Infectious Disease: Connecting Innate Immunity to Biocidal Polymers

Antimicrobial polymeric materials with quaternary ammonium and phosphonium salts

Polymeric materials containing quaternary ammonium and/or phosphonium salts have been extensively studied and applied to a variety of antimicrobial-relevant areas. With various architectures, polymeric quaternary ammonium/phosphonium salts were prepared using different approaches, exhibiting different antimicrobial activities and potential applications. This review focuses on the state of the art of antimicrobial polymers with quaternary ammonium/phosphonium salts. In particular, it discusses the structure and synthesis method, mechanisms of antimicrobial action, and the comparison of antimicrobial performance between these two kinds of polymers.

Broad spectrum antibacterial and antifungal polymeric paint materials: synthesis, structure-activity relationship, and membrane-active mode of action

Microbial attachment and subsequent colonization onto surfaces lead to the spread of deadly community-acquired and hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections. Noncovalent immobilization of water insoluble and organo-soluble cationic polymers onto a surface is a facile approach to prevent microbial contamination. In the present study, we described the synthesis of water insoluble and organo-soluble polymeric materials and demonstrated their structure-activity relationship against various human pathogenic bacteria including drug-resistant strains such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), and beta lactam-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae as well as pathogenic fungi such as Candida spp. and Cryptococcus spp. The polymer coated surfaces completely inactivated both bacteria and fungi upon contact (5 log reduction with respect to control). Linear polymers were more active and found to have a higher killing rate than the branched polymers. The polymer coated surfaces also exhibited significant activity in various complex mammalian fluids such as serum, plasma, and blood and showed negligible hemolysis at an amount much higher than minimum inhibitory amounts (MIAs). These polymers were found to have excellent compatibility with other medically relevant polymers (polylactic acid, PLA) and commercial paint. The cationic hydrophobic polymer coatings disrupted the lipid membrane of both bacteria and fungi and thus showed a membrane-active mode of action. Further, bacteria did not develop resistance against these membrane-active polymers in sharp contrast to conventional antibiotics and lipopeptides, thus the polymers hold great promise to be used as coating materials for developing permanent antimicrobial paint.

Antibacterial 45S5 Bioglass®-based scaffolds reinforced with genipin cross-linked gelatin for bone tissue engineering

45S5 Bioglass® (BG) scaffolds with high porosity (>90%) were coated with genipin cross-linked gelatin (GCG) and further incorporated with poly(p-xylyleneguanidine) hydrochloride (PPXG).

Quaternized poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-grafted agarose copolymers for multipurpose antibacterial applications

Polymeric quaternary ammonium salts-functionalized agarose not only exhibit good antibacterial activity in solution form, but also can be solidified to construct antibacterial surfaces.

Antibacterial and osteoinductive capability of orthopedic materials via cation-π interaction mediated positive charge

Both implant centered infection and deficient osteoinduction are pivotal issues for orthopedic implants in early and long-term osseointegration, but constructing a functional bio-interface that can overcome these two problems is highly challenging. Our study reveals that a bio-interface with promoted positive charges plays an active role in simultaneously enhancing the antibacterial and osteoinductive capability of orthopedic implants. The positively charged bio-interface is fabricated by a simple dipping method, in which the cationic polymer (polyhexamethylene biguanidine, PHMB) is immobilized in the conjugated polydopamine coating. Mediated by the cation-π interaction, the immobilized PHMB elevates the surface potential resulting in excellent antibacterial efficacy corresponding to 5 ppm of free PHMB. The materials exhibit far better cytocompatibility than free PHMB at the dose which kills over 50% of the cells. Most importantly, the cationic surface can function as a bioelectrical microenvironment to guide bone mesenchymal stem cells and consequently, enhanced cellular viability and proliferation together with upregulated osteogenesis are achieved. The cation-π interaction mediated cationic surface overcomes the disadvantages plaguing the immobilized cationic antibacterial compounds prepared by other methods and is applicable to different types of biomedical materials requiring antibacterial and osteoinductive bio-interfaces.

