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Boyle PC, Schwizer S, Hind SR, Kraus CM, De la Torre Diaz S, He B, Martin GB. Detecting N-myristoylation and S-acylation of host and pathogen proteins in plants using click chemistry. PLANT METHODS 2016; 12:38. [PMID: 27493678 PMCID: PMC4972946 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-016-0138-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The plant plasma membrane is a key battleground in the war between plants and their pathogens. Plants detect the presence of pathogens at the plasma membrane using sensor proteins, many of which are targeted to this lipophilic locale by way of fatty acid modifications. Pathogens secrete effector proteins into the plant cell to suppress the plant's defense mechanisms. These effectors are able to access and interfere with the surveillance machinery at the plant plasma membrane by hijacking the host's fatty acylation apparatus. Despite the important involvement of protein fatty acylation in both plant immunity and pathogen virulence mechanisms, relatively little is known about the role of this modification during plant-pathogen interactions. This dearth in our understanding is due largely to the lack of methods to monitor protein fatty acid modifications in the plant cell. RESULTS We describe a rapid method to detect two major forms of fatty acylation, N-myristoylation and S-acylation, of candidate proteins using alkyne fatty acid analogs coupled with click chemistry. We applied our approach to confirm and decisively demonstrate that the archetypal pattern recognition receptor FLS2, the well-characterized pathogen effector AvrPto, and one of the best-studied intracellular resistance proteins, Pto, all undergo plant-mediated fatty acylation. In addition to providing a means to readily determine fatty acylation, particularly myristoylation, of candidate proteins, this method is amenable to a variety of expression systems. We demonstrate this using both Arabidopsis protoplasts and stable transgenic Arabidopsis plants and we leverage Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves as a means for high-throughput evaluation of candidate proteins. CONCLUSIONS Protein fatty acylation is a targeting tactic employed by both plants and their pathogens. The metabolic labeling approach leveraging alkyne fatty acid analogs and click chemistry described here has the potential to provide mechanistic details of the molecular tactics used at the host plasma membrane in the battle between plants and pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C. Boyle
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
- Monsanto Company, St. Louis, MO 63141 USA
| | - Simon Schwizer
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
- Plant Pathology and Plant–Microbe Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Sarah R. Hind
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Christine M. Kraus
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
- Plant Pathology and Plant–Microbe Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | | | - Bin He
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
- College of Pharmacy, Guiyang Medical University, Guiyang, 550004 Guizhou China
| | - Gregory B. Martin
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
- Plant Pathology and Plant–Microbe Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
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102
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Carquin M, D'Auria L, Pollet H, Bongarzone ER, Tyteca D. Recent progress on lipid lateral heterogeneity in plasma membranes: From rafts to submicrometric domains. Prog Lipid Res 2015; 62:1-24. [PMID: 26738447 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The concept of transient nanometric domains known as lipid rafts has brought interest to reassess the validity of the Singer-Nicolson model of a fluid bilayer for cell membranes. However, this new view is still insufficient to explain the cellular control of surface lipid diversity or membrane deformability. During the past decades, the hypothesis that some lipids form large (submicrometric/mesoscale vs nanometric rafts) and stable (>min vs s) membrane domains has emerged, largely based on indirect methods. Morphological evidence for stable submicrometric lipid domains, well-accepted for artificial and highly specialized biological membranes, was further reported for a variety of living cells from prokaryot es to yeast and mammalian cells. However, results remained questioned based on limitations of available fluorescent tools, use of poor lipid fixatives, and imaging artifacts due to non-resolved membrane projections. In this review, we will discuss recent evidence generated using powerful and innovative approaches such as lipid-specific toxin fragments that support the existence of submicrometric domains. We will integrate documented mechanisms involved in the formation and maintenance of these domains, and provide a perspective on their relevance on membrane deformability and regulation of membrane protein distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Carquin
- CELL Unit, de Duve Institute & Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL B1.75.05, Avenue Hippocrate, 75, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ludovic D'Auria
- The Myelin Regeneration Group at the Dept. Anatomy & Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 808 S. Wood St. MC512, Chicago, IL. 60612. USA
| | - Hélène Pollet
- CELL Unit, de Duve Institute & Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL B1.75.05, Avenue Hippocrate, 75, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ernesto R Bongarzone
- The Myelin Regeneration Group at the Dept. Anatomy & Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, 808 S. Wood St. MC512, Chicago, IL. 60612. USA
| | - Donatienne Tyteca
- CELL Unit, de Duve Institute & Université Catholique de Louvain, UCL B1.75.05, Avenue Hippocrate, 75, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium.
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103
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Dudek E, Millott R, Liu WX, Beauchamp E, Berthiaume LG, Michalak M. N-Myristoyltransferase 1 interacts with calnexin at the endoplasmic reticulum. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 468:889-93. [PMID: 26603938 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.11.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Calnexin is a type 1 integral endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane molecular chaperone with a highly conserved C-terminal domain oriented to the cytoplasm. Protein N-myristoylation plays an important role in a wide variety of cellular signal transduction pathways and it is catalyzed by N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), a cytoplasmic and ER associated enzyme. Here using yeast two-hybrid screen, Western blot analysis, immunoprecipitation, immunolocalization and cellular fractionation we discovered that N-myristoyltransferase 1 interacts with calnexin at the ER. These observations point at a previously unrecognized contribution of calnexin to the retention of NMT1 at the ER membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elzbieta Dudek
- Departments of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Robyn Millott
- Departments of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Wen-Xin Liu
- Departments of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Erwan Beauchamp
- Departments of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Luc G Berthiaume
- Departments of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Marek Michalak
- Departments of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H7, Canada.
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104
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Myristoleic acid inhibits osteoclast formation and bone resorption by suppressing the RANKL activation of Src and Pyk2. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 768:189-98. [PMID: 26528796 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.10.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Cytoskeletal changes in osteoclasts such as formation of actin ring is required for bone-resorbing activity. The tyrosine kinase Src is a key player in massive cytoskeletal change of osteoclasts, thereby in bone destruction. In order for Src to be activated, trafficking to the inner plasma membrane via myristoylation is of importance. A previous study reported that myristoleic acid derived from myristic acid, inhibited N-myristoyl-transferase, an essential enzyme for myristoylation process. This prompted us to investigate whether myristoleic acid could affect osteoclastogenesis. Indeed, we observed that myristoleic acid inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclast formation in vitro, especially, at later stages of differentiation. Myristoleic acid attenuated the tyrosine phosphorylation of c-Src and Pyk2, which associates with Src, by RANKL. When myristoleic acid was co-administered with soluble RANKL into mice, RANKL-induced bone loss was substantially prevented. Bone dissection clearly revealed that the number of multinucleated osteoclasts was significantly diminished by myristoleic acid. On the other hand, myristoleic acid treatment had little or no influence on early osteoclast differentiation markers, such as c-Fos and NFATc1, and proteins related to cytoskeletal rearrangement, including DC-STAMP, integrin αv and integrin β3 in vitro. Taken together, our data suggest that myristoleic acid is capable of blocking the formation of large multinucleated osteoclasts and bone resorption likely through suppressing activation of Src and Pyk2.
