Reactive oxygen signalling: the latest news

Global Plant Stress Signaling: Reactive Oxygen Species at the Cross-Road

Current technologies have changed biology into a data-intensive field and significantly increased our understanding of signal transduction pathways in plants. However, global defense signaling networks in plants have not been established yet. Considering the apparent intricate nature of signaling mechanisms in plants (due to their sessile nature), studying the points at which different signaling pathways converge, rather than the branches, represents a good start to unravel global plant signaling networks. In this regard, growing evidence shows that the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is one of the most common plant responses to different stresses, representing a point at which various signaling pathways come together. In this review, the complex nature of plant stress signaling networks will be discussed. An emphasis on different signaling players with a specific attention to ROS as the primary source of the signaling battery in plants will be presented. The interactions between ROS and other signaling components, e.g., calcium, redox homeostasis, membranes, G-proteins, MAPKs, plant hormones, and transcription factors will be assessed. A better understanding of the vital roles ROS are playing in plant signaling would help innovate new strategies to improve plant productivity under the circumstances of the increasing severity of environmental conditions and the high demand of food and energy worldwide.

Non-enzymatic electrochemical sensing of glucose and hydrogen peroxide using a bis(acetylacetonato)oxovanadium(iv) complex modified gold electrode

A bis(acetylacetonato)oxovanadium(iv) complex modified gold electrode shows excellent sensing ability towards glucose and hydrogen peroxide in a neutral pH medium.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS): Beneficial Companions of Plants' Developmental Processes

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated inevitably in the redox reactions of plants, including respiration and photosynthesis. In earlier studies, ROS were considered as toxic by-products of aerobic pathways of the metabolism. But in recent years, concept about ROS has changed because they also participate in developmental processes of plants by acting as signaling molecules. In plants, ROS regulate many developmental processes such as cell proliferation and differentiation, programmed cell death, seed germination, gravitropism, root hair growth and pollen tube development, senescence, etc. Despite much progress, a comprehensive update of advances in the understanding of the mechanisms evoked by ROS that mediate in cell proliferation and development are fragmentry and the matter of ROS perception and the signaling cascade remains open. Therefore, keeping in view the above facts, an attempt has been made in this article to summarize the recent findings regarding updates made in the regulatory action of ROS at various plant developmental stages, which are still not well-known.

Biosorption of arsenic from groundwater using Vallisneria gigantea plants. Kinetics, equilibrium and photophysical considerations

Arsenic (V) uptake from groundwater by using Vallisneria gigantea plants was studied using batch experiments. Reflectance and fluorescence of intact plants were investigated and changes in photophysical properties following arsenic absorption were reported. Good correlations have been found between arsenic concentration in groundwater and parameters derived from reflectance and fluorescence measurements. This system reached its equilibrium after seven days when the removal quantities were strongly dependent on the initial arsenic concentration. Interestingly, Vallisneria plants were able to accumulate from 100 to 600 mg As kg(-1) in roots and fronds although the translocation factors were low (0.6-1.6). Kinetic data for biosorption process followed a first-order law. At low arsenic concentrations the uptake in plants was governed by diffusion aspects. Langmuir, Freundlich and Dubinin-Radushkevich models were applied and results demonstrated that arsenic uptake was better described by the Langmuir model. As a final remark we concluded that a plant of this species should be able to remove 1mg As per week.

Preparation of a Superhydrophobic and Peroxidase-like Activity Array Chip for H2O2 Sensing by Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