Antimicrobial polymers

Better health is basic requirement of human being, but the rapid growth of harmful pathogens and their serious health effects pose a significant challenge to modern science. Infections by pathogenic microorganisms are of great concern in many fields such as medical devices, drugs, hospital surfaces/furniture, dental restoration, surgery equipment, health care products, and hygienic applications (e.g., water purification systems, textiles, food packaging and storage, major or domestic appliances etc.) Antimicrobial polymers are the materials having the capability to kill/inhibit the growth of microbes on their surface or surrounding environment. Recently, they gained considerable interest for both academic research and industry and were found to be better than their small molecular counterparts in terms of enhanced efficacy, reduced toxicity, minimized environmental problems, resistance, and prolonged lifetime. Hence, efforts have focused on the development of antimicrobial polymers with all desired characters for optimum activity. In this Review, an overview of different antimicrobial polymers, their mechanism of action, factors affecting antimicrobial activity, and application in various fields are given. Recent advances and the current clinical status of these polymers are also discussed.

Therapeutic strategies to combat antibiotic resistance

With multidrug resistant bacteria on the rise, new antibiotic approaches are required. Although a number of new small molecule antibiotics are currently in the development pipeline with many more in preclinical development, the clinical options and practices for infection control must be expanded. Biologics and non-antibiotic adjuvants offer this opportunity for expansion. Nevertheless, to avoid known mechanisms of resistance, intelligent combination approaches for multiple simultaneous and complimentary therapies must be designed. Combination approaches should extend beyond biologically active molecules to include smart controlled delivery strategies. Infection control must integrate antimicrobial stewardship, new antibiotic molecules, biologics, and delivery strategies into effective combination therapies designed to 1) fight the infection, 2) avoid resistance, and 3) protect the natural microbiome. This review explores these developing strategies in the context of circumventing current mechanisms of resistance.

The interaction of bacteria with engineered nanostructured polymeric materials: a review

Bacterial infections are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In spite of great advances in biomaterials research and development, a significant proportion of medical devices undergo bacterial colonization and become the target of an implant-related infection. We present a review of the two major classes of antibacterial nanostructured materials: polymeric nanocomposites and surface-engineered materials. The paper describes antibacterial effects due to the induced material properties, along with the principles of bacterial adhesion and the biofilm formation process. Methods for antimicrobial modifications of polymers using a nanocomposite approach as well as surface modification procedures are surveyed and discussed, followed by a concise examination of techniques used in estimating bacteria/material interactions. Finally, we present an outline of future sceneries and perspectives on antibacterial applications of nanostructured materials to resist or counteract implant infections.

Antibacterial performance of ZnO-based fillers with mesoscale structured morphology in model medical PVC composites

Three different ZnO-based antibacterial fillers having different morphologies in microscale region were prepared by the use of the microwave assisted synthesis protocol created in our laboratory with additional annealing in one case. Further, PVC composites containing 0.5-5 wt.% of ZnO based antibacterial fillers were prepared by melt mixing and characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Mechanical testing showed no adverse effect on the working of polymer composites due to either of the fillers used or the applied processing conditions in comparison with the neat medical grade PVC. The surface antibacterial activity of the compounded PVC composites was assessed against Escherichia coli ATCC 8739 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538P according to ISO 22196: 2007 (E). All materials at almost all filler loading levels were efficient against both species of bacteria. The material with the most expanding morphology assuring the largest contact between filler and matrix achieved an excellent level of more than 99.9999% reduction of viable cells of E. coli in comparison to untreated PVC and performed very well against S. aureus, too. A correlation between the morphology and efficacy of the filler was observed and, as a result, a general rule was formulated which links the proneness of the microparticles to perform well against bacteria to their shape and morphology.

Cationic peptide exposure enhances pulsed-electric-field-mediated membrane disruption