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105
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Jeanne A, Schneider C, Martiny L, Dedieu S. Original insights on thrombospondin-1-related antireceptor strategies in cancer. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:252. [PMID: 26578962 PMCID: PMC4625054 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) is a large matricellular glycoprotein known to be overexpressed within tumor stroma in several cancer types. While mainly considered as an endogenous angiogenesis inhibitor, TSP-1 exhibits multifaceted functionalities in a tumor context depending both on TSP-1 concentration as well as differential receptor expression by cancer cells and on tumor-associated stromal cells. Besides, the complex modular structure of TSP-1 along with the wide variety of its soluble ligands and membrane receptors considerably increases the complexity of therapeutically targeting interactions involving TSP-1 ligation of cell-surface receptors. Despite the pleiotropic nature of TSP-1, many different antireceptor strategies have been developed giving promising results in preclinical models. However, transition to clinical trials often led to nuanced outcomes mainly due to frequent severe adverse effects. In this review, we will first expose the intricate and even sometimes opposite effects of TSP-1-related signaling on tumor progression by paying particular attention to modulation of angiogenesis and tumor immunity. Then, we will provide an overview of current developments and prospects by focusing particularly on the cell-surface molecules CD47 and CD36 that function as TSP-1 receptors; including antibody-based approaches, therapeutic gene modulation and the use of peptidomimetics. Finally, we will discuss original approaches specifically targeting TSP-1 domains, as well as innovative combination strategies with a view to producing an overall anticancer response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albin Jeanne
- Laboratoire SiRMa, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne Reims, France ; CNRS, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, UMR 7369 Reims, France ; SATT Nord Lille, France
| | - Christophe Schneider
- Laboratoire SiRMa, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne Reims, France ; CNRS, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, UMR 7369 Reims, France
| | - Laurent Martiny
- Laboratoire SiRMa, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne Reims, France ; CNRS, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, UMR 7369 Reims, France
| | - Stéphane Dedieu
- Laboratoire SiRMa, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne Reims, France ; CNRS, Matrice Extracellulaire et Dynamique Cellulaire, UMR 7369 Reims, France
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106
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Jha NK, Jha SK, Kumar D, Kejriwal N, Sharma R, Ambasta RK, Kumar P. Impact of Insulin Degrading Enzyme and Neprilysin in Alzheimer’s Disease Biology: Characterization of Putative Cognates for Therapeutic Applications. J Alzheimers Dis 2015; 48:891-917. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-150379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Niraj Kumar Jha
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Saurabh Kumar Jha
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Dhiraj Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Noopur Kejriwal
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Renu Sharma
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Rashmi K. Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Pravir Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
- Department of Neurology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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107
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Xie P, Wang TJ, Yin G, Yan Y, Xiao LH, Li Q, Bi KS. Metabonomic Study of Biochemical Changes in Human Hair of Heroin Abusers by Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Ion Trap-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry. J Mol Neurosci 2015; 58:93-101. [PMID: 26445826 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-015-0655-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Hair analysis is with the advantage of non-invasive collection and long surveillance window. The present study employed a sensitive and reliable liquid chromatography coupled with ion trap-time of flight mass spectrometry method to study the metabonomic characters in the hair of 58 heroin abusers and 72 non-heroin abusers. Results indicated that certain endogenous metabolites, such as sorbitol and cortisol, were accelerated, and the level of arachidonic acid, glutathione, linoleic acid, and myristic acid was decreased in hair of heroin abusers. The metabonomic study is helpful for further understanding of heroin addiction and clinical diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pu Xie
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, People's Republic of China.,Shenzhen Institute for Drug Control, Shenzhen, 518057, People's Republic of China
| | - Tie-jie Wang
- Shenzhen Institute for Drug Control, Shenzhen, 518057, People's Republic of China
| | - Guo Yin
- Shenzhen Institute for Drug Control, Shenzhen, 518057, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Yan
- Shenzhen Institute for Drug Control, Shenzhen, 518057, People's Republic of China
| | - Li-he Xiao
- Shenzhen Institute for Drug Control, Shenzhen, 518057, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing Li
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai-shun Bi
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang, 110016, People's Republic of China.
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108
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Hannoush RN. Synthetic protein lipidation. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2015; 28:39-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2015.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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109
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Bauer NC, Doetsch PW, Corbett AH. Mechanisms Regulating Protein Localization. Traffic 2015; 16:1039-61. [PMID: 26172624 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Cellular functions are dictated by protein content and activity. There are numerous strategies to regulate proteins varying from modulating gene expression to post-translational modifications. One commonly used mode of regulation in eukaryotes is targeted localization. By specifically redirecting the localization of a pool of existing protein, cells can achieve rapid changes in local protein function. Eukaryotic cells have evolved elegant targeting pathways to direct proteins to the appropriate cellular location or locations. Here, we provide a general overview of these localization pathways, with a focus on nuclear and mitochondrial transport, and present a survey of the evolutionarily conserved regulatory strategies identified thus far. We end with a description of several specific examples of proteins that exploit localization as an important mode of regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Bauer
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell, and Developmental Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Current address: Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Paul W Doetsch
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Anita H Corbett
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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110
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Takamitsu E, Otsuka M, Haebara T, Yano M, Matsuzaki K, Kobuchi H, Moriya K, Utsumi T. Identification of Human N-Myristoylated Proteins from Human Complementary DNA Resources by Cell-Free and Cellular Metabolic Labeling Analyses. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0136360. [PMID: 26308446 PMCID: PMC4550359 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
To identify physiologically important human N-myristoylated proteins, 90 cDNA clones predicted to encode human N-myristoylated proteins were selected from a human cDNA resource (4,369 Kazusa ORFeome project human cDNA clones) by two bioinformatic N-myristoylation prediction systems, NMT-The MYR Predictor and Myristoylator. After database searches to exclude known human N-myristoylated proteins, 37 cDNA clones were selected as potential human N-myristoylated proteins. The susceptibility of these cDNA clones to protein N-myristoylation was first evaluated using fusion proteins in which the N-terminal ten amino acid residues were fused to an epitope-tagged model protein. Then, protein N-myristoylation of the gene products of full-length cDNAs was evaluated by metabolic labeling experiments both in an insect cell-free protein synthesis system and in transfected human cells. As a result, the products of 13 cDNA clones (FBXL7, PPM1B, SAMM50, PLEKHN, AIFM3, C22orf42, STK32A, FAM131C, DRICH1, MCC1, HID1, P2RX5, STK32B) were found to be human N-myristoylated proteins. Analysis of the role of protein N-myristoylation on the intracellular localization of SAMM50, a mitochondrial outer membrane protein, revealed that protein N-myristoylation was required for proper targeting of SAMM50 to mitochondria. Thus, the strategy used in this study is useful for the identification of physiologically important human N-myristoylated proteins from human cDNA resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emi Takamitsu
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
| | - Motoaki Otsuka
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
| | - Tatsuki Haebara
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
| | - Manami Yano
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
| | - Kanako Matsuzaki
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
| | - Hirotsugu Kobuchi
- Department of Cell Chemistry, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, 700–8558, Japan
| | - Koko Moriya
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Utsumi
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753–8515, Japan
- * E-mail:
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111
