanoassemblies, overcome the biological barriers during intratumoral penentration of therapeutics, and achieve tumor-specific imaging and therapy. This progress report will summarize various types of recently reported smart DINAs for TME-responsive tumor imaging and therapy. Their future development towards potential clinical translation will also be discussed.

Metal/metal oxide nanoparticles: Toxicity concerns associated with their physical state and remediation for biomedical applications

Metal/metal oxide nanoparticles show promise for various applications, including diagnosis, treatment, theranostics, sensors, cosmetics, etc. Their altered chemical, optical, magnetic, and structural properties have differential toxicity profiles. Depending upon their physical state, these NPs can also change their properties due to alteration in pH, interaction with proteins, lipids, blood cells, and genetic material. Metallic nanomaterials (comprised of a single metal element) tend to be relatively stable and do not readily undergo dissolution. Contrarily, metal oxide and metal alloy-based nanomaterials tend to exhibit a lower degree of stability and are more susceptible to dissolution and ion release when introduced to a biological milieu, leading to reactive oxygen species production and oxidative stress to cells. Since NPs have considerable mobility in various biological tissues, the investigation related to their adverse effects is a critical issue and required to be appropriately addressed before their biomedical applications. Short and long-term toxicity assessment of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles or their nano-formulations is of paramount importance to ensure the global biome's safety; otherwise, to face a fiasco. This article provides a comprehensive introspection regarding the effects of metal/metal oxides' physical state, their surface properties, the possible mechanism of actions along with the potential future strategy for remediation of their toxic effects.

Heparin-Coated Photosensitive Metal-Organic Frameworks as Drug Delivery Nanoplatforms of Autophagy Inhibitors for Sensitized Photodynamic Therapy against Breast Cancer

Photosensitive nanosized metal-organic frameworks (nanoMOFs) with a tunable structure and high porosity have been developed recently as nanophotosensitizers (nanoPSs) for photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, the effect of photodynamic therapy is greatly limited by the fast blood clearance and poor tumor retention of the ordinary nanoPSs. Besides, autophagy, a prosurvival self-cannibalization pathway mediated by autolysosomes, was elevated by cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during PDT. Herein, a chloroquine phosphate (CQ)-loaded photosensitive nanoMOF coated by heparin was fabricated for sensitized PDT by increasing the tumor accumulation of nanoPSs and abolishing the self-protective autophagy within cancer cells. After internalization by cancer cells, the encapsulated CQ alkalizes autolysosomes and blocks the postautophagy process, which disarm the vigilant cancer cells irritated by PDT and finally enhance the therapeutic effect. Furthermore, the accompanied antiangiogenesis ability of the heparin coat also helps improve the cancer therapy outcomes. This study would open up new horizons for building heparin-coated nanoMOFs and understanding the role of autophagy in cancer therapy.

Metal-organic framework combined with CaO2 nanoparticles for enhanced and targeted photodynamic therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been rapidly developed as an effective therapeutic approach in clinical settings. However, hypoxia seriously limits the effectiveness of PDT. Here, we report a porphyrin-based metal-organic framework combined with hyaluronate-modified CaO₂ nanoparticles (PCN-224-CaO₂-HA) to target and enhance PDT efficacy. CaO₂ reacts with H₂O or weak acid to produce O₂, overcoming the hypoxia problem. Hyaluronate protects CaO₂ and specifically targets the CD44 receptor, which is highly expressed on tumor cell membranes, performing targeted therapy. After PDT treatment in vitro, the survival rates of 4T1 and MCF-7 tumor cells were 14.58% and 22.45%, respectively. The fluorescence imaging showed that PCN-224-CaO₂-HA effectively aggregated in the tumor after 12 h of its intravenous injection into tumor-bearing mice. PCN-224-CaO₂-HA exhibited efficacious tumor growth inhibition via enhanced PDT. Overall, this nanosystem providing in situ oxygen production was successfully used for targeted PDT with a significantly enhanced therapeutic efficacy in vitro and in vivo.

Intelligent Tumor Microenvironment-Activated Multifunctional Nanoplatform Coupled with Turn-on and Always-on Fluorescence Probes for Imaging-Guided Cancer Treatment

Intrinsic tumor microenvironment (TME)-related therapeutic resistance and nontumor-specific imaging have limited the application of imaging-guided cancer therapy. Herein, a TME-responsive MnO₂-based nanoplatform coupled with turn-on and always-on fluorescence probes was designed through a facile biomineralization method for imaging-guided photodynamic/chemodynamic/photothermal therapy (PDT/CDT/PTT). After the tumor-targeting delivery of the AuNCs@MnO₂-ICG@AS1411 (AMIT) nanoplatform via aptamer AS1411, the TME-responsive dissociation of MnO₂ generated sufficient O₂ and Mn²⁺ with the consumption of GSH for improving PDT efficacy and Fenton-like reaction-mediated CDT. Simultaneously, the released small-sized ICG and AuNCs facilitated PDT and PTT efficacy via the deep tumor penetration. Moreover, the turn-on fluorescence of AuNCs revealed the real-time TME-responsive MnO₂ degradation process, and the always-on ICG fluorescence enabled the in situ monitoring of the payload distribution in vitro and in vivo. The AMIT NPs also provided magnetic resonance and thermal imaging guidance for the enhanced PDT, CDT, and PTT. Therefore, this all-in-one nanosystem provides a simple and versatile strategy for multiple imaging-guided theranostic applications.