BACKGROUND

The use of pulsed electric fields (PEFs) to irreversibly electroporate cells is a promising approach for destroying undesirable cells. This approach may gain enhanced applicability if the intensity of the PEF required to electrically disrupt cell membranes can be reduced via exposure to a molecular deliverable. This will be particularly impactful if that reduced PEF minimally influences cells that are not exposed to the deliverable. We hypothesized that the introduction of charged molecules to the cell surfaces would create regions of enhanced transmembrane electric potential in the vicinity of each charged molecule, thereby lowering the PEF intensity required to disrupt the plasma membranes. This study will therefore examine if exposure to cationic peptides can enhance a PEF's ability to disrupt plasma membranes.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We exposed leukemia cells to 40 μs PEFs in media containing varying concentrations of a cationic peptide, polyarginine. We observed the internalization of a membrane integrity indicator, propidium iodide (PI), in real time. Based on an individual cell's PI fluorescence versus time signature, we were able to determine the relative degree of membrane disruption. When using 1-2 kV/cm, exposure to >50 μg/ml of polyarginine resulted in immediate and high levels of PI uptake, indicating severe membrane disruption, whereas in the absence of peptide, cells predominantly exhibited signatures indicative of no membrane disruption. Additionally, PI entered cells through the anode-facing membrane when exposed to cationic peptide, which was theoretically expected.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Exposure to cationic peptides reduced the PEF intensity required to induce rapid and irreversible membrane disruption. Critically, peptide exposure reduced the PEF intensities required to elicit irreversible membrane disruption at normally sub-electroporation intensities. We believe that these cationic peptides, when coupled with current advancements in cell targeting techniques will be useful tools in applications where targeted destruction of unwanted cell populations is desired.

Designing mimics of membrane active proteins

As a semipermeable barrier that controls the flux of biomolecules in and out the cell, the plasma membrane is critical in cell function and survival. Many proteins interact with the plasma membrane and modulate its physiology. Within this large landscape of membrane-active molecules, researchers have focused significant attention on two specific classes of peptides, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and cell penetrating peptides (CPPs), because of their unique properties. In this Account, we describe our efforts over the last decade to build and understand synthetic mimics of antimicrobial peptides (SMAMPs). These endeavors represent one specific example of a much larger effort to understand how synthetic molecules interact with and manipulate the plasma membrane. Using both defined molecular weight oligomers and easier to produce, but heterogeneous, polymers, we have generated scaffolds with biological potency exceeding that of the natural analogues. One of these compounds has progressed through a phase II clinical trial for pan-staph infections. Modern biophysical assays have highlighted the interplay between the synthetic scaffold and lipid composition: a negative Gaussian curvature is required both for pore formation and for the initiation of endosome creation. Although work remains to better resolve the complexity of this interplay between lipids, other bilayer components, and the scaffolds, significant new insights have been discovered. These results point to the importance of considering the various aspects of permeation and how these are related to "pore formation". More recently, our efforts have expanded toward protein transduction domains, or mimics of cell penetrating peptides. Using a combination of unique molecular scaffolds and guanidinium-rich side chains, we have produced an array of polymers with robust membrane (and delivery) activity. In this new area, researchers are just beginning to understand the fundamental interactions between these new scaffolds and the plasma membrane. Negative Gaussian curvature is also important in these systems, but the detailed relationships between molecular structure, self-assembly with lipids, and translocation will require more investigation. It has become clear that the combination of molecular design, biophysical models, and biological evaluation provides a robust approach to the generation and study of novel proteinomimetics.

In vitro cytotoxicity of antimicrobial conjugated electrolytes: interactions with mammalian cells

An estimated 19 000 deaths and $3-4 billion in health care costs per year in the United States are attributed to methicillin-resistant Staphlococcus aureus (MRSA) infections. Certain conjugated phenylene ethynylene (CPE)-based polymers (PPE) and oligomers (OPE) have been demonstrated to exhibit dark and light-activated antimicrobial activity. Until recently, the relative cytotoxicity of these PPEs and OPEs toward mammalian cells haas been unknown, limiting the applications for which they may be used (e.g., reducing and/or preventing the spread of untreatable bacterial strains). In this work, we examine the toxicity of CPEs to mammalian cells using cytotoxicity assays of cellular monolayers. Eight CPEs, two PPEs and six OPEs, were selected for these studies based on their biocidal activity, and diversity of repeat unit number and functional groups. Briefly, two cell types were exposed to CPEs at concentrations ranging from 1-100 ug/mL for 24 h. We find that concentration largely determines the resulting viability of cells, although at intermediate concentrations (5-10 ug/mL), the effect of light on light-activated compounds is very important. Furthermore, we find that the longer-chained compounds are cytotoxic at much higher concentrations, and therefore have the widest range of concentrations available for potential applications.