In this paper, we propose a novel and simple method for preparing a dual-biomimetic functional array possessing both superhydrophobic and peroxidase-like activity that can be used for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) sensing. The proposed method is an integration innovation that combines the above two properties and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). We integrated a series of well-ordered arrays of Au points (d = 1 mm) onto a superhydrophobic copper (Cu)/silver (Ag) surface by replicating an arrayed molybdenum template. Instead of using photoresists and the traditional lithography method, we utilized a chemical etching method (a substitution reaction between Cu and HAuCl4) with a Cu/Ag superhydrophobic surface as the barrier layer, which has the benefit of water repellency. The as-prepared Au points were observed to possess peroxidase-like activity, allowing for catalytic oxidation of the chromogenic molecule o-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (OPD). Oxidation was evidenced by a color change in the presence of H2O2, which allows the array chip to act as an H2O2 sensor. In this study, the water repellency of the superhydrophobic surface was used to fabricate the array chip and increase the local reactant concentration during the catalytic reaction. As a result, the catalytic reaction occurred when only 2 μL of an aqueous sample (OPD/H2O2) was placed onto the Au point, and the enzymatic product, 2,3-diaminophenazine, showed a SERS signal distinguishable from that of OPD after mixing with 2 μL of colloidal Au. Using the dual-biomimetic functional array chip, quantitative analysis of H2O2 was performed by observing the change in the SERS spectra, which showed a concentration-dependent behavior for H2O2. This method allows for the detection of H2O2 at concentrations as low as 3 pmol per 2 μL of sample, which is a considerable advantage in H2O2 analysis. The as-prepared substrate was convenient for H2O2 detection because only a small amount of sample was required in each analysis. Highly sensitive detection was realized using SERS. Therefore, this chip was shown to exhibit significant potential for applications in bioanalysis.

Disruption of the Arabidopsis Defense Regulator Genes SAG101, EDS1, and PAD4 Confers Enhanced Freezing Tolerance

In Arabidopsis, three lipase-like regulators, SAG101, EDS1, and PAD4, act downstream of resistance protein-associated defense signaling. Although the roles of SAG101, EDS1, and PAD4 in biotic stress have been extensively studied, little is known about their functions in plant responses to abiotic stresses. Here, we show that SAG101, EDS1, and PAD4 are involved in the regulation of freezing tolerance in Arabidopsis. With or without cold acclimation, the sag101, eds1, and pad4 single mutants, as well as their double mutants, exhibited similarly enhanced tolerance to freezing temperatures. Upon cold exposure, the sag101, eds1, and pad4 mutants showed increased transcript levels of C-REPEAT/DRE BINDING FACTORs and their regulons compared with the wild type. Moreover, freezing-induced cell death and accumulation of hydrogen peroxide were ameliorated in sag101, eds1, and pad4 mutants. The sag101, eds1, and pad4 mutants had much lower salicylic acid (SA) and diacylglycerol (DAG) contents than the wild type, and exogenous application of SA and DAG compromised the freezing tolerance of the mutants. Furthermore, SA suppressed the cold-induced expression of DGATs and DGKs in the wild-type leaves. These findings indicate that SAG101, EDS1, and PAD4 are involved in the freezing response in Arabidopsis, at least in part, by modulating the homeostasis of SA and DAG.

Identification of novel drought-tolerant-associated SNPs in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a leguminous in high demand for human nutrition and a very important agricultural product. Production of common bean is constrained by environmental stresses such as drought. Although conventional plant selection has been used to increase production yield and stress tolerance, drought tolerance selection based on phenotype is complicated by associated physiological, anatomical, cellular, biochemical, and molecular changes. These changes are modulated by differential gene expression. A common method to identify genes associated with phenotypes of interest is the characterization of Single Nucleotide Polymorphims (SNPs) to link them to specific functions. In this work, we selected two drought-tolerant parental lines from Mesoamerica, Pinto Villa, and Pinto Saltillo. The parental lines were used to generate a population of 282 families (F3:5) and characterized by 169 SNPs. We associated the segregation of the molecular markers in our population with phenotypes including flowering time, physiological maturity, reproductive period, plant, seed and total biomass, reuse index, seed yield, weight of 100 seeds, and harvest index in three cultivation cycles. We observed 83 SNPs with significant association (p < 0.0003 after Bonferroni correction) with our quantified phenotypes. Phenotypes most associated were days to flowering and seed biomass with 58 and 44 associated SNPs, respectively. Thirty-seven out of the 83 SNPs were annotated to a gene with a potential function related to drought tolerance or relevant molecular/biochemical functions. Some SNPs such as SNP28 and SNP128 are related to starch biosynthesis, a common osmotic protector; and SNP18 is related to proline biosynthesis, another well-known osmotic protector.