Multifunctional Biomedical Materials Derived from Biological Membranes

The delicate structure and fantastic functions of biological membranes are the successful evolutionary results of a long-term natural selection process. Their excellent biocompatibility and biofunctionality are widely utilized to construct multifunctional biomedical materials mainly by directly camouflaging materials with single or mixed biological membranes, decorating or incorporating materials with membrane-derived vesicles (e.g., exosomes), and designing multifunctional materials with the structure/functions of biological membranes. Here, the structure-function relationship of some important biological membranes and biomimetic membranes are discussed, such as various cell membranes, extracellular vesicles, and membranes from bacteria and organelles. Selected literature examples of multifunctional biomaterials derived from biological membranes for biomedical applications, such as drug- and gene-delivery systems, tissue-repair scaffolds, bioimaging, biosensors, and biological detection, are also highlighted. These designed materials show excellent properties, such as long circulation time, disease-targeted therapy, excellent biocompatibility, and selective recognition. Finally, perspectives and challenges associated with the clinical applications of biological-membrane-derived materials are discussed.

Emerging strategies in developing multifunctional nanomaterials for cancer nanotheranostics

Cancer involves a collection of diseases with a common trait - dysregulation in cell proliferation. At present, traditional therapeutic strategies against cancer have limitations in tackling various tumors in clinical settings. These include chemotherapeutic resistance and the inability to overcome intrinsic physiological barriers to drug delivery. Nanomaterials have presented promising strategies for tumor treatment in recent years. Nanotheranostics combine therapeutic and bioimaging functionalities at the single nanoparticle level and have experienced tremendous growth over the past few years. This review highlights recent developments of advanced nanomaterials and nanotheranostics in three main directions: stimulus-responsive nanomaterials, nanocarriers targeting the tumor microenvironment, and emerging nanomaterials that integrate with phototherapies and immunotherapies. We also discuss the cytotoxicity and outlook of next-generation nanomaterials towards clinical implementation.

Biomembrane-based nanostructures for cancer targeting and therapy: From synthetic liposomes to natural biomembranes and membrane-vesicles

The translational success of liposomes in chemotherapeutics has already demonstrated the great potential of biomembrane-based nanostructure in effective drug delivery. Meanwhile, increasing efforts are being dedicated to the application of naturally derived lipid membranes, including cellular membranes and extracellular vesicles in anti-cancer therapies. While synthetic liposomes support superior multifunctional flexibility, natural biomembrane materials possess interesting biomimetic properties and can also be further engineered for intelligent design. Despite being remarkably different from each other in production and composition, the phospholipid bilayer structure in common allows liposomes, cell membrane-derived nanomaterials, and extracellular vesicles to be modified, functionalized, and exploited in many similar manners against challenges posed by tumor-targeted drug delivery. This review will summarize the recent advancements in engineering the membrane-derived nanostructures with "intelligent" modules to respond, regulate, and target tumor cells and the microenvironment to fight against malignancy. We will also discuss perspectives of combining engineered functionalities with naturally occurring activity for enhanced cancer therapy.

Tumor vasculature-targeting nanomedicines

Uncontrolled tumor growth and subsequent distant metastasis are highly dependent on an adequate nutrient supply from tumor blood vessels, which have relatively different pathophysiological characteristics from those of normal vasculature. Obviously, strategies targeting tumor vasculature, such as anti-angiogenic drugs and vascular disrupting agents, are attractive methods for cancer therapy. However, the off-target effects and high dose administration of these drug regimens critically restrict their clinical applications. In recent years, nanomedicines focused on tumor vasculature have been shown to be superior to traditional therapeutic methods and do not induce side effects. This review will first highlight the recent development of tumor vasculature-targeting nanomedicines from the following four aspects: 1) angiogenesis-inhibiting nanomedicines (AINs); 2) vasculature-disrupting nanomedicines (VDNs); 3) vasculature infarction nanomedicines (VINs); and 4) vasculature-regulating nanomedicines (VRNs). Furthermore, the design principles, limitations, and future directions are also discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Based on the essential roles of tumor blood vessels, the therapeutic strategies targeting tumor vasculature have exhibited good clinical therapeutic outcomes. However, poor patient adherence to free drug administration limits their clinical usage. Nanomedicines have great potential to overcome the abovementioned obstacle. This review summarizes the tumor-vasculature targeting nanomedicines from four aspects: 1) angiogenesis-inhibiting nanomedicines (AINs); 2) vasculature-disrupting nanomedicines (VDNs); 3) vasculature infarction nanomedicines (VINs); and 4) vasculature regulating nanomedicines (VRNs). In addition, this review provides perspectives on this research field.