Molecular design, structures, and activity of antimicrobial peptide-mimetic polymers

There is an urgent need for new antibiotics which are effective against drug-resistant bacteria without contributing to resistance development. We have designed and developed antimicrobial copolymers with cationic amphiphilic structures based on the mimicry of naturally occurring antimicrobial peptides. These copolymers exhibit potent antimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with no adverse hemolytic activity. Notably, these polymers also did not result in any measurable resistance development in E. coli. The peptide-mimetic design principle offers significant flexibility and diversity in the creation of new antimicrobial materials and their potential biomedical applications.

Antimicrobial N-halamine polymers and coatings: a review of their synthesis, characterization, and applications

Antimicrobial N-halamine polymers and coatings have been studied extensively over the past decade thanks to their numerous qualities such as effectiveness toward a broad spectrum of microorganisms, long-term stability, regenerability, safety to humans and environment and low cost. In this review, recent developments are described by emphasizing the synthesis of polymers and/or coatings having N-halamine moieties. Actually, three main approaches of preparation are given in detail: polymerization, generation by electrochemical route with proteins as monomers and grafting with precursor monomers. Identification and characterization of the formation of the N-halamine bonds (>N-X with X = Cl or Br or I) by physical techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and by chemical reactions are described. In order to check the antimicrobial activity of the N-halamine compounds, bacterial tests are also described. Finally, some examples of application of these N-halamines in the water treatment, paints, healthcare equipment, and textile industries are presented and discussed.

Antimicrobial polymers as synthetic mimics of host-defense peptides

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria 'superbugs' are an emerging threat to public health due to the decrease in effective antibiotics as well as the slowed pace of development of new antibiotics to replace those that become ineffective. The need for new antimicrobial agents is a well-documented issue relating to world health. Tremendous efforts have been given to developing compounds that not only show high efficacy, but also those that are less susceptible to resistance development in the bacteria. However, the development of newer, stronger antibiotics which can overcome these acquired resistances is still a scientific challenge because a new mode of antimicrobial action is likely required. To that end, amphiphilic, cationic polymers have emerged as a promising candidate for further development as an antimicrobial agent with decreased potential for resistance development. These polymers are designed to mimic naturally occurring host-defense antimicrobial peptides which act on bacterial cell walls or membranes. Antimicrobial-peptide mimetic polymers display antibacterial activity against a broad spectrum of bacteria including drug-resistant strains and are less susceptible to resistance development in bacteria. These polymers also showed selective activity to bacteria over mammalian cells. Antimicrobial polymers provide a new molecular framework for chemical modification and adaptation to tune their biological functions. The peptide-mimetic design of antimicrobial polymers will be versatile, generating a new generation of antibiotics toward implementation of polymers in biomedical applications.

Biocidal polymers: synthesis and antimicrobial properties of benzaldehyde derivatives immobilized onto amine-terminated polyacrylonitrile

BACKGROUND

The design and applications of antimicrobial polymers is a growing field. Antimicrobial polymers can help to solve the problems associated with the use of conventional antimicrobial agents. Polymers with active functional groups can act as a carrier system for antimicrobial agents. In our study, we aim to prepare and develop some antimicrobial polymers for biomedical applications and water treatment.

RESULTS

The antimicrobial polymers based on polyacrylonitrile (PAN) were prepared. Functional groups were created onto polyacrylonitrile via amination using different types of diamines such as ethylenediamine (EDA) and hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) to yield amine-terminated polymers. Antimicrobial polymers were obtained by immobilization of benzaldehyde and its derivatives which include, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde and 2,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde onto amine-terminated polymers. The antimicrobial activity of the prepared polymers against different types of microorganisms including Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus), Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Escherichia coli; and Salmonella typhi) as well as fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Cryptpcoccus neoformans) were explored by the cut plug method and viable cell counting methods.

CONCLUSIONS

Amine-terminated polyacrylonitrile were used as a novel polymeric carrier for benzaldehyde derivatives as antimicrobial agents. The prepared polymers can inhibit the growth of the microorganisms. The activity was varied according to the tested microorganism as well as the polymer microstructure. It was found that the activity increased with increasing the number phenolic hydroxyl group of the bioactive group. Finally, it is anticipated that the prepared antimicrobial polymers would be of great help in the field of biomedical applications and biological water treatment.