Interplay between reactive oxygen species and hormones in the control of plant development and stress tolerance

As a consequence of a sessile lifestyle, plants are continuously exposed to changing environmental conditions and often life-threatening stresses caused by exposure to excessive light, extremes of temperature, limiting nutrient or water availability, and pathogen/insect attack. The flexible coordination of plant growth and development is necessary to optimize vigour and fitness in a changing environment through rapid and appropriate responses to such stresses. The concept that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are versatile signalling molecules in plants that contribute to stress acclimation is well established. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge of how ROS production and signalling are integrated with the action of auxin, brassinosteroids, gibberellins, abscisic acid, ethylene, strigolactones, salicylic acid, and jasmonic acid in the coordinate regulation of plant growth and stress tolerance. We consider the local and systemic crosstalk between ROS and hormonal signalling pathways and identify multiple points of reciprocal control, as well as providing insights into the integration nodes that involve Ca(2+)-dependent processes and mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation cascades.

Ozone-Induced Rice Grain Yield Loss Is Triggered via a Change in Panicle Morphology That Is Controlled by ABERRANT PANICLE ORGANIZATION 1 Gene

Rice grain yield is predicted to decrease in the future because of an increase in tropospheric ozone concentration. However, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Here, we investigated the responses to ozone of two rice (Oryza Sativa L.) cultivars, Sasanishiki and Habataki. Sasanishiki showed ozone-induced leaf injury, but no grain yield loss. By contrast, Habataki showed grain yield loss with minimal leaf injury. A QTL associated with grain yield loss caused by ozone was identified in Sasanishiki/Habataki chromosome segment substitution lines and included the ABERRANT PANICLE ORGANIZATION 1 (APO1) gene. The Habataki allele of the APO1 locus in a near-isogenic line also resulted in grain yield loss upon ozone exposure, suggesting APO1 involvement in ozone-induced yield loss. Only a few differences in the APO1 amino acid sequences were detected between the cultivars, but the APO1 transcript level was oppositely regulated by ozone exposure: i.e., it increased in Sasanishiki and decreased in Habataki. Interestingly, the levels of some phytohormones (jasmonic acid, jasmonoyl-L-isoleucine, and abscisic acid) known to be involved in attenuation of ozone-induced leaf injury tended to decrease in Sasanishiki but to increase in Habataki upon ozone exposure. These data indicate that ozone-induced grain yield loss in Habataki is caused by a reduction in the APO1 transcript level through an increase in the levels of phytohormones that reduce leaf damage.

The effects of insulin pre-administration in mice exposed to ethanol: alleviating hepatic oxidative injury through anti-oxidative, anti-apoptotic activities and deteriorating hepatic steatosis through SRBEP-1c activation

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) has become an important liver disease hazard to public and personal health. Oxidative stress is believed to be responsible for the pathological changes in ALD. Previous studies have showed that insulin, a classic regulator of glucose metabolism, has significant anti-oxidative function and plays an important role in maintaining the redox balance. For addressing the effects and mechanisms of insulin pre-administration on ethanol-induced liver oxidative injury, we investigated histopathology, inflammatory factors, apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, antioxidant defense system, ethanol metabolic enzymes and lipid disorder in liver of ethanol-exposed mice pretreatment with insulin or not. There are several novel findings in our study. First, we found insulin pre-administration alleviated acute ethanol exposure-induced liver injury and inflammation reflected by the decrease of serum AST and ALT activities, the improvement of pathological alteration and the inhibition of TNF-α and IL-6 expressions. Second, insulin pre-administration could significantly reduce apoptosis and ameliorate mitochondrial dysfunction in liver of mice exposed to ethanol, supporting by decreasing caspases-3 activities and the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2, increasing mitochondrial viability and mitochondrial oxygen consumption, inhibition of the decline of ATP levels and mitochondrial ROS accumulation. Third, insulin pre-administration prevented ethanol-mediated oxidative stress and enhance antioxidant defense system, which is evaluated by the decline of MDA levels and the rise of GSH/GSSG, the up-regulations of antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD, GR through Nrf-2 dependent pathway. Forth, the modification of ethanol metabolism pathway such as the inhibition of CYP2E1, the activation of ALDH might be involved in the anti-oxidative and protective effects exerted by insulin pre-administration against acute ethanol exposure in mice. Finally, insulin pre-administration deteriorated hepatic steatosis in mice exposed to ethanol might be through SRBEP-1c activation. In summary, these results indicated that insulin pre-administration effectively alleviated liver oxidative injury through anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic activities but also deteriorated hepatic steatosis through SRBEP-1c activation in mice exposed to ethanol. Our study provided novel insight about the effects and mechanisms of insulin on ethanol-induced liver injury.