Versatile Nanodrugs Containing Glutathione and Heme Oxygenase 1 Inhibitors Enable Suppression of Antioxidant Defense System in a Two-Pronged Manner for Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy

The antioxidant defense system in malignant cells, which involves antioxidant enzymes and antioxidant molecules, is an innate barrier to photodynamic therapy (PDT). Because of the complexity of the endogenous antioxidant mechanisms of these cells, simply inhibiting individual antioxidant pathways has a limited effect on improving the lethality of ROS. To enhance the efficacy of PDT for tumor treatment, a versatile nanoparticle (NP)-based drug is developed, which the authors call PZB NP, containing the glutathione inhibitor l-buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) and the heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) inhibitor protoporphyrin zinc(II) (ZnPP) to suppress the innate antioxidant defense system of cancer cells in a two-pronged manner. BSO reduces intracellular glutathione levels to minimize ROS elimination and protein protection during PDT, and ZnPP inhibits the ROS-stimulated upregulation of the antioxidant HO-1, thus preventing ROS removal by cells after PDT. Thus, BSO and ZnPP synergistically suppress the antioxidant defense systems of cancer cells both during and after protoporphyrin-IX-mediated PDT in a two-pronged manner, resulting in tumor cell death through excess oxidative pressure. The results demonstrate that the construction of nanodrugs having dual antioxidation defense suppression properties is a promising route for the development of highly efficient ROS-based therapies.

Cell membrane coating integrity affects the internalization mechanism of biomimetic nanoparticles

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles (NPs) have recently been recognized as attractive nanomedical tools because of their unique properties such as immune escape, long blood circulation time, specific molecular recognition and cell targeting. However, the integrity of the cell membrane coating on NPs, a key metrics related to the quality of these biomimetic-systems and their resulting biomedical function, has remained largely unexplored. Here, we report a fluorescence quenching assay to probe the integrity of cell membrane coating. In contradiction to the common assumption of perfect coating, we uncover that up to 90% of the biomimetic NPs are only partially coated. Using in vitro homologous targeting studies, we demonstrate that partially coated NPs could still be internalized by the target cells. By combining molecular simulations with experimental analysis, we further identify an endocytic entry mechanism for these NPs. We unravel that NPs with a high coating degree (≥50%) enter the cells individually, whereas the NPs with a low coating degree (<50%) need to aggregate together before internalization. This quantitative method and the fundamental understanding of how cell membrane coated NPs enter the cells will enhance the rational designing of biomimetic nanosystems and pave the way for more effective cancer nanomedicine.

Biomimetic Nanoparticles Carrying a Repolarization Agent of Tumor-Associated Macrophages for Remodeling of the Inflammatory Microenvironment Following Photothermal Therapy

The complete regression of residual tumors after photothermal therapy (PTT) depends on the activation and recognition of the immune system. However, the inevitable local inflammation after PTT in residual tumor recruits abundant abnormal immune cells, especially the tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) which further promote immune escape and survival of the remaining tumor cells, resulting in the tumor recurrence and progression. To solve this problem, herein we explored biomimetic nanoparticles carrying repolarization agent of TAMs to remodel the post-PTT inflammatory microenvironment. The polydopamine nanoparticles were used simultaneously as photothermal transduction agents to ablate tumor cells and the delivery vehicles for TMP195 which can repolarize the M2-like TAMs into an antitumor phenotype. In addition, a biomimetic decoration of macrophage membrane coating was designed to endow nanoparticles the ability to actively target the tumor site after PTT mediated by inflammation-mediated chemotaxis. In the breast tumor model, these biomimetic nanoparticles with immune-modulating ability significantly elevated the levels of M1-like TAMs, ultimately resulting in a tumor-elimination rate of 60%, increased from 10% after PTT. This synergistic treatment strategy of PTT and TAMs repolarization provides a promising approach to address the deteriorated tumor microenvironment after PTT and proposes a more effective way for combinational treatment option in clinic.

Trace-Water-Induced Competitive Coordination Synthesis and Functionalization of Porphyrinic Metal-Organic Framework Nanoparticles for Treatment of Hypoxic Tumors

Controlling the size and morphology of metal-organic frameworks (MOF) has received increasing research interest but remains a great challenge. In this work, we demonstrate a trace-water-induced competitive coordination procedure to controllably synthesize porphyrinic MOFs including needle-shaped nanomaterials, hollow nanotubes, and nanocubes, using 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin as organic linkers and Zr⁴⁺ as inorganic building blocks. These three MOFs exhibited shape-dependent singlet oxygen (¹O₂) production under 655 nm laser irradiation. The designed nanocubes were functionalized by coating a MnO₂ shell, which can effectively generate ¹O₂ in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to improve photodynamic therapy (PDT). Moreover, they reacted with GSH, and the resulted Mn²⁺ions generated hydroxyl radicals (·OH) for chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Therefore, the designed MOFs@MnO₂ nanoparticles were responsive to the hypoxic TME to improve the efficiency of PDT and incorporate CDT for tumor ablation.

Application of glutathione depletion in cancer therapy: Enhanced ROS-based therapy, ferroptosis, and chemotherapy

Glutathione (GSH) is an important member of cellular antioxidative system. In cancer cells, a high level of GSH is indispensable to scavenge excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) and detoxify xenobiotics, which make it a potential target for cancer therapy. Plenty of studies have shown that loss of intracellular GSH makes cancer cells more susceptible to oxidative stress and chemotherapeutic agents. GSH depletion has been proved to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ROS-based therapy (photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and chemodynamic therapy), ferroptosis, and chemotherapy. In this review, various strategies for GSH depletion used in cancer therapy are comprehensively summarized and discussed. First, the functions of GSH in cancer cells are analyzed to elucidate the necessity of GSH depletion in cancer therapy. Then, the synthesis and metabolism of GSH are briefly introduced to bring up some crucial targets for GSH modulation. Finally, different approaches to GSH depletion in the literature are classified and discussed in detail according to their mechanisms. Particularly, functional materials with GSH-consuming ability based on nanotechnology are elaborated due to their unique advantages and potentials. This review presents the ingenious application of GSH-depleting strategy in cancer therapy for improving the outcomes of various therapeutic regimens, which may provide useful guidance for designing intelligent drug delivery system.