Review of immobilized antimicrobial agents and methods for testing

Antimicrobial surfaces for food and medical applications have historically involved antimicrobial coatings that elute biocides for effective kill in solution or at surfaces. However, recent efforts have focused on immobilized antimicrobial agents in order to avoid toxicity and the compatibility and reservoir limitations common to elutable agents. This review critically examines the assorted antimicrobial agents reported to have been immobilized, with an emphasis on the interpretation of antimicrobial testing as it pertains to discriminating between eluting and immobilized agents. Immobilization techniques and modes of antimicrobial action are also discussed.

Clinical use of the antiseptic polihexanide for genital tract infections

BACKGROUND

In clinical practice, treatment of genital tract infections is based on administration of either antibiotics or antiseptics. While antibiotics may be applied systemically or topically, antiseptics may be applied only topically. In case of bacterial vaginosis (BV), antibiotic therapy may often be limited and side effects due to systemic administration may develop. Polihexanide (PHMB) is a promising option for the topical treatment of genital tract infections, in particular BV and vaginitis.

METHOD

A systematic search for publications on the use of PHMB for the treatment of genital infections in two electronic databases was performed. Titles, abstracts and citations were imported into a reference database. Duplicates were removed and two reviewers assessed each identified publication separately.

RESULTS

Among a total of 204 references, 3 prospective randomized trials were identified. Two trials treated BV infections with PHMB in comparison to clindamycin as antibiotic standard therapy with no significant differences either in safety or in efficacy. The third controlled trial investigated the clinical efficacy of PHMB compared to placebo in the treatment of human papilloma virus. Patients treated with PHMB daily for up to 16-weeks showed significantly higher (52%) clearance of genital warts as compared to patients treated with placebo (4%).

CONCLUSION

PHMB may be a clinically effective alternative for the treatment of BV and human papilloma virus. Although PHMB-based antiseptics are available since the late 90s, controlled trials to investigate its clinical potential for antiseptic treatment are scant. Clinical use of antiseptics for the treatment of infectious diseases should be explored and supported further.

Engineering nano- and microparticles to tune immunity

The immune system can be a cure or cause of disease, fulfilling a protective role in attacking cancer or pathogenic microbes but also causing tissue destruction in autoimmune disorders. Thus, therapies aimed to amplify or suppress immune reactions are of great interest. However, the complex regulation of the immune system, coupled with the potential systemic side effects associated with traditional systemic drug therapies, has presented a major hurdle for the development of successful immunotherapies. Recent progress in the design of synthetic micro- and nano-particles that can target drugs, deliver imaging agents, or stimulate immune cells directly through their physical and chemical properties is leading to new approaches to deliver vaccines, promote immune responses against tumors, and suppress autoimmunity. In addition, novel strategies, such as the use of particle-laden immune cells as living targeting agents for drugs, are providing exciting new approaches for immunotherapy. This progress report describes recent advances in the design of micro- and nano-particles for immunotherapies and diagnostics.

Antibacterial surfaces developed from bio-inspired approaches

Prevention of bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation on the surfaces of materials is a topic of major medical and societal importance. Various synthetic approaches based on immobilization or release of bactericidal substances such as metal derivatives, polyammonium salts and antibiotics were extensively explored to produce antibacterial coatings. Although providing encouraging results, these approaches suffer from the use of active agents which may be associated with side-effects such as cytotoxicity, hypersensibility, inflammatory responses or the progressive alarming phenomenon of antibiotic resistance. In addition to these synthetic approaches, living organisms, e.g. animals and plants, have developed fascinating strategies over millions of years to prevent efficiently the colonization of their surfaces by pathogens. These strategies have been recently mimicked to create a new generation of bio-inspired biofilm-resistant surfaces. In this review, we discuss some of these bio-inspired methods devoted to the development of antibiofilm surfaces. We describe the elaboration of antibacterial coatings based on natural bactericidal substances produced by living organisms such as antimicrobial peptides, bacteriolytic enzymes and essential oils. We discuss also the development of layers mimicking algae surfaces and based on anti-quorum-sensing molecules which affect cell-to-cell communication. Finally, we report on very recent strategies directly inspired from marine animal life and based on surface microstructuring.