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Sanders SS, Martin DDO, Butland SL, Lavallée-Adam M, Calzolari D, Kay C, Yates JR, Hayden MR. Curation of the Mammalian Palmitoylome Indicates a Pivotal Role for Palmitoylation in Diseases and Disorders of the Nervous System and Cancers. PLoS Comput Biol 2015; 11:e1004405. [PMID: 26275289 PMCID: PMC4537140 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Palmitoylation involves the reversible posttranslational addition of palmitate to cysteines and promotes membrane binding and subcellular localization. Recent advancements in the detection and identification of palmitoylated proteins have led to multiple palmitoylation proteomics studies but these datasets are contained within large supplemental tables, making downstream analysis and data mining time-consuming and difficult. Consequently, we curated the data from 15 palmitoylation proteomics studies into one compendium containing 1,838 genes encoding palmitoylated proteins; representing approximately 10% of the genome. Enrichment analysis revealed highly significant enrichments for Gene Ontology biological processes, pathway maps, and process networks related to the nervous system. Strikingly, 41% of synaptic genes encode a palmitoylated protein in the compendium. The top disease associations included cancers and diseases and disorders of the nervous system, with Schizophrenia, HD, and pancreatic ductal carcinoma among the top five, suggesting that aberrant palmitoylation may play a pivotal role in the balance of cell death and survival. This compendium provides a much-needed resource for cell biologists and the palmitoylation field, providing new perspectives for cancer and neurodegeneration. Protein localization is essential for mediating protein function within the cellular context. Mislocalization of proteins can offset cellular balance, influencing whether a cell lives or dies. Many proteins are directed to cellular membranes through the addition of fats, or lipidation. In particular, palmitoylation involves the reversible addition of the fatty acid palmitate to cysteines. Its reversibility makes it a unique form of lipidation allowing its dynamic regulation. Recent advancements in fast, sensitive, non-radioactive methods to detect palmitoylation have led to an explosion in the identification of palmitoylated proteins through proteomics studies. However, the data is hidden in large supplemental tables in various formats. Thus, we curated a list of palmitoylated proteins revealing that approximately 10 percent of the human genome encodes for a proteoform that is palmitoylated. Computational analysis confirmed that palmitoylation is involved in protein localization and indicated a new role in metabolism. Importantly, we found that palmitoylation was enriched at neuronal synapses and in disorders of the nervous system, including Schizophrenia and Huntington disease. Interestingly, palmitoylation was equally enriched in cancers. Consequently, we suggest that palmitoylation plays a critical role in cell fate and our compendium provides a plethora of targets for neurodegeneration and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun S. Sanders
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Dale D. O. Martin
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Stefanie L. Butland
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Mathieu Lavallée-Adam
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Diego Calzolari
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Chris Kay
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - John R. Yates
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Michael R. Hayden
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Department of Medical Genetics, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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112
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Albisetti A, Wiese S, Schneider A, Niemann M. A component of the mitochondrial outer membrane proteome of T. brucei probably contains covalent bound fatty acids. Exp Parasitol 2015; 155:49-57. [PMID: 25982029 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2015.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A subclass of eukaryotic proteins is subject to modification with fatty acids, the most common of which are palmitic and myristic acid. Protein acylation allows association with cellular membranes in the absence of transmembrane domains. Here we examine POMP39, a protein previously described to be present in the outer mitochondrial membrane proteome (POMP) of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei. POMP39 lacks canonical transmembrane domains, but is likely both myristoylated and palmitoylated on its N-terminus. Interestingly, the protein is also dually localized on the surface of the mitochondrion as well as in the flagellum of both insect-stage and the bloodstream form of the parasites. Upon abolishing of global protein acylation or mutation of the myristoylation site, POMP39 relocates to the cytosol. RNAi-mediated ablation of the protein neither causes a growth phenotype in insect-stage nor bloodstream form trypanosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Albisetti
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, Bern 3012, Switzerland
| | - Sebastian Wiese
- Core Unit Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Medical Faculty, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, Ulm 89081, Germany
| | - André Schneider
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, Bern 3012, Switzerland
| | - Moritz Niemann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, Bern 3012, Switzerland.
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113
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Giglione C, Fieulaine S, Meinnel T. N-terminal protein modifications: Bringing back into play the ribosome. Biochimie 2015; 114:134-46. [PMID: 25450248 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2014.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
N-terminal protein modifications correspond to the first modifications which in principle any protein may undergo, before translation is completed by the ribosome. This class of essential modifications can have different nature or function and be catalyzed by a variety of dedicated enzymes. Here, we review the current state of the major N-terminal co-translational modifications, with a particular emphasis to their catalysts, which belong to metalloprotease and acyltransferase clans. The earliest of these modifications corresponds to the N-terminal methionine excision, an ubiquitous and essential process leading to the removal of the first methionine. N-alpha acetylation occurs also in all Kingdoms although its extent appears to be significantly increased in higher eukaryotes. Finally, N-myristoylation is a crucial pathway existing only in eukaryotes. Recent studies dealing on how some of these co-translational modifiers might work in close vicinity of the ribosome is starting to provide new information on when these modifications exactly take place on the elongating nascent chain and the interplay with other ribosome biogenesis factors taking in charge the nascent chains. Here a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in the field of N-terminal protein modifications is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Giglione
- CNRS, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Bât 23A, F-91198 Gif sur Yvette, France; Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France.
| | - Sonia Fieulaine
- CNRS, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Bât 23A, F-91198 Gif sur Yvette, France; Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Thierry Meinnel
- CNRS, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Bât 23A, F-91198 Gif sur Yvette, France; Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France.
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114
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Legrand P, Rioux V. Specific roles of saturated fatty acids: Beyond epidemiological data. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201400514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Legrand
- Laboratoire de Biochimie-Nutrition Humaine; Agrocampus Ouest; Rennes France
| | - Vincent Rioux
- Laboratoire de Biochimie-Nutrition Humaine; Agrocampus Ouest; Rennes France
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115
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Varland S, Osberg C, Arnesen T. N-terminal modifications of cellular proteins: The enzymes involved, their substrate specificities and biological effects. Proteomics 2015; 15:2385-401. [PMID: 25914051 PMCID: PMC4692089 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The vast majority of eukaryotic proteins are N-terminally modified by one or more processing enzymes. Enzymes acting on the very first amino acid of a polypeptide include different peptidases, transferases, and ligases. Methionine aminopeptidases excise the initiator methionine leaving the nascent polypeptide with a newly exposed amino acid that may be further modified. N-terminal acetyl-, methyl-, myristoyl-, and palmitoyltransferases may attach an acetyl, methyl, myristoyl, or palmitoyl group, respectively, to the α-amino group of the target protein N-terminus. With the action of ubiquitin ligases, one or several ubiquitin molecules are transferred, and hence, constitute the N-terminal modification. Modifications at protein N-termini represent an important contribution to proteomic diversity and complexity, and are essential for protein regulation and cellular signaling. Consequently, dysregulation of the N-terminal modifying enzymes is implicated in human diseases. We here review the different protein N-terminal modifications occurring co- or post-translationally with emphasis on the responsible enzymes and their substrate specificities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia Varland
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Camilla Osberg
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Surgery, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Thomas Arnesen
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Surgery, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
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116
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Kumar S, Sharma RK. N-terminal region of the catalytic domain of human N-myristoyltransferase 1 acts as an inhibitory module. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127661. [PMID: 26000639 PMCID: PMC4441422 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) plays critical roles in the modulation of various signaling molecules, however, the regulation of this enzyme in diverse cellular states remains poorly understood. We provide experimental evidence to show for the first time that for the isoform 1 of human NMT (hNMT1), the regulatory roles extend into the catalytic core. In our present study, we expressed, purified, and characterized a truncation mutant devoid of 28 N-terminal amino acids from the catalytic module (Δ28-hNMT1s) and compared its properties to the full-length catalytic domain of hNMT1. The deletion of the N-terminal peptide had no effect on the enzyme stability. Our findings suggest that the N-terminal region in the catalytic module of hNMT1 functions serves as a regulatory control element. The observations of an ~3 fold increase in enzymatic efficiency following removal of the N-terminal peptide of hNMT1s indicates that N-terminal amino acids acts as an inhibitory segment and negatively regulate the enzyme activity. Our findings that the N-terminal region confers control over activity, taken together with the earlier observations that the N-terminal of hNMT1 is differentially processed in diverse cellular states, suggests that the proteolytic processing of the peptide segment containing the inhibitory region provides a molecular mechanism for physiological up-regulation of myristoyltransferase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujeet Kumar
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Cancer Cluster, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Rajendra K. Sharma
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Cancer Cluster, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
- * E-mail: (RKS)
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117