Molecular characterization of fruit-specific class III peroxidase genes in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

In this study, expression of four peroxidase genes, LePrx09, LePrx17, LePrx35 and LePrxA, was identified in immature tomato fruits, and the function in the regulation of fruit growth was characterized. Analysis of amino acid sequences revealed that these genes code for class III peroxidases, containing B, D and F conserved domains, which bind heme groups, and a buried salt bridge motif. LePrx35 and LePrxA were identified as novel peroxidase genes in Solanum lycopersicum (L.). The temporal expression patterns at various fruit growth stages revealed that LePrx35 and LePrxA were expressed only in immature green (IMG) fruits, whereas LePrx17 and LePrx09 were expressed in both immature and mature green fruits. Tissue-specific expression profiles indicated that only LePrx09 was expressed in the mesocarp but not the inner tissue of immature fruits. The effects of hormone treatments and stresses on the four genes were examined; only the expression levels of LePrx17 and LePrx09 were altered. Transcription of LePrx17 was up-regulated by jasmonic acid (JA) and pathogen infection and expression of LePrx09 was induced by ethephon, salicylic acid (SA) and JA, in particular, as well as wounding, pathogen infection and H2O2 stress. Tomato plants over-expressing LePrx09 displayed enhanced resistance to H2O2 stress, suggesting that LePrx09 may participate in the H2O2 signaling pathway to regulate fruit growth and disease resistance in tomato fruits.

Reactive oxygen species and plant resistance to fungal pathogens

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been studied for their role in plant development as well as in plant immunity. ROS were consistently observed to accumulate in the plant after the perception of pathogens and microbes and over the years, ROS were postulated to be an integral part of the defence response of the plant. In this article we will focus on recent findings about ROS involved in the interaction of plants with pathogenic fungi. We will describe the ways to detect ROS, their modes of action and their importance in relation to resistance to fungal pathogens. In addition we include some results from works focussing on the fungal interactor and from studies investigating roots during pathogen attack.

The role of oxidative stress on carotene production by Blakeslea trispora in submerged fermentation

In aerobic metabolism, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are formed during the fermentation that can cause oxidative stress in microorganisms. Microbial cells possess both enzymatic and non-enzymatic defensive systems that may protect cells from oxidative damage. The antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase are the two key defensive enzymes to oxidative stress. The factors that induce oxidative stress in microorganisms include butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), hydrogen peroxide, metal ions, dissolved oxygen tension, elevated temperature, menadione, junglone, paraquat, liquid paraffin, introduction to bioreactors of shake flask inocula and synthetic medium sterilized at initial pH 11.0. Carotenes are highly unsaturated isoprene derivatives. They are used as antioxidants and as coloring agents for food products. In fungi, carotenes are derived via the mevalonate biosynthesis pathway. The key genes in carotene biosynthesis are hmgR, ipi, isoA, carG, carRA and carB. Among microorganisms, Βlakeslea trispora is the main microorganism used for the production of carotenes on the industrial scale. Currently, the synthetic medium is considered the superior substrate for the production of carotenes in a pilot plant scale. The fermentation systems used for the production of carotenes include shake flasks, stirred tank fermentor, bubble column reactor and flat panel photobioreactor. This review summarizes the oxidative stresses in microorganisms and it is focused on the current status of carotene production by B. trispora including oxidative stress induced by BHT, enhanced dissolved oxygen levels, iron ions, liquid paraffin and synthetic medium sterilized at an initial pH 11.0. The oxidative stress induced by the above factors increases significantly the production of carotenes. However, to further reduce the cost of carotene production, new biotechnological methods with higher productivity still need to be explored.