Environment Responsive Metal-Organic Frameworks as Drug Delivery System for Tumor Therapy

Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems can alter the drugs' hydrophilicity to affect drug uptake and efflux in tissues. They prevent drugs from non-specifically binding with bio-macromolecules and enhance drug accumulation at the lesion sites, improving therapy effects and reducing unnecessary side effects. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), the typical nanoparticles, a class of crystalline porous materials via self-assembled organic linkers and metal ions, exhibit excellent biodegradability, pore shape and sizes, and finely tunable chemical composition. MOFs have a rigid molecular structure, and tunable pore size can improve the encapsulation drug's stability under harsh conditions. Besides, the surface of MOFs can be modified with small-molecule ligands and biomolecule, and binding with the biomarkers which is overexpressed on the surface of cancer cells. MOFs formulations for therapeutic have been developed to effectively respond to the unique tumor microenvironment (TEM), such as high H2O2 levels, hypoxia, and high concentration glutathione (GSH). Thus, MOFs as a drug delivery system should avoid drugs leaking during blood circulation and releasing at the lesion sites via a controlling manner. In this article, we will summary environment responsive MOFs as drug delivery systems for tumor therapy under different stimuli.

Nanoscale metal-organic frameworks for tumor phototherapy

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) are constructed from metal ions/cluster nodes and functional organic ligands through coordination bonds. Owing to the advantages of diverse synthetic methods, easy modification after synthesis, large adsorption capacity for heavy metals, and short equilibrium time, considerable attention has recently been paid to MOFs for tumor phototherapy. Through rational tuning of metal ions and ligands, MOFs present abundant properties for various applications. Light-triggered phototherapy, including photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), is an emerging cancer treatment approach. Nanosized MOFs can be applied as phototherapeutic agents to accomplish phototherapy with excellent phototherapeutic efficacy. This review outlines the latest advances in the field of phototherapy with various metal ion-based MOFs.

Recent Progress in Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Nanostructures in the Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds

Air is the most crucial and life-supporting input from nature to the living beings of the planet. The composition and quality of air significantly affects human health, either directly or indirectly. The presence of some industrially released gases, small particles of anthropogenic origin, and the deviation from the normal composition of air from the natural condition causes air pollution. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are common contaminants found as indoor as well as outdoor pollutants. Such pollutants represent acute or chronic health hazards to the human physiological system. In the environment, such polluted gases may cause chemical or photochemical smog, leading to detrimental effects such as acid rain, global warming, and environmental pollution through different routes. Ultimately, this will propagate into the food web and affect the ecosystem. In this context, the efficient removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the environment remains a major threat globally, yet satisfactory strategies and auxiliary materials are far from being in place. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are known as an advanced class of porous coordination polymers, a smart material constructed from the covalently bonded and highly ordered arrangements of metal nodes and polyfunctional organic linkers with an organic–inorganic hybrid nature, high porosities and surface areas, abundant metal/organic species, large pore volumes, and elegant tunability of structures and compositions, making them ideal candidates for the removal of unwanted VOCs from air. This review summarizes the fundamentals of MOFs and VOCs with recent research progress on MOF-derived nanostructures/porous materials and their composites for the efficient removal of VOCs in the air, the remaining challenges, and some prospective for future efforts.

Phosphate-Degradable Nanoparticles Based on Metal-Organic Frameworks for Chemo-Starvation-Chemodynamic Synergistic Antitumor Therapy

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT) was regarded as a promising approach for tumor treatment. However, owing to the insufficient amount of endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in tumor cells, the efficacy of CDT was limited. In this study, we designed phosphate-responsive nanoparticles (denoted as MGDFT NPs) based on metal-organic frameworks, which were simultaneously loaded with drug doxorubicin (DOX) and glucose oxidases (GOx). The decorated GOx could act as a catalytic nanomedicine for the response to the abundant glucose in the tumor microenvironment, generating a great deal of H2O2, which would enhance the Fenton reaction and produce toxic hydroxyl radicals (·OH). Meanwhile, the growth of tumors would also be inhibited by overconsuming the intratumoral glucose, which was the "fuel" for cell proliferation. When the nanoparticles entered into tumor cells, a high concentration of phosphate induced structure collapse, releasing the loaded DOX for chemotherapy. Furthermore, the decoration of target agents endowed the nanoparticles with favorable target ability to specific tumor cells and mitochondria. Consequently, the designed MGDFT NPs displayed desirable synergistic therapeutic effects via combining chemotherapy, starvation therapy, and enhanced Fenton reaction, facilitating the development of multimodal precise antitumor therapy.