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Jank T, Trillhaase C, Brozda N, Steinemann M, Schwan C, Süss R, Aktories K. Intracellular plasma membrane guidance of
Photorhabdus asymbiotica
toxin is crucial for cell toxicity. FASEB J 2015; 29:2789-802. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-269381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Jank
- Departments of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Christoph Trillhaase
- Departments of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Natalia Brozda
- Departments of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Marcus Steinemann
- Departments of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Carsten Schwan
- Departments of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Regine Süss
- Pharmaceutical Technology and BiopharmacyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
| | - Klaus Aktories
- Departments of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
- Centre for Biological Signalling Studies, University of FreiburgFreiburgGermany
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118
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Boyle PC, Martin GB. Greasy tactics in the plant-pathogen molecular arms race. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:1607-16. [PMID: 25725095 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The modification of proteins by the attachment of fatty acids is a targeting tactic involved in mechanisms of both plant immunity and bacterial pathogenesis. The plant plasma membrane (PM) is a key battleground in the war against disease-causing microbes. This membrane is armed with an array of sensor proteins that function as a surveillance system to detect invading pathogens. Several of these sensor proteins are directed to the plasma membrane through the covalent addition of fatty acids, a process termed fatty acylation. Phytopathogens secrete effector proteins into the plant cell to subvert these surveillance mechanisms, rendering the host susceptible to infection. The targeting of effectors to specific locales within plant cells, particularly the internal face of the host PM, is critical for their virulence function. Several bacterial effectors hijack the host fatty acylation machinery to be modified and directed to this contested locale. To find and fight these fatty acylated effectors the plant leverages lipid-modified intracellular sensors. This review provides examples featuring how fatty acylation is a battle tactic used by both combatants in the molecular arms race between plants and pathogens. Also highlighted is the exploitation of a specific form of host-mediated fatty acid modification, which appears to be exclusively employed by phytopathogenic effector proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C Boyle
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Gregory B Martin
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA Section of Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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119
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Glatz JFC, Luiken JJFP. Fatty acids in cell signaling: historical perspective and future outlook. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2015; 92:57-62. [PMID: 24690372 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2014.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acids are not only important metabolic substrates and building blocks of lipids but are also increasingly being recognized for their modulatory roles in a wide variety of cellular processes including gene expression, together referred to as the 'message-modulator' function of fatty acids. Crucial for this latter role is the bioavailability of fatty acids, which is governed by their interaction with soluble proteins capable of binding fatty acids, i.e., plasma albumin and cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding protein (FABPc), and with both the lipid and protein components of biological membranes, including membrane-associated fatty acid-binding proteins such as the transmembrane protein CD36. Manipulating fatty acid availability holds promise as therapeutic approach for chronic diseases that are characterized by a perturbed fatty acid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan F C Glatz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Joost J F P Luiken
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
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120
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Murata M, Piao JS, Narahara S, Kawano T, Hamano N, Kang JH, Asai D, Ugawa R, Hashizume M. Expression and characterization of myristoylated preS1-conjugated nanocages for targeted cell delivery. Protein Expr Purif 2014; 110:52-6. [PMID: 25497224 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Lipid modification of proteins plays key roles in cellular signaling pathways. We describe the development of myristoylated preS1-nanocages (myr-preS1-nanocages) that specifically target human hepatocyte-like HepaRG cells in which a specific receptor-binding peptide (preS1) is joined to the surface of naturally occurring ferritin cages. Using a genetic engineering approach, the preS1 peptide was joined to the N-terminal regions of the ferritin cage via flexible linker moieties. Myristoylation of the preS1 peptide was achieved by co-expression with yeast N-myristoyltransferase-1 in the presence of myristic acid in Escherichia coli cells. The myristoylated preS1-nanocages exhibited significantly greater specificity for human hepatocyte-like HepaRG cells than the unmyristoylated preS1-nanocages. These results suggest that the lipid-modified nanocages have great potential for effective targeted delivery to specific cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaharu Murata
- Department of Advanced Medical Initiatives, Faculty of Medical Science, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan; Innovation Center for Medical Redox Navigation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan.
| | - Jing Shu Piao
- Department of Advanced Medical Initiatives, Faculty of Medical Science, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
| | - Sayoko Narahara
- Department of Advanced Medical Initiatives, Faculty of Medical Science, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan; Innovation Center for Medical Redox Navigation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
| | - Takahito Kawano
- Department of Advanced Medical Initiatives, Faculty of Medical Science, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan; Innovation Center for Medical Redox Navigation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
| | - Nobuhito Hamano
- Department of Advanced Medical Initiatives, Faculty of Medical Science, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
| | - Jeong-Hun Kang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, 5-7-1 Fujishiro-dai, Suita, Osaka 565-8565, Japan
| | - Daisuke Asai
- Department of Microbiology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Sugao 2-16-1 Miyamae, Kawasaki 216-8511, Japan
| | - Ryo Ugawa
- Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
| | - Makoto Hashizume
- Department of Advanced Medical Initiatives, Faculty of Medical Science, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan; Innovation Center for Medical Redox Navigation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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121
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Martin DDO, Ladha S, Ehrnhoefer DE, Hayden MR. Autophagy in Huntington disease and huntingtin in autophagy. Trends Neurosci 2014; 38:26-35. [PMID: 25282404 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is an important biological process that is essential for the removal of damaged organelles and toxic or aggregated proteins by delivering them to the lysosome for degradation. Consequently, autophagy has become a primary target for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases that involve aggregating proteins. In Huntington disease (HD), an expansion of the polyglutamine (polyQ) tract in the N-terminus of the huntingtin (HTT) protein leads to protein aggregation. However, HD is unique among the neurodegenerative proteinopathies in that autophagy is not only dysfunctional but wild type (wt) HTT also appears to play several roles in regulating the dynamics of autophagy. Herein, we attempt to integrate the recently described novel roles of wtHTT and altered autophagy in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale D O Martin
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), Department of Medical Genetics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Safia Ladha
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), Department of Medical Genetics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Dagmar E Ehrnhoefer
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), Department of Medical Genetics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Michael R Hayden
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), Department of Medical Genetics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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122
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Specific interaction to PIP2 increases the kinetic rate of membrane binding of VILIPs, a subfamily of Neuronal Calcium Sensors (NCS) proteins. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2014; 1838:2698-707. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2014.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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123
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Global profiling of co- and post-translationally N-myristoylated proteomes in human cells. Nat Commun 2014; 5:4919. [PMID: 25255805 PMCID: PMC4200515 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein N-myristoylation is a ubiquitous co- and post-translational modification that has been implicated in the development and progression of a range of human diseases. Here, we report the global N-myristoylated proteome in human cells determined using quantitative chemical proteomics combined with potent and specific human N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) inhibition. Global quantification of N-myristoylation during normal growth or apoptosis allowed the identification of >100 N-myristoylated proteins, >95% of which are identified for the first time at endogenous levels. Furthermore, quantitative dose response for inhibition of N-myristoylation is determined for >70 substrates simultaneously across the proteome. Small-molecule inhibition through a conserved substrate-binding pocket is also demonstrated by solving the crystal structures of inhibitor-bound NMT1 and NMT2. The presented data substantially expand the known repertoire of co- and post-translational N-myristoylation in addition to validating tools for the pharmacological inhibition of NMT in living cells. Protein N-myristoylation is a ubiquitous modification implicated in the regulation of multiple cellular processes. Here, Thinon et al. report the development of a general method to identify N-myristoylated proteins in human cells and identify over 100 endogenous post- and co-translational substrates of N-myristoyltransferase.