Chloroplast-generated ROS dominate NaCl(-) induced K(+) efflux in wheat leaf mesophyll

Mesophyll K(+) retention ability has been recently reported as an important component of salinity stress tolerance in wheat. In order to investigate the role of ROS in regulating NaCl(-)induced K(+) efflux in wheat leaf mesophyll, a series of pharmacological experiments was conducted using MV (methyl viologen, superoxide radical inducer), DPI (an inhibitor of NADPH oxidase), H2O2 (to mimic apoplastic ROS), and EGCG ((-)-Epigallocatechin gallate, ROS scavenger). Mesophyll pre-treatment with 10 μM MV resulted in a significantly higher NaCl(-)induced K(+) efflux in leaf mesophyll, while 50 μM EGCG pre-treatment alleviated K(+) leakage under salt stress. No significant change in NaCl(-)induced K(+) efflux in leaf mesophyll was found in specimens pre-treated by H2O2 and DPI, compared with the control. The highest NaCl(-)induced H(+) efflux in leaf mesophyll was also found in samples pre-treated with MV, suggesting a futile cycle between increased H(+)-ATPase activity and ROS-induced K(+) leak. Overall, it is suggested that, under saline stress, K(+) efflux from wheat mesophyll is mediated predominantly by non-selective cation channels (NSCC) regulated by ROS produced in chloroplasts, at least in bread wheat.

Hierarchical polystyrene@reduced graphene oxide–Pt core–shell microspheres for non-enzymatic detection of hydrogen peroxide

A non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor based on polystyrene@reduced graphene oxide (RGO)–Pt core–shell microspheres was developed for sensitive detection of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂).

Comparative Analysis of Defense Responses in Chocolate Spot-Resistant and -Susceptible Faba Bean (Vicia faba) Cultivars Following Infection by the Necrotrophic Fungus Botrytis fabae

In this study, resistance responses were investigated during the interaction of Botrytis fabae with two faba bean cultivars expressing different levels of resistance against this pathogen, Nubaria (resistant) and Giza 40 (susceptible). Disease severity was assessed on leaves using a rating scale from 1 to 9. Accumulation levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase and ascorbate peroxidase) were measured in leaf tissues at different times of infection. The expression profiles of two pathogenesis-related proteins (PRPs) encoded by the genes PR-1 and β-1,3-glucanase were also investigated using reverse transcription RT-PCR analysis. The accumulation of these defense responses was induced significantly in both cultivars upon infection with B. fabae compared with un-inoculated controls. The resistant cultivar showed weaker necrotic symptom expression, less ROS accumulation, a lower rate of lipid peroxidation and higher activity of the enzymatic ROS scavenging system compared with susceptible cultivar. Interestingly, ROS accumulated rapidly in the resistant leaf tissues and peaked during the early stages of infection, whereas accumulation was stronger and more intense in the susceptible tissues in later stages. Moreover, the response of the resistant cultivar to infection was earlier and stronger, exhibiting high transcript accumulation of the PR genes. These results indicated that the induction of oxidant/antioxidant responses and the accumulation of PRPs are part of the faba bean defense mechanism against the necrotrophic fungus B. fabae with a different intensity and timing of induction, depending on the resistance levels.

Production of superoxide from Photosystem II in a rice (Oryza sativa L.) mutant lacking PsbS

BACKGROUND

PsbS is a 22-kDa Photosystem (PS) II protein involved in non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) of chlorophyll fluorescence. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) has two PsbS genes, PsbS1 and PsbS2. However, only inactivation of PsbS1, through a knockout (PsbS1-KO) or in RNAi transgenic plants, results in plants deficient in qE, the energy-dependent component of NPQ.

RESULTS

In studies presented here, under fluctuating high light, growth of young seedlings lacking PsbS is retarded, and PSII in detached leaves of the mutants is more sensitive to photoinhibitory illumination compared with the wild type. Using both histochemical and fluorescent probes, we determined the levels of reactive oxygen species, including singlet oxygen, superoxide, and hydrogen peroxide, in leaves and thylakoids. The PsbS-deficient plants generated more superoxide and hydrogen peroxide in their chloroplasts. PSII complexes isolated from them produced more superoxide compared with the wild type, and PSII-driven superoxide production was higher in the mutants. However, we could not observe such differences either in isolated PSI complexes or through PSI-driven electron transport. Time-course experiments using isolated thylakoids showed that superoxide production was the initial event, and that production of hydrogen peroxide proceeded from that.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that at least some of the photoprotection provided by PsbS and qE is mediated by preventing production of superoxide released from PSII under conditions of excess excitation energy.