Design and synthesis of self-degradable antibacterial polymers by simultaneous chain- and step-growth radical copolymerization

Self-degradable antimicrobial copolymers bearing cationic side chains and main-chain ester linkages were synthesized using the simultaneous chain- and step-growth radical polymerization of t-butyl acrylate and 3-butenyl 2-chloropropionate, followed by the transformation of t-butyl groups into primary ammonium salts. We prepared a series of copolymers with different structural features in terms of molecular weight, monomer composition, amine functionality, and side chain structures to examine the effect of polymer properties on their antimicrobial and hemolytic activities. The acrylate copolymers containing primary amine side chains displayed moderate antimicrobial activity against E. coli but were relatively hemolytic. The acrylate copolymer with quaternary ammonium groups and the acrylamide copolymers showed low or no antimicrobial and hemolytic activities. An acrylate copolymer with primary amine side chains degraded to lower molecular weight oligomers with lower antimicrobial activity in aqueous solution. This degradation was due to amidation of the ester groups of the polymer chains by the nucleophilic addition of primary amine groups in the side chains resulting in cleavage of the polymer main chain. The degradation mechanism was studied in detail by model reactions between amine compounds and precursor copolymers.

Synthesis and characterization of antibacterial dental monomers and composites

The objective of this study is to synthesize antibacterial methacrylate and methacrylamide monomers and formulate antibacterial fluoride-releasing dental composites. Three antibacterial methacrylate or methacrylamide monomers containing long-chain quaternary ammonium fluoride, 1,2-methacrylamido-N,N,N-trimethyldodecan-1-aminium fluoride (monomer I), N-benzyl-11-(methacryloyloxy)-N,N-dimethylundecan-1-aminium fluoride (monomer II), and methacryloxyldecylpyridinium fluoride (monomer III) have been synthesized and analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometry (MS). The cytotoxicity test and bactericidal test against Streptococcus mutans indicate that antibacterial monomer II is superior to monomers I and III. A series of dental composites containing 0-6% of antibacterial monomer II have been formulated and tested for degree of conversion (DC), flexure strength, water sorption, solubility, and inhibition of S. mutans biofilms. An antibacterial fluoride-releasing dental composite has also been formulated and tested for flexure strength and fluoride release. The dental composite containing 3% of monomer II has a significant effect against S. mutans biofilm formation without major adverse effects on its physical and mechanical properties. The new antibacterial monomers can be used together with the fluoride-releasing monomers containing a ternary zirconiun-fluoride chelate to formulate a new antibacterial fluoride-releasing dental composite. Such a new dental composite is expected to have higher anticaries efficacy and longer service life.

Antimicrobial fibers: therapeutic possibilities and recent advances

The emergence of multi-drug-resistant bacteria such as methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and extended-spectrum β-lactamase (carbapenemase)-producing Enterobacteriaceae is becoming a serious threat. New-generation antimicrobial agents need to be developed. This includes the design of novel antimicrobial compounds and drug-delivery systems. This review provides an introduction into different classes of antimicrobial materials. The main focus is on strategies for the introduction of antimicrobial properties in polymer materials. These can be roughly divided into surface modification, inclusion of antimicrobial compounds that can leach from the polymer, and the introduction of polymer-bound moieties that provide the polymer with antimicrobial properties. One of the main challenges in the development of antimicrobial polymers for the use in contact with human tissue is the concomitant demand of non-cytotoxicity. Current research is strongly focused on the latter aspect.