Mitochondria-targeting and ROS-sensitive smart nanoscale supramolecular organic framework for combinational amplified photodynamic therapy and chemotherapy

Owing to their reversibly dynamic features, and the regularity of their architectures, supramolecular organic frameworks (SOFs) have attracted attention as new porous materials. Herein, we propose a smart SOF platform for enhanced photodynamic therapy, where the SOF with a superior mitochondria-targeting capability could be cleaved by reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by itself for highly enhancing PDT. Moreover, it can further work as a platform for carrying chemo-therapeutic drug doxorubicin for synergistic chemo-photodynamic therapy. The SOF is constructed by combining a tetra-β-cyclodextrin-conjugated porphyrin photosensitizer and a ROS-sensitive thioketal linked adamantane dimer utilizing a host-guest supramolecular strategy. The unique supramolecular framework not only completely resolves the aggregation caused quenching of porphyrin photosensitizers but also endows them with significantly enhanced water-solubility. The in vitro and in vivo results demonstrate that the SOF could be targeted onto mitochondria by confocal imaging, and dissociated by ROS generated by itself, leading to autonomous release of porphyrin photosensitizers and DOX for high anti-cancer activity. It is believed that the strategy using a SOF has the potential of being used to construct versatile agents for combined therapies. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Photosensitizers are the essential element in photodynamic therapy. However, typical photosensitizers commonly encounter poor water-solubility, non-specific tumor-targeting, aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ), which seriously reduce PDT efficacy. A mitochondria-targeting and ROS-sensitive supramolecular organic framework (SOF) is designed for photodynamic therapy in cancer treatment, which could completely overcome the bottleneck in the applications of photosensitizers (PSs). The SOF is constructed by combining a tetra-β-cyclodextrin-conjugated porphyrin photosensitizer and a ROS-sensitive thioketal linked adamantane dimer unit utilizing a host-guest supramolecular strategy. The unique supramolecular framework not only completely resolves the aggregation caused quenching of porphyrin photosensitizers but also endows them with significantly enhanced water-solubility. Moreover, the SOF can be readily functionalized to incorporate the anti-cancer agent Doxorubicin and mitochondria targeting molecules through respective physical encapsulation and host-guest interactions.

Emerging nanomedicine-based therapeutics for hematogenous metastatic cascade inhibition: Interfering with the crosstalk between "seed and soil"

Despite considerable progresses in cancer treatment, tumor metastasis is still a thorny issue, which leads to majority of cancer-related deaths. In hematogenous metastasis, the concept of “seed and soil” suggests that the crosstalk between cancer cells (seeds) and premetastatic niche (soil) facilitates tumor metastasis. Considerable efforts have been dedicated to inhibit the tumor metastatic cascade, which is a highly complicated process involving various pathways and biological events. Nonetheless, satisfactory therapeutic outcomes are rarely observed, since it is a great challenge to thwart this multi-phase process. Recent advances in nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have shown great potential in the field of anti-metastasis, especially compared with conventional treatment methods, which are limited by serious side effects and poor efficacy. In this review, we summarized various factors involved in each phase of the metastatic cascade ranging from the metastasis initiation to colonization. Then we reviewed current approaches of targeting these factors to stifle the metastatic cascade, including modulating primary tumor microenvironment, targeting circulating tumor cells, regulating premetastatic niche and eliminating established metastasis. Additionally, we highlighted the multi-phase targeted drug delivery systems, which hold a better chance to inhibit metastasis. Besides, we demonstrated the limitation and future perspectives of nanomedicine-based anti-metastasis strategies.

Metal-organic frameworks for advanced drug delivery

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), comprised of organic ligands and metal ions/metal clusters via coordinative bonds are highly porous, crystalline materials. Their tunable porosity, chemical composition, size and shape, and easy surface functionalization make this large family more and more popular for drug delivery. There is a growing interest over the last decades in the design of engineered MOFs with controlled sizes for a variety of biomedical applications. This article presents an overall review and perspectives of MOFs-based drug delivery systems (DDSs), starting with the MOFs classification adapted for DDSs based on the types of constituting metals and ligands. Then, the synthesis and characterization of MOFs for DDSs are developed, followed by the drug loading strategies, applications, biopharmaceutics and quality control. Importantly, a variety of representative applications of MOFs are detailed from a point of view of applications in pharmaceutics, diseases therapy and advanced DDSs. In particular, the biopharmaceutics and quality control of MOFs-based DDSs are summarized with critical issues to be addressed. Finally, challenges in MOFs development for DDSs are discussed, such as biostability, biosafety, biopharmaceutics and nomenclature.

The recent progress on metal-organic frameworks for phototherapy

Some infectious or malignant diseases such as cancers are seriously threatening the health of human beings all over the world. The commonly used antibiotic therapy cannot effectively treat these diseases within a short time, and also bring about adverse effects such as drug resistance and immune system damage during long-term systemic treatment. Phototherapy is an emerging antibiotic-free strategy to treat these diseases. Upon light irradiation, phototherapeutic agents can generate cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) or induce a temperature increase, which leads to the death of targeted cells. These two kinds of killing strategies are referred to as photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT), respectively. So far, many photo-responsive agents have been developed. Among them, the metal-organic framework (MOF) is becoming one of the most promising photo-responsive materials because its structure and chemical compositions can be easily modulated to achieve specific functions. MOFs can have intrinsic photodynamic or photothermal ability under the rational design of MOF construction, or serve as the carrier of therapeutic agents, owing to its tunable porosity. MOFs also provide feasibility for various combined therapies and targeting methods, which improves the efficiency of phototherapy. In this review, we firstly investigated the principles of phototherapy, and comprehensively summarized recent advances of MOF in PDT, PTT and synergistic therapy, from construction to modification. We expect that our demonstration will shed light on the future development of this field, and bring it one step closer to clinical trials.