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124
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Vartak N, Papke B, Grecco HE, Rossmannek L, Waldmann H, Hedberg C, Bastiaens PIH. The autodepalmitoylating activity of APT maintains the spatial organization of palmitoylated membrane proteins. Biophys J 2014; 106:93-105. [PMID: 24411241 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2013.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The localization and signaling of S-palmitoylated peripheral membrane proteins is sustained by an acylation cycle in which acyl protein thioesterases (APTs) depalmitoylate mislocalized palmitoylated proteins on endomembranes. However, the APTs are themselves reversibly S-palmitoylated, which localizes thioesterase activity to the site of the antagonistc palmitoylation activity on the Golgi. Here, we resolve this conundrum by showing that palmitoylation of APTs is labile due to autodepalmitoylation, creating two interconverting thioesterase pools: palmitoylated APT on the Golgi and depalmitoylated APT in the cytoplasm, with distinct functionality. By imaging APT-substrate catalytic intermediates, we show that it is the depalmitoylated soluble APT pool that depalmitoylates substrates on all membranes in the cell, thereby establishing its function as release factor of mislocalized palmitoylated proteins in the acylation cycle. The autodepalmitoylating activity on the Golgi constitutes a homeostatic regulation mechanism of APT levels at the Golgi that ensures robust partitioning of APT substrates between the plasma membrane and the Golgi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nachiket Vartak
- Department of Systemic Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Bjoern Papke
- Department of Systemic Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Hernan E Grecco
- Department of Systemic Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Lisaweta Rossmannek
- Department of Systemic Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Herbert Waldmann
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany; Faculty of Chemistry, Technical University Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Christian Hedberg
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Philippe I H Bastiaens
- Department of Systemic Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany; Faculty of Chemistry, Technical University Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany.
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125
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Goldston AM, Sharma AI, Paul KS, Engman DM. Acylation in trypanosomatids: an essential process and potential drug target. Trends Parasitol 2014; 30:350-60. [PMID: 24954795 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2014.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Revised: 05/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fatty acylation--the addition of fatty acid moieties such as myristate and palmitate to proteins--is essential for the survival, growth, and infectivity of the trypanosomatids: Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania. Myristoylation and palmitoylation are critical for parasite growth, targeting and localization, and the intrinsic function of some proteins. The trypanosomatids possess a single N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) and multiple palmitoyl acyltransferases, and these enzymes and their protein targets are only now being characterized. Global inhibition of either process leads to cell death in trypanosomatids, and genetic ablation of NMT compromises virulence. Moreover, NMT inhibitors effectively cure T. brucei infection in rodents. Thus, protein acylation represents an attractive target for the development of new trypanocidal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Goldston
- Departments of Pathology and Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Aabha I Sharma
- Departments of Pathology and Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Kimberly S Paul
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - David M Engman
- Departments of Pathology and Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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126
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Henry SC, Schmidt EA, Fessler MB, Taylor GA. Palmitoylation of the immunity related GTPase, Irgm1: impact on membrane localization and ability to promote mitochondrial fission. PLoS One 2014; 9:e95021. [PMID: 24751652 PMCID: PMC3994021 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The Immunity-Related GTPases (IRG) are a family of large GTPases that mediate innate immune responses. Irgm1 is particularly critical for immunity to bacteria and protozoa, and for inflammatory homeostasis in the intestine. Although precise functions for Irgm1 have not been identified, prior studies have suggested roles in autophagy/mitophagy, phagosome remodeling, cell motility, and regulating the activity of other IRG proteins. These functions ostensibly hinge on the ability of Irgm1 to localize to intracellular membranes, such as those of the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria. Previously, it has been shown that an amphipathic helix, the αK helix, in the C-terminal portion of the protein partially mediates membrane binding. However, in absence of αK, there is still substantial binding of Irgm1 to cellular membranes, suggesting the presence of other membrane binding motifs. In the current work, an additional membrane localization motif was found in the form of palmitoylation at a cluster of cysteines near the αK. An Irgm1 mutant possessing alanine to cysteine substitutions at these amino acids demonstrated little residual palmitoylation, yet it displayed only a small decrease in localization to the Golgi and mitochondria. In contrast, a mutant containing the palmitoylation mutations in combination with mutations disrupting the amphipathic character of the αK displayed a complete loss of apparent localization to the Golgi and mitochondria, as well as an overall loss of association with cellular membranes in general. Additionally, Irgm1 was found to promote mitochondrial fission, and this function was undermined in Irgm1 mutants lacking the palmitoylation domain, and to a greater extent in those lacking the αK, or the αK and palmitoylation domains combined. Our data suggest that palmitoylation together with the αK helix firmly anchor Irgm1 in the Golgi and mitochondria, thus facilitating function of the protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley C. Henry
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Elyse A. Schmidt
- Departments of Medicine; Molecular Genetics and Microbiology; and Immunology; Division of Geriatrics, and Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Michael B. Fessler
- Laboratory of Respiratory Biology, NIEHS, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Gregory A. Taylor
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Departments of Medicine; Molecular Genetics and Microbiology; and Immunology; Division of Geriatrics, and Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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127
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Hou J, Luo X, Wang S, Yin C, Zhang S, Zhu X, Dou Y, Cai X. Sequence analysis and molecular characterization of Wnt4 gene in metacestodes of Taenia solium. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2014; 52:163-8. [PMID: 24850959 PMCID: PMC4028453 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2014.52.2.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Wnt proteins are a family of secreted glycoproteins that are evolutionarily conserved and considered to be involved in extensive developmental processes in metazoan organisms. The characterization of wnt genes may improve understanding the parasite's development. In the present study, a wnt4 gene encoding 491amino acids was amplified from cDNA of metacestodes of Taenia solium using reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). Bioinformatics tools were used for sequence analysis. The conserved domain of the wnt gene family was predicted. The expression profile of Wnt4 was investigated using real-time PCR. Wnt4 expression was found to be dramatically increased in scolex evaginated cysticerci when compared to invaginated cysticerci. In situ hybridization showed that wnt4 gene was distributed in the posterior end of the worm along the primary body axis in evaginated cysticerci. These findings indicated that wnt4 may take part in the process of cysticerci evagination and play a role in scolex/bladder development of cysticerci of T. solium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junling Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
| | - Xuenong Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
| | - Shuai Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
| | - Cai Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
| | - Shaohua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
| | - Xueliang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
| | - Yongxi Dou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
| | - Xuepeng Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P. R. China
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Martin DDO, Heit RJ, Yap MC, Davidson MW, Hayden MR, Berthiaume LG. Identification of a post-translationally myristoylated autophagy-inducing domain released by caspase cleavage of huntingtin. Hum Mol Genet 2014; 23:3166-79. [PMID: 24459296 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddu027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington disease (HD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of motor control and cognitive ability that ultimately leads to death. It is caused by the expansion of a polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin (HTT) protein, which leads to aggregation of the protein and eventually cellular death. Both the wild-type and mutant form of the protein are highly regulated by post-translational modifications including proteolysis, palmitoylation and phosphorylation. We now demonstrate the existence of a new post-translational modification of HTT: the addition of the 14 carbon fatty acid myristate to a glycine residue exposed on a caspase-3-cleaved fragment (post-translational myristoylation) and that myristoylation of this fragment is altered in a physiologically relevant model of mutant HTT. Myristoylated HTT553-585-EGFP, but not its non-myristoylated variant, initially localized to the ER, induced the formation of autophagosomes and accumulated in abnormally large autophagolysosomal/lysosomal structures in a variety of cell types, including neuronal cell lines under nutrient-rich conditions. Our results suggest that accumulation of myristoylated HTT553-586 in cells may alter the rate of production of autophagosomes and/or their clearance through the heterotypic autophagosomal/lysosomal fusion process. Overall, our novel observations establish a role for the post-translational myristoylation of a caspase-3-cleaved fragment of HTT, highly similar to the Barkor/ATG14L autophagosome-targeting sequence domain thought to sense, maintain and/or promote membrane curvature in the regulation of autophagy. Abnormal processing or production of this myristoylated HTT fragment might be involved in the pathophysiology of HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale D O Martin