New insight into the mechanism of action of wasp mastoparan peptides: lytic activity and clustering observed with giant vesicles

Antimicrobial peptides of the mastoparans family exert their bactericidal activity by binding to lipid membranes, inducing pores or defects and leaking the internal contents of vesicles and cells. However, this does not seem to be the only mechanism at play, and they might be important in the search for improved peptides with lower undesirable side effects. This work deals with three mastoparans peptides, Polybia-MP-1(MP-1), N2-Polybia-MP-1 (N-MP-1), and Mastoparan X (MPX), which exhibit high sequence homology. They all have three lysine residues and amidated C termini, but because of the presence of two, one, and no aspartic acid residues, respectively, they have +2, +3, and +4 net charges at physiological pH. Here we focus on the effects of these mastoparans peptides on anionic model membranes made of palmitoleyoilphosphatidylcholine (POPC) and palmitoleyoilphosphatidylglycerol (POPG) at 1:1 and 3:1 molar ratios in the presence and in the absence of saline buffer. Zeta potential experiments were carried out to measure the extent of the peptides' binding and accumulation at the vesicle surface, and CD spectra were acquired to quantify the helical structuring of the peptides upon binding. Giant unilamellar vesicles were observed under phase contrast and fluorescence microscopy. We found that the three peptides induced the leakage of GUVs at a gradual rate with many characteristics of the graded mode. This process was faster in the absence of saline buffer. Additionally, we observed that the peptides induced the formation of dense regions of phospholipids and peptides on the GUV surface. This phenomenon was easily observable for the more charged peptides (MPX > N-MP-1 > MP-1) and in the absence of added salt. Our data suggest that these mastoparans accumulate on the bilayer surface and induce a transient interruption to its barrier properties, leaking the vesicle contents. Next, the bilayer recovers its continuity, but this happens in an inhomogeneous way, forming a kind of ply with peptides sandwiched between two juxtaposed membranes. Eventually, a peptide-lipid aggregate forming a lump is formed at high peptide-to-lipid ratios.

Effect of polymer chain length on membrane perturbation activity of cationic phenylene ethynylene oligomers and polymers

The interactions of poly(phenylene ethynylene)- (PPE-) based cationic conjugated polyelectrolytes (CPEs) and oligo(phenylene ethynylene)s (OPEs) with different model lipid membrane systems were investigated to gain insight into the relationship between molecular structure and membrane perturbation ability. The CPE and OPE compounds exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, and cell walls and membranes are believed to be their main targets. To better understand how the size, in terms of the number of repeat units, of the CPEs and OPEs affects their membrane disruption activities, a series of PPE-based CPEs and OPEs were synthesized and studied. A number of photophysical techniques were used to investigate the interactions of CPEs and OPEs with model membranes, including unilamellar vesicles and lipid monolayers at the air/water interface. CPE- or OPE-induced dye leakage from vesicles reveals that the CPEs and OPEs selectively perturb model bacterial membranes and that their membrane perturbation abilities are highly dependent on molecular size. Consistent with dye-leakage assay results, the CPEs and OPEs also exhibit chain-length-dependent ability to insert into 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DPPG) monolayers. Our results suggest that, for PPE-based CPE and OPE antimicrobials, chain length can be tuned to optimize their membrane perturbation ability.

Survival of adhering staphylococci during exposure to a quaternary ammonium compound evaluated by using atomic force microscopy imaging

Effects of a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) on the survival of adhering staphylococci on a surface were investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Four strains with different minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentrations (MBC) for the QAC were exposed to three different concentrations of the QAC in potassium phosphate buffer (0.5×, 1×, and 2× MBC) while adhering to glass. Adhering staphylococci were repeatedly imaged with AFM in the contact mode, and the cell surface was found to wrinkle upon progressive exposure to the QAC until bacteria disappeared from the substratum. Higher concentrations of QAC yielded faster wrinkling and the disappearance of bacteria during imaging. Two slime-producing staphylococcal strains survived longer on the surface than two non-slime-producing strains despite similar MICs and MBCs. All staphylococci adhering in unscanned areas remained adhering during exposure to QAC. Since MICs and MBCs did not relate to bacterial cell surface hydrophobicities and zeta potentials, survival on the surface is probably not determined by the direct interaction of QAC molecules with the cell surface. Instead, it is suggested that the pressure of the AFM tip assists the incorporation of QAC molecules in the membrane and enhances their bactericidal efficacy. In addition, the prolonged survival under pressure from slime-producing strains on a surface may point to a new protective role of slime as a stress absorber, impeding the incorporation of QAC molecules. The addition of Ca(2+) ions to a QAC solution yielded longer survival of intact, adhering staphylococci, suggesting that Ca(2+) ions can impede the exchange of membrane Ca(2+) ions required for QAC incorporation.