Homology and Immune Checkpoint Dual-Targeted Sonocatalytic Nanoagents for Enhancing Sonodynamic Tumor Therapy

Sonocatalytic nanoagents (SCNs), a kind of sonosensitizers, could catalyze oxygen to generate abundant reactive oxygen species (ROS) under stimulations of noninvasive and deep-penetrating ultrasound (US), which is commonly used for sonodynamic therapy (SDT) of tumors such as malignant melanoma. However, poor bioavailability of most SCNs and fast quenching of extracellular-generating ROS from SDT limit further applications of SCNs in the SDT of tumors. Herein, we synthesized a new kind of TiO2-based SCN functionalized with the malignant melanoma cell membrane (B16F10M) and programmed cell death-ligand 1 antibody (aPD-L1) for homology and immune checkpoint dual-targeted and enhanced sonodynamic tumor therapy. Under US irradiation, the synthesized SCN can catalytically generate a large amount of 1O2. In vitro experiments validate that functionalized SCNs exhibit precise targeting effects, high tumor cell uptake, and intracellular sonocatalytic killing of the B16F10 cells by a large amount of localized ROS. Utilizing the melanoma animal model, the functionalized SCN displays visible long-term retention in the tumor area, which assists the homology and immune checkpoint synergistically dual-targeted and enhanced in vivo SDT of the tumor. We suggest that this highly bioavailable and dual-functionalized SCN may provide a promising strategy and nanoplatform for enhancing sonodynamic tumor therapies.

GSH-Sensitive Nanoscale Mn3+-Sealed Coordination Particles as Activatable Drug Delivery Systems for Synergistic Photodynamic-Chemo Therapy

Activatable nanoscale drug delivery systems (NDDSs) are promising in maximizing cancer specificity and anticancer efficacy, and a multifunctional metal-organic nanomaterial is one of the new star NDDSs which requires further exploration. Herein, a novel DOX@MnCPs/PEG NDDSs were constructed by first synthesizing Mn³⁺-sealed coordination particles (MnCPs), modified with a targeted PEGylated polymer, and then loading anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). MnCPs were prepared from the assembly of Mn³⁺ ions and hematoporphyrin monomethyl ether (HMME) molecules. Furthermore, MnCPs had an average size of ∼100 nm and a large surface area (∼52.6 m² g^-1) and porosity (∼3.6 nm). After the loading of DOX, DOX@MnCPs/PEG exhibited a high DOX-loading efficacy of 27.2%, and they reacted with glutathione (GSH) to confer structural collapse, leading to the production of Mn²⁺ ions for enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), free HMME for augmented photodynamic effect, and free DOX for chemotherapy. As a consequence, these DOX@MnCPs/PEG NDDSs after intravenous injection showed efficient tumor homing and then exerted an obvious suppression for tumor growth rate by synergistic photodynamic-chemo therapy in vivo. Importantly, most of the DOX@MnCPs/PEG NDDSs could be gradually cleared through the renal pathway, and the remaining part could slowly be metabolized via the feces, enabling high biosafety. Therefore, this work provides a type of GSH-sensitive NDDS with biosafety, caner specificity, and multifunctionality for high synergistic treatment efficacy.

Bacterial cytoplasmic membranes synergistically enhance the antitumor activity of autologous cancer vaccines

Cancer vaccines based on resected tumors from patients have gained great interest as an individualized cancer treatment strategy. However, eliciting a robust therapeutic effect with personalized vaccines remains a challenge because of the weak immunogenicity of autologous tumor antigens. Utilizing exogenous prokaryotic constituents that act as adjuvants to enhance immunogenicity is a promising strategy to overcome this limitation. However, nonspecific stimulation of the immune system may elicit an undesirable immunopathological state. To specifically trigger sufficient antitumor reactivity without notable adverse effects, we developed an antigen and adjuvant codelivery nanoparticle vaccine based on Escherichia coli cytoplasmic membranes (EMs) and tumor cell membranes (TMs) from resected autologous tumor tissue. Introduction of the EM into the hybrid membrane nanoparticle vaccines (HM-NPs) induced dendritic cell maturation, thus activating splenic T cells. HM-NPs showed efficacy in immunogenic CT26 colon and 4T1 breast tumor mouse models and also efficiently induced tumor regression in B16-F10 melanoma and EMT6 breast tumor mouse models. Furthermore, HM-NPs provoked a strong tumor-specific immune response, which not only extended postoperative animal survival but also conferred long-term protection (up to 3 months) against tumor rechallenge in a CT26 colon tumor mouse model. Specific depletion of different immune cell populations revealed that CD8⁺ T and NK cells were crucial to the vaccine-elicited tumor regression. Individualized autologous tumor antigen vaccines based on effective activation of the innate immune system by bacterial cytoplasmic membranes hold great potential for personalized treatment of postoperative patients with cancer.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (Ido) inhibitors and their nanomedicines for cancer immunotherapy

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) as a principle enzyme in tryptophan (Trp) catabolism, modulates immune responses and promotes cancer progression. In recent decades, the newly emerging IDO inhibitors are regarded as the breakthrough for cancer immunotherapy. Intensified efforts have been increasingly made to, on the one hand, optimize the IDO inhibitors-based combination therapy in clinical trials; on the other hand, develop IDO inhibitors nanomedicines for tumor-targeted delivery in preclinical studies. This review will discuss the types of IDO inhibitors and the relevant clinical trials, especially those of the feasible combined therapeutic modalities. Moreover, it would be the first time to overview the cutting-edge nanomedicines that combine IDO inhibitors with other therapeutic modalities (e.g., chemotherapy, radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT) and immune checkpoint blockade) to effectively improve the effect of cancer therapy. Lastly, the prospects of IDO inhibitors in terms of clinical application and potential breakthroughs will be briefly discussed.