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Department of Medical Genetics and Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, 950 West 28th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Ryan J Heit
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Megan C Yap
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Michael W Davidson
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory and Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 1800 East Paul Dirac Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA
| | - Michael R Hayden
- Department of Medical Genetics and Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, 950 West 28th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Luc G Berthiaume
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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129
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Moriya K, Nagatoshi K, Noriyasu Y, Okamura T, Takamitsu E, Suzuki T, Utsumi T. Protein N-myristoylation plays a critical role in the endoplasmic reticulum morphological change induced by overexpression of protein Lunapark, an integral membrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78235. [PMID: 24223779 PMCID: PMC3817238 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
N-myristoylation of eukaryotic cellular proteins has been recognized as a modification that occurs mainly on cytoplasmic proteins. In this study, we examined the membrane localization, membrane integration, and intracellular localization of four recently identified human N-myristoylated proteins with predicted transmembrane domains. As a result, it was found that protein Lunapark, the human ortholog of yeast protein Lnp1p that has recently been found to be involved in network formation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is an N-myristoylated polytopic integral membrane protein. Analysis of tumor necrosis factor-fusion proteins with each of the two putative transmembrane domains and their flanking regions of protein Lunapark revealed that transmembrane domain 1 and 2 functioned as type II signal anchor sequence and stop transfer sequence, respectively, and together generated a double-spanning integral membrane protein with an N-/C-terminal cytoplasmic orientation. Immunofluorescence staining of HEK293T cells transfected with a cDNA encoding protein Lunapark tagged with FLAG-tag at its C-terminus revealed that overexpressed protein Lunapark localized mainly to the peripheral ER and induced the formation of large polygonal tubular structures. Morphological changes in the ER induced by overexpressed protein Lunapark were significantly inhibited by the inhibition of protein N-myristoylation by means of replacing Gly2 with Ala. These results indicated that protein N-myristoylation plays a critical role in the ER morphological change induced by overexpression of protein Lunapark.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koko Moriya
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Kei Nagatoshi
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Yoshimi Noriyasu
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Okamura
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Emi Takamitsu
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Takashi Suzuki
- Clinical & Biotechnology Business Unit, Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Utsumi
- Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
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130
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Acyl Transfer from Membrane Lipids to Peptides Is a Generic Process. J Mol Biol 2013; 425:4379-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Revised: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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131
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SOcK, MiSTs, MASK and STicKs: the GCKIII (germinal centre kinase III) kinases and their heterologous protein-protein interactions. Biochem J 2013; 454:13-30. [PMID: 23889253 DOI: 10.1042/bj20130219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The GCKIII (germinal centre kinase III) subfamily of the mammalian Ste20 (sterile 20)-like group of serine/threonine protein kinases comprises SOK1 (Ste20-like/oxidant-stress-response kinase 1), MST3 (mammalian Ste20-like kinase 3) and MST4. Initially, GCKIIIs were considered in the contexts of the regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades and apoptosis. More recently, their participation in multiprotein heterocomplexes has become apparent. In the present review, we discuss the structure and phosphorylation of GCKIIIs and then focus on their interactions with other proteins. GCKIIIs possess a highly-conserved, structured catalytic domain at the N-terminus and a less-well conserved C-terminal regulatory domain. GCKIIIs are activated by tonic autophosphorylation of a T-loop threonine residue and their phosphorylation is regulated primarily through protein serine/threonine phosphatases [especially PP2A (protein phosphatase 2A)]. The GCKIII regulatory domains are highly disorganized, but can interact with more structured proteins, particularly the CCM3 (cerebral cavernous malformation 3)/PDCD10 (programmed cell death 10) protein. We explore the role(s) of GCKIIIs (and CCM3/PDCD10) in STRIPAK (striatin-interacting phosphatase and kinase) complexes and their association with the cis-Golgi protein GOLGA2 (golgin A2; GM130). Recently, an interaction of GCKIIIs with MO25 has been identified. This exhibits similarities to the STRADα (STE20-related kinase adaptor α)-MO25 interaction (as in the LKB1-STRADα-MO25 heterotrimer) and, at least for MST3, the interaction may be enhanced by cis-autophosphorylation of its regulatory domain. In these various heterocomplexes, GCKIIIs associate with the Golgi apparatus, the centrosome and the nucleus, as well as with focal adhesions and cell junctions, and are probably involved in cell migration, polarity and proliferation. Finally, we consider the association of GCKIIIs with a number of human diseases, particularly cerebral cavernous malformations.
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A novel ICK peptide from the Loxosceles intermedia (brown spider) venom gland: Cloning, heterologous expression and immunological cross-reactivity approaches. Toxicon 2013; 71:147-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Revised: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Sanz P, Rubio T, Garcia-Gimeno MA. AMPKbeta subunits: more than just a scaffold in the formation of AMPK complex. FEBS J 2013; 280:3723-33. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.12364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Revised: 05/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pascual Sanz
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia; CSIC and Centro de Investigación en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER); Spain
| | - Teresa Rubio
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia; CSIC and Centro de Investigación en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER); Spain
| | - Maria Adelaida Garcia-Gimeno
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia; CSIC and Centro de Investigación en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER); Spain
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134
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Traverso JA, Giglione C, Meinnel T. High-throughput profiling of N-myristoylation substrate specificity across species including pathogens. Proteomics 2013; 13:25-36. [PMID: 23165749 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201200375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Revised: 10/08/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
One of the most critical modifications affecting the N-terminus of proteins is N-myristoylation. This irreversible modification affects the membrane-binding properties of crucial proteins involved in signal transduction cascades. This cotranslational modification, catalyzed by N-myristoyl transferase, occurs both in lower and higher eukaryotes and is a validated therapeutic target for several pathologies. However, this lipidation proves very difficult to be evidenced in vivo even with state-of-the-art proteomics approaches or bioinformatics tools. A large part of N-myristoylated proteins remains to be discovered and the rules of substrate specificity need to be established in each organism. Because the peptide substrate recognition occurs around the first eight residues, short peptides are used for modeling the reaction in vitro. Here, we provide a novel approach including a dedicated peptide array for high-throughput profiling protein N-myristoylation specificity. We show that myristoylation predictive tools need to be fine-tuned to organisms and that their poor accuracy should be significantly enhanced. This should lead to strongly improved knowledge of the number and function of myristoylated proteins occurring in any proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A Traverso
- CNRS, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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135
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Exploitation of eukaryotic subcellular targeting mechanisms by bacterial effectors. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013; 11:316-26. [PMID: 23588250 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Several bacterial species have evolved specialized secretion systems to deliver bacterial effector proteins into eukaryotic cells. These effectors have the capacity to modulate host cell pathways in order to promote bacterial survival and replication. The spatial and temporal context in which the effectors exert their biochemical activities is crucial for their function. To fully understand effector function in the context of infection, we need to understand the mechanisms that lead to the precise subcellular localization of effectors following their delivery into host cells. Recent studies have shown that bacterial effectors exploit host cell machinery to accurately target their biochemical activities within the host cell.