Plant Responses to Simultaneous Biotic and Abiotic Stress: Molecular Mechanisms

Plants are constantly confronted to both abiotic and biotic stresses that seriously reduce their productivity. Plant responses to these stresses are complex and involve numerous physiological, molecular, and cellular adaptations. Recent evidence shows that a combination of abiotic and biotic stress can have a positive effect on plant performance by reducing the susceptibility to biotic stress. Such an interaction between both types of stress points to a crosstalk between their respective signaling pathways. This crosstalk may be synergistic and/or antagonistic and include among others the involvement of phytohormones, transcription factors, kinase cascades, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). In certain cases, such crosstalk can lead to a cross-tolerance and enhancement of a plant's resistance against pathogens. This review aims at giving an insight into cross-tolerance between abiotic and biotic stress, focusing on the molecular level and regulatory pathways.

Involvements of PCD and changes in gene expression profile during self-pruning of spring shoots in sweet orange (Citrus sinensis)

Background

Citrus shoot tips abscise at an anatomically distinct abscission zone (AZ) that separates the top part of the shoots into basal and apical portions (citrus self-pruning). Cell separation occurs only at the AZ, which suggests its cells have distinctive molecular regulation. Although several studies have looked into the morphological aspects of self-pruning process, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unknown.

Results

In this study, the hallmarks of programmed cell death (PCD) were identified by TUNEL experiments, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and histochemical staining for reactive oxygen species (ROS) during self-pruning of the spring shoots in sweet orange. Our results indicated that PCD occurred systematically and progressively and may play an important role in the control of self-pruning of citrus. Microarray analysis was used to examine transcriptome changes at three stages of self-pruning, and 1,378 differentially expressed genes were identified. Some genes were related to PCD, while others were associated with cell wall biosynthesis or metabolism. These results strongly suggest that abscission layers activate both catabolic and anabolic wall modification pathways during the self-pruning process. In addition, a strong correlation was observed between self-pruning and the expression of hormone-related genes. Self-pruning plays an important role in citrus floral bud initiation. Therefore, several key flowering homologs of Arabidopsis and tomato shoot apical meristem (SAM) activity genes were investigated in sweet orange by real-time PCR and in situ hybridization, and the results indicated that these genes were preferentially expressed in SAM as well as axillary meristem.

Conclusion

Based on these findings, a model for sweet orange spring shoot self-pruning is proposed, which will enable us to better understand the mechanism of self-pruning and abscission.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-892) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Dual Role of Hydrogen Peroxide in Arabidopsis Guard Cells in Response to Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a major air pollutant and has significant impacts on plant physiology. Plant can adapt to SO2 stress by controlling stomatal movement, gene expression, and metabolic changes. Here we show clear evidences that SO2-triggered hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production mediated stomatal closure and cell death in Arabidopsis leaves. High levels of SO2 caused irreversible stomatal closure and decline in guard cell viability, but low levels of SO2 caused reversible stomatal closure. Exogenous antioxidants ascorbic acid (AsA) and catalase (CAT) or Ca2+ antagonists EGTA and LaCl3 blocked SO2-induced stomatal closure and decline in viability. AsA and CAT also blocked SO2-induced H2O2 and [Ca2+]cyt elevation. However, EGTA and LaCl3 inhibited SO2-induced [Ca2+]cyt increase but did not suppress SO2-induced H2O2 elevation. These results indicate that H2O2 elevation triggered stomatal closure and cell death via [Ca2+]cyt signaling in SO2-stimulated Arabidopsis guard cells. NADPH oxidase inhibitor DPI blocked SO2-induced cell death but not the stomatal closure triggered by low levels of SO2, indicating that NADPH oxidase-dependent H2O2 production plays critical role in SO2 toxicity but is not necessary for SO2-induced stomatal closure. Our results suggest that H2O2 production and accumulation in SO2-stimulated plants trigger plant adaptation and toxicity via reactive oxygen species mediating Ca2+ signaling.