A MnO2-coated multivariate porphyrinic metal-organic framework for oxygen self-sufficient chemo-photodynamic synergistic therapy

Lately, chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy (PDT) synergistic therapy has become a promising anti-cancer treatment mean. However, the hypoxia in tumor leads to huge impediments to the oxygen-dependentPDT effects. In this work, a multifunctional nanoplatform (TUDMP) based on a multivariable porphyrin-nMOFs core and a manganese dioxide (MnO₂) shell was prepared for relieving tumor hypoxia and enhancing chemo-photodynamic synergistic therapy performance. The obtained TUDMP nanoplatform could effectively catalyze the hydrolysis of hydrogen peroxide to generate oxygen and also lead to consumption of antioxidant GSH, thereby facilitating the production of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) by photosensitizer under laser irradiation. More importantly, the decomposition of the MnO₂ shell would further promote the release of the loaded doxorubicin (DOX), and thus an efficient chemo-PDT synergistic therapy was realized. Both in vitro and in vivo experimental results demonstrated the oxygen self-sufficient multifunctional nanoplatform could exhibit significantly enhanced anticancer efficiencies compared with chemotherapy or PDT alone.

Nanoengineered biomimetic Cu-based nanoparticles for multifunational and efficient tumor treatment

The microwave dynamic therapy (MDT) mediated by cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a promising anticancer therapeutic method. However, the therapeutic efficiency of MDT is restricted by several limitations including insufficient ROS generation, strong proangiogenic response, and low tumor-targeting efficiency. Herein, we find that Cu-based nanoparticles can produce oxygen under microwave (MW) irradiation to raise the generation of ROS, such as •O₂, •OH and ¹O₂, especially •O₂. On this basis, a nanoengineered biomimetic strategy is designed to improve the efficiency of MDT. After intravenous administration, the nanoparticles accumulate to the tumor site through targeting effect mediated by biomimetic modification, and it can continuously produce oxygen to raise the levels of ROS in tumor microenvironment under MW irradiation for MDT. Additionally, Apatinib is incorporated as antiangiogenic drug to downregulate the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which can effectively inhibit the tumor angiogenesis after MDT. Hence, the tumor inhibition rate is as high as 96.79%. This study provides emerging strategies to develop multifunctional nanosystems for efficient tumor therapy by MDT.

In situ triggering antitumor efficacy of alcohol-abuse drug disulfiram through Cu-based metal-organic framework nanoparticles

Although approved as an alcohol-abuse drug, disulfiram (DSF) exhibited potential anticancer activity when chelated with copper (Cu). However, the low level of intrinsic Cu, toxicity originated from exogenous Cu supplementation, and poor stability of DSF in vivo severely limited its application in cancer treatment. Herein, we proposed an in situ DSF antitumor efficacy triggered system, taking advantages of Cu-based metal-organic framework (MOF). In detail, DSF was encapsulated into Cu-MOF nanoparticles (NPs) during its formation, and the obtained NPs were coated with hyaluronic acid to enhance the tumor targetability and biocompatibility. Notably, DSF loaded Cu-MOF NPs maintained stability and integrity without Cu2+ leakage in blood circulation, thus showing excellent biosafety. Once accumulating at tumor site, NPs were internalized into tumor cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis and released DSF and Cu2+ simultaneously in the hyaluronidase-enriched and acidic intracellular tumor microenvironment. This profile lead to in situ chelation reaction between DSF and Cu2+, generating toxic DSF/Cu complex against tumor cells. Both in vitro and in vivo results demonstrated the programmed degradation and recombination property of Cu-based MOF NPs, which facilitated the tumor-specific chemotherapeutic effects of DSF. This system provided a promising strategy for the application of DSF in tumor therapy.

A Synergistic DNA-polydopamine-MnO2 Nanocomplex for Near-Infrared-Light-Powered DNAzyme-Mediated Gene Therapy

DNAzyme is emerging for gene therapy. The administration of the in vivo catalytic activity of DNAzyme has proven important but challenging for clinical applications. Herein, we report a synergistic DNA-polydopamine-MnO₂ nanocomplex, which enables near-infrared (NIR)-light-powered catalytic activity of DNAzyme in vivo. The nanocomplex has a hierarchical structure: a DNA nanoframework as the scaffold and polydopamine-MnO₂ (PM) as the coating layer. The DNA nanoframework contains repeated DNAzyme sequences. PM assembles on the surface of the DNA nanoframework. When the nanocomplex accumulates at tumor sites, upon NIR-light radiation, polydopamine induces a temperature elevation at tumor sites via photothermal conversion; meanwhile, glutathione triggers decomposition of PM to release Mn²⁺ to activate DNAzyme in the cytoplasm for gene regulation. In vitro and in vivo experiments show that the PM-induced temperature elevation enhances the Egr-1 mRNA cleavage activity of DNAzyme, promoting downregulation of the Egr-1 protein in tumor cells. In addition, the temperature elevation induces heat stress, achieving a synergistic tumor ablation effect.