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136
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Heng J, Saunders EC, Gooley PR, McConville MJ, Naderer T, Tull D. Membrane targeting of the small myristoylated protein 2 (SMP-2) in Leishmania major. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2013; 190:1-5. [PMID: 23727225 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2013.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Leishmania parasites express three highly conserved small myristoylated proteins (SMPs) that are targeted to distinct membranes. SMP-1 is exclusively found in the flagellum, depending on myristoylation and palmitoylation. In contrast, monoacylated SMP-2 and SMP-4 are localized to the flagellar pocket and plasma membrane, respectively. Here, we demonstrate that unlike SMP-4, SMP-2 resides in detergent resistant membranes, but can be readily solubilized in the presence of high concentrations of salt. We provide evidence that in detergent resistant membranes, SMP-2 forms high molecular weight complexes in vivo. Association with detergent resistant membranes was abrogated in the presence of a C-terminal tag suggesting acylation independent targeting signals. In addition, the N-terminal region of SMP-2 contains sufficient information for membrane targeting, as a GFP-chimera localizes to the flagellar pocket. Thus while the core sequences of the SMPs are highly conserved, individual members have evolved different mechanisms for their diverse membrane localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Heng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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137
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Renna L, Stefano G, Majeran W, Micalella C, Meinnel T, Giglione C, Brandizzi F. Golgi traffic and integrity depend on N-myristoyl transferase-1 in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2013; 25:1756-73. [PMID: 23673980 PMCID: PMC3694704 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.113.111393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
N-myristoylation is a crucial irreversible eukaryotic lipid modification allowing a key subset of proteins to be targeted at the periphery of specific membrane compartments. Eukaryotes have conserved N-myristoylation enzymes, involving one or two N-myristoyltransferases (NMT1 and NMT2), among which NMT1 is the major enzyme. In the postembryonic developmental stages, defects in NMT1 lead to aberrant cell polarity, flower differentiation, fruit maturation, and innate immunity; however, no specific NMT1 target responsible for such deficiencies has hitherto been identified. Using a confocal microscopy forward genetics screen for the identification of Arabidopsis thaliana secretory mutants, we isolated STINGY, a recessive mutant with defective Golgi traffic and integrity. We mapped STINGY to a substitution at position 160 of Arabidopsis NMT1 (NMT1A160T). In vitro kinetic studies with purified NMT1A160T enzyme revealed a significant reduction in its activity due to a remarkable decrease in affinity for both myristoyl-CoA and peptide substrates. We show here that this recessive mutation is responsible for the alteration of Golgi traffic and integrity by predominantly affecting the Golgi membrane/cytosol partitioning of ADP-ribosylation factor proteins. Our results provide important functional insight into N-myristoylation in plants by ascribing postembryonic functions of Arabidopsis NMT1 that involve regulation of the functional and morphological integrity of the plant endomembranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Renna
- Michigan State University–Department of Energy Plant Research Lab, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Giovanni Stefano
- Michigan State University–Department of Energy Plant Research Lab, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Wojciech Majeran
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Campus de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Chiara Micalella
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Campus de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Thierry Meinnel
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Campus de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Carmela Giglione
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Campus de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Federica Brandizzi
- Michigan State University–Department of Energy Plant Research Lab, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Address correspondence to
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138
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N-Myristoylation is essential for protein phosphatases PPM1A and PPM1B to dephosphorylate their physiological substrates in cells. Biochem J 2013; 449:741-9. [PMID: 23088624 DOI: 10.1042/bj20121201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
PPM [metal-dependent protein phosphatase, formerly called PP2C (protein phosphatase 2C)] family members play essential roles in regulating a variety of signalling pathways. While searching for protein phosphatase(s) that act on AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), we found that PPM1A and PPM1B are N-myristoylated and that this modification is essential for their ability to dephosphorylate the α subunit of AMPK (AMPKα) in cells. N-Myristoylation was also required for two other functions of PPM1A and PPM1B in cells. Although a non-myristoylated mutation (G2A) of PPM1A and PPM1B prevented membrane association, this relocalization did not likely cause the decreased activity towards AMPKα. In in vitro experiments, the G2A mutants exhibited reduced activities towards AMPKα, but much higher specific activity against an artificial substrate, PNPP (p-nitrophenyl phosphate), compared with the wild-type counterparts. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that N-myristoylation of PPM1A and PPM1B plays a key role in recognition of their physiological substrates in cells.
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139
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Traverso JA, Micalella C, Martinez A, Brown SC, Satiat-Jeunemaître B, Meinnel T, Giglione C. Roles of N-terminal fatty acid acylations in membrane compartment partitioning: Arabidopsis h-type thioredoxins as a case study. THE PLANT CELL 2013; 25:1056-77. [PMID: 23543785 PMCID: PMC3634677 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.112.106849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Revised: 02/22/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
N-terminal fatty acylations (N-myristoylation [MYR] and S-palmitoylation [PAL]) are crucial modifications affecting 2 to 4% of eukaryotic proteins. The role of these modifications is to target proteins to membranes. Predictive tools have revealed unexpected targets of these acylations in Arabidopsis thaliana and other plants. However, little is known about how N-terminal lipidation governs membrane compartmentalization of proteins in plants. We show here that h-type thioredoxins (h-TRXs) cluster in four evolutionary subgroups displaying strictly conserved N-terminal modifications. It was predicted that one subgroup undergoes only MYR and another undergoes both MYR and PAL. We used plant TRXs as a model protein family to explore the effect of MYR alone or MYR and PAL in the same family of proteins. We used a high-throughput biochemical strategy to assess MYR of specific TRXs. Moreover, various TRX-green fluorescent protein fusions revealed that MYR localized protein to the endomembrane system and that partitioning between this membrane compartment and the cytosol correlated with the catalytic efficiency of the N-myristoyltransferase acting at the N terminus of the TRXs. Generalization of these results was obtained using several randomly selected Arabidopsis proteins displaying a MYR site only. Finally, we demonstrated that a palmitoylatable Cys residue flanking the MYR site is crucial to localize proteins to micropatching zones of the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A. Traverso
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, C/ Profesor Albareda 1, Granada, Spain
| | - Chiara Micalella
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Aude Martinez
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Spencer C. Brown
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Béatrice Satiat-Jeunemaître
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Thierry Meinnel
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
| | - Carmela Giglione
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut des Sciences du Végétal, F-91198 Gif-sur-Yvette cedex, France
- Address correspondence to
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141
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The Not4 RING E3 Ligase: A Relevant Player in Cotranslational Quality Control. ISRN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 2013:548359. [PMID: 27335678 PMCID: PMC4890865 DOI: 10.1155/2013/548359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The Not4 RING E3 ligase is a subunit of the evolutionarily conserved Ccr4-Not complex. Originally identified in yeast by mutations that increase transcription, it was subsequently defined as an ubiquitin ligase. Substrates for this ligase were characterized in yeast and in metazoans. Interestingly, some substrates for this ligase are targeted for polyubiquitination and degradation, while others instead are stable monoubiquitinated proteins. The former are mostly involved in transcription, while the latter are a ribosomal protein and a ribosome-associated chaperone. Consistently, Not4 and all other subunits of the Ccr4-Not complex are present in translating ribosomes. An important function for Not4 in cotranslational quality control has emerged. In the absence of Not4, the total level of polysomes is reduced. In addition, translationally arrested polypeptides, aggregated proteins, and polyubiquitinated proteins accumulate. Its role in quality control is likely to be related on one hand to its importance for the functional assembly of the proteasome and on the other hand to its association with the RNA degradation machines. Not4 is in an ideal position to signal to degradation mRNAs whose translation has been aborted, and this defines Not4 as a key player in the quality control of newly synthesized proteins.