Recent near-infrared light-activated nanomedicine toward precision cancer therapy

Light has been present throughout the history of mankind and even the universe. It is of great significance to human life, contributing to energy, agriculture, communication, and much more. In the biomedical field, light has been developed as a switch to control medical processes with minimal invasion and high spatiotemporal selectivity. During the past three years, near-infrared (NIR) light as long-wavelength light has been applied to more than 3000 achievements in biological applications due to its deep penetration depth and low phototoxicity. Remotely controlled cancer therapy usually involves the conversion of biologically inert NIR light. Thus, various materials, especially nanomaterials that can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), ultraviolet (UV)/visual light, or thermal energy and so on under NIR illumination achieve great potential for the research of nanomedicine. Here, we offered an overview of recent advances in NIR light-activated nanomedicine for cancer therapeutic applications. NIR-light-conversion nanotechnologies for both directly triggering nanodrugs and smart drug delivery toward tumor therapy were discussed emphatically. The challenges and future trends of the use of NIR light in biomedical applications were also provided as a conclusion. We expect that this review will spark inspiration for biologists, materials scientists, pharmacologists, and chemists to fight against diseases and boost the future clinical-translational applications of NIR technology-based precision nanomedicine.

Beyond Photo: Xdynamic Therapies in Fighting Cancer

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related therapeutic approaches are developed as a promising modality for cancer treatment because the aberrant increase of intracellular ROS level can cause cell death due to nonspecific oxidation damage to key cellular biomolecules. However, the most widely considered strategy, photodynamic therapy (PDT), suffers from critical limitations such as limited tissue-penetration depth, high oxygen dependence, and phototoxicity. Non-photo-induced ROS generation strategies, which are defined as Xdynamic therapies (X = sono, radio, microwave, chemo, thermo, and electro), show good potential to overcome the drawbacks of PDT. Herein, recent advances in the development of Xdynamic therapies, including the design of systems, the working mechanisms, and examples of cancer therapy application, are introduced. Furthermore, the approaches to enhance treatment efficiency of Xdynamic therapy are highlighted. Finally, the perspectives and challenges of these strategies are also discussed.

Orchestration of biomimetic membrane coating and nanotherapeutics in personalized anticancer therapy

Nanoparticle-based therapeutic and detectable modalities can augment anticancer efficiency, holding potential in capable target and suppressive metastases post administration. However, the individual discrepancies of the current "one-size-fits-all" strategies for anticancer nanotherapeutics have heralded the need for "personalized therapy". Benefiting from the special inherency of various cells, diverse cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMCNs) were established on a patient-by-patient basis, which would facilitate the personalized treatment of individual cancer patients. CMCNs in a complex microenvironment can evade the immune system and target homologous tumors with a suppressed immune response, as well as a prolonged circulation time, consequently increasing the drug accumulation at the tumor site and anticancer therapeutic efficacy. This review focuses on the emerging strategies and advances of CMCNs to synergistically integrate the merit of source cells with nanoparticulate delivery systems for the orchestration of personalized anticancer nanotherapeutics, thus discussing their rationalities in facilitating chemotherapy, imaging, immunotherapy, phototherapy, radiotherapy, sonodynamic, magnetocaloric, chemodynamic and gene therapy. Furthermore, the mechanism, challenges and opportunities of CMCNs in personalized anticancer therapy were highlighted to further boost cooperation from different fields, including materials science, chemistry, medicine, pharmacy and biology for the lab-to-clinic translation of CMCNs combined with the individual advantages of source cells and nanotherapeutics.

Carrier-free highly drug-loaded biomimetic nanosuspensions encapsulated by cancer cell membrane based on homology and active targeting for the treatment of glioma

Nanosuspensions, as a new drug delivery system for insoluble drugs, are only composed of a drug and a small amount of stabilizer, which is dispersed in an aqueous solution with high drug-loading, small particle size, high dispersion, and large specific surface area. It can significantly improve the dissolution, bioavailability, and efficacy of insoluble drugs. In this study, paclitaxel nanosuspensions ((PTX)NS) were prepared by an ultrasonic precipitation method, with the characteristics of simple preparation and easy repetition. With the help of a homologous targeting mechanism, a kind of glioma C6 cancer cell membrane (CCM)-coated (PTX)NS was developed and modified with ^DWSW peptide to obtain ^DWSW-CCM-(PTX)NS with the functions of BBB penetration and tumor targeting. The results showed that the cancer cell membrane could effectively camouflage the nanosuspensions so that it was not cleared by the immune system and could cross the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) and selectively target tumor tissues. Cell uptake experiments and in vivo imaging confirmed that the uptake of ^DWSW-CCM-(PTX)NS by tumor cells and the distribution in intracranial gliomas increased. Cytotoxicity test and in vivo anti-glioma studies showed that ^DWSW-CCM-(PTX)NS could significantly inhibit the growth of glioma cells and significantly prolong the survival time of glioma-bearing mice. Finally, the cancer cell membrane coating endowed the nanosuspensions with the biological properties of homologous adhesion and immune escape. This study provides an integrated solution for improving the targeting of nanosuspensions and demonstrates the encouraging potential of biomimetic nanosuspensions applicable to tumor therapy.

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Paclitaxel nanosuspensions with high drug-loading and without carrier.

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Biomimetic nanosuspensions wrapped by peptide-modified cancer cell membranes.

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Penetrate BBB and BBTB to transport drugs to glioma.

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Dual effects of active and homology targeting improve therapeutic efficiency.