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142
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Cellular and Molecular Biology of Neuronal Dystonin. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 300:85-120. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-405210-9.00003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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143
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Perinpanayagam MA, Beauchamp E, Martin DDO, Sim JYW, Yap MC, Berthiaume LG. Regulation of co- and post-translational myristoylation of proteins during apoptosis: interplay of N-myristoyltransferases and caspases. FASEB J 2012; 27:811-21. [PMID: 23150525 DOI: 10.1096/fj.12-214924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Myristoylation occurs cotranslationally on nascent proteins and post-translationally during apoptosis after caspase cleavages expose cryptic myristoylation sites. We demonstrate a drastic change in the myristoylated protein proteome in apoptotic cells, likely as more substrates are revealed by caspases. We show for the first time that both N-myristoyltransferases (NMTs) 1 and 2 are cleaved during apoptosis and that the caspase-3- or -8-mediated cleavage of NMT1 at Asp-72 precedes the cleavage of NMT2 by caspase-3 mainly at Asp-25. The cleavage of NMTs did not significantly affect their activity in apoptotic cells until the 8 h time point. However, the cleavage of the predominantly membrane bound NMT1 (64%) removed a polybasic domain stretch and led to a cytosolic relocalization (>55%), whereas predominantly cytosolic NMT2 (62%) relocalized to membranes when cleaved (>80%) after the removal of a negatively charged domain. The interplay between caspases and NMTs during apoptosis is of particular interest since caspases may not only control the rates of substrate production but also their myristoylation rate by regulating the location and perhaps the specificity of NMTs. Since apoptosis is often suppressed in cancer, the reduced caspase activity seen in cancer cells might also explain the higher NMT levels observed in many cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maneka A Perinpanayagam
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Molecular and Systems Biology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Connolly S, Kingsbury T. Regulatory subunit myristoylation antagonizes calcineurin phosphatase activation in yeast. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:39361-8. [PMID: 23027860 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.366617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The Ca(2+)/calmodulin-stimulated protein phosphatase calcineurin is a critical component of Ca(2+) signaling cascades in eukaryotic cells. Myristoylation of the regulatory subunit of calcineurin (CNB) is conserved from yeast to humans. Here, we show that CNB myristoylation antagonizes phosphatase activation in yeast. Disruption of CNB myristoylation by mutation of the myristoylated glycine triggered constitutive expression of a calcineurin-dependent reporter gene and enhanced calcineurin-dependent phenotypes. Basal phosphatase activity was also increased in nmt1-181 yeast with reduced N-myristoyltransferase activity. Our findings are the first demonstration of a functional role for CNB myristoylation and reveal the importance of Nmt1 in modulating cellular calcineurin activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Connolly
- Department of Physiology, Program in Oncology, Marlene and Stewart Greenbaum Cancer Center, the University of Maryland Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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145
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Abstract
The canonical pathway of regulation of the GCK (germinal centre kinase) III subgroup member, MST3 (mammalian Sterile20-related kinase 3), involves a caspase-mediated cleavage between N-terminal catalytic and C-terminal regulatory domains with possible concurrent autophosphorylation of the activation loop MST3(Thr178), induction of serine/threonine protein kinase activity and nuclear localization. We identified an alternative ‘non-canonical’ pathway of MST3 activation (regulated primarily through dephosphorylation) which may also be applicable to other GCKIII (and GCKVI) subgroup members. In the basal state, inactive MST3 co-immunoprecipitated with the Golgi protein GOLGA2/gm130 (golgin A2/Golgi matrix protein 130). Activation of MST3 by calyculin A (a protein serine/threonine phosphatase 1/2A inhibitor) stimulated (auto)phosphorylation of MST3(Thr178) in the catalytic domain with essentially simultaneous cis-autophosphorylation of MST3(Thr328) in the regulatory domain, an event also requiring the MST3(341–376) sequence which acts as a putative docking domain. MST3(Thr178) phosphorylation increased MST3 kinase activity, but this activity was independent of MST3(Thr328) phosphorylation. Interestingly, MST3(Thr328) lies immediately C-terminal to a STRAD (Sterile20-related adaptor) pseudokinase-like site identified recently as being involved in binding of GCKIII/GCKVI members to MO25 scaffolding proteins. MST3(Thr178/Thr328) phosphorylation was concurrent with dissociation of MST3 from GOLGA2/gm130 and association of MST3 with MO25, and MST3(Thr328) phosphorylation was necessary for formation of the activated MST3–MO25 holocomplex.
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146
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Geissler B. Bacterial toxin effector-membrane targeting: outside in, then back again. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2012; 2:75. [PMID: 22919666 PMCID: PMC3417404 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic bacteria utilize multiple approaches to establish infection and mediate their toxicity to eukaryotic cells. Dedicated protein machines deposit toxic effectors directly inside the host, whereas secreted toxins must enter cells independently of other bacterial components. Regardless of how they reach the cytosol, these bacterial proteins must accurately identify their intracellular target before they can manipulate the host cell to benefit their associated bacteria. Within eukaryotic cells, post-translational modifications and individual targeting motifs spatially regulate endogenous host proteins. This review focuses on the strategies employed by bacterial effectors to associate with a frequently targeted location within eukaryotic cells, the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Geissler
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University Chicago, IL, USA.
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147
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Fung C, Beck JR, Robertson SD, Gubbels MJ, Bradley PJ. Toxoplasma ISP4 is a central IMC sub-compartment protein whose localization depends on palmitoylation but not myristoylation. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2012; 184:99-108. [PMID: 22659420 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2012.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites utilize a peripheral membrane system called the inner membrane complex (IMC) to facilitate host cell invasion and parasite replication. We recently identified a novel family of Toxoplasma IMC Sub-compartment Proteins (ISP1/2/3) that localize to sub-domains of the IMC using a targeting mechanism that is dependent on coordinated myristoylation and palmitoylation of a series of residues in the N-terminus of the protein. While the precise functions of the ISPs are unknown, deletion of ISP2 results in replication defects, suggesting that this family of proteins plays a role in daughter cell formation. Here we have characterized a fourth ISP family member (ISP4) and discovered that this protein localizes to the central IMC sub-compartment, similar to ISP2. Like ISP1/3, ISP4 is dispensable for the tachyzoite lytic cycle as the disruption of ISP4 does not produce any gross replication or growth defects. Surprisingly, targeting of ISP4 to the IMC membranes is dependent on residues predicted for palmitoylation but not myristoylation, setting its trafficking apart from the other ISP proteins and demonstrating distinct mechanisms of protein localization to the IMC membranes, even within a family of highly related proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie Fung
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1489, USA
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148
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Young FB, Butland SL, Sanders SS, Sutton LM, Hayden MR. Putting proteins in their place: Palmitoylation in Huntington disease and other neuropsychiatric diseases. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 97:220-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2011] [Revised: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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149
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Acylation-dependent and-independent membrane targeting and distinct functions of small myristoylated proteins (SMPs) in Leishmania major. Int J Parasitol 2012; 42:239-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2011.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Revised: 12/21/2011] [Accepted: 12/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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150
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Kurokawa K, Ryu KH, Ichikawa R, Masuda A, Kim MS, Lee H, Chae JH, Shimizu T, Saitoh T, Kuwano K, Akira S, Dohmae N, Nakayama H, Lee BL. Novel bacterial lipoprotein structures conserved in low-GC content gram-positive bacteria are recognized by Toll-like receptor 2. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:13170-81. [PMID: 22303020 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.292235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial lipoproteins/lipopeptides inducing host innate immune responses are sensed by mammalian Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). These bacterial lipoproteins are structurally divided into two groups, diacylated or triacylated lipoproteins, by the absence or presence of an amide-linked fatty acid. The presence of diacylated lipoproteins has been predicted in low-GC content gram-positive bacteria and mycoplasmas based on the absence of one modification enzyme in their genomes; however, we recently determined triacylated structures in low-GC gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus, raising questions about the actual lipoprotein structure in other low-GC content gram-positive bacteria. Here, through intensive MS analyses, we identified a novel and unique bacterial lipoprotein structure containing an N-acyl-S-monoacyl-glyceryl-cysteine (named the lyso structure) from low-GC gram-positive Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus cereus, Streptococcus sanguinis, and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. Two of the purified native lyso-form lipoproteins induced proinflammatory cytokine production from mice macrophages in a TLR2-dependent and TLR1-independent manner but with a different dependence on TLR6. Additionally, two other new lipoprotein structures were identified. One is the "N-acetyl" lipoprotein structure containing N-acetyl-S-diacyl-glyceryl-cysteine, which was found in five gram-positive bacteria, including Bacillus subtilis. The N-acetyl lipoproteins induced the proinflammatory cytokines through the TLR2/6 heterodimer. The other was identified in a mycoplasma strain and is an unusual diacyl lipoprotein structure containing two amino acids before the lipid-modified cysteine residue. Taken together, our results suggest the existence of novel TLR2-stimulating lyso and N-acetyl forms of lipoproteins that are conserved in low-GC content gram-positive bacteria and provide clear evidence for the presence of yet to be identified key enzymes involved in the bacterial lipoprotein biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Kurokawa
- Global Research Laboratory of Insect Symbiosis, College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 609-735, Korea
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