Trehalose metabolism in plants

Trehalose is a quantitatively important compatible solute and stress protectant in many organisms, including green algae and primitive plants. These functions have largely been replaced by sucrose in vascular plants, and trehalose metabolism has taken on new roles. Trehalose is a potential signal metabolite in plant interactions with pathogenic or symbiotic micro-organisms and herbivorous insects. It is also implicated in responses to cold and salinity, and in regulation of stomatal conductance and water-use efficiency. In plants, as in other eukaryotes and many prokaryotes, trehalose is synthesized via a phosphorylated intermediate, trehalose 6-phosphate (Tre6P). A meta-analysis revealed that the levels of Tre6P change in parallel with sucrose, which is the major product of photosynthesis and the main transport sugar in plants. We propose the existence of a bi-directional network, in which Tre6P is a signal of sucrose availability and acts to maintain sucrose concentrations within an appropriate range. Tre6P influences the relative amounts of sucrose and starch that accumulate in leaves during the day, and regulates the rate of starch degradation at night to match the demand for sucrose. Mutants in Tre6P metabolism have highly pleiotropic phenotypes, showing defects in embryogenesis, leaf growth, flowering, inflorescence branching and seed set. It has been proposed that Tre6P influences plant growth and development via inhibition of the SNF1-related protein kinase (SnRK1). However, current models conflict with some experimental data, and do not completely explain the pleiotropic phenotypes exhibited by mutants in Tre6P metabolism. Additional explanations for the diverse effects of alterations in Tre6P metabolism are discussed.

Developmental stimuli and stress factors affect expression of ClGLP1, an emerging allergen-related gene in Citrus limon

Germins and germin-like proteins (GLPs) constitute an ubiquitous family of plant proteins that seem to be involved in many developmental and stress related processes. A novel GLP cDNA was isolated from Citrus limon and structural features and genomic organization were investigated by in silico and Southern blots analysis. In lemon, the ClGLP1 encodes a 24.38 kDa which possesses a conserved motif of plant GLPs proteins. A phylogetic analysis mapped ClGLP1 as belonging to the GER3 subfamily into the GLP1 group of large GLP family. ClGLP1 was differentially expressed in the various organs and was highest in mature fruit. Moreover, expression in the fruit was tissue- and stage-related as well as dependent on agricultural practice (organic vs conventional). ClGLP1 transcripts increased during the transition from the green (180 days after blooming) to the yellow (240 days after blooming) mature fruit and were strongly enhanced in yellow mature fruit from organic compared with conventional culture. A sudden and systemic increase in ClGLP1 expression level was observed in leaves injured by wounding, together with an increase of endogenous H2O2 amount. Notably, an enhancement of H202 was observed in fruit peel during transition from green to yellow fruit stage. All together our data showed that ClGLP1 expression can be modulated in relation to both developmental stimuli and culture practices; evidence is also provided that through an oxidase activity this gene could play a role in fruit maturation as well as in stress responses.

ROS homeostasis in halophytes in the context of salinity stress tolerance

Halophytes are defined as plants that are adapted to live in soils containing high concentrations of salt and benefiting from it, and thus represent an ideal model to understand complex physiological and genetic mechanisms of salinity stress tolerance. It is also known that oxidative stress signalling and reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification are both essential components of salinity stress tolerance mechanisms. This paper comprehensively reviews the differences in ROS homeostasis between halophytes and glycophytes in an attempt to answer the questions of whether stress-induced ROS production is similar between halophytes and glycophytes; is the superior salinity tolerance in halophytes attributed to higher antioxidant activity; and is there something special about the specific 'pool' of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants in halophytes. We argue that truly salt-tolerant species possessing efficient mechanisms for Na(+) exclusion from the cytosol may not require a high level of antioxidant activity, as they simply do not allow excessive ROS production in the first instance. We also suggest that H2O2 'signatures' may operate in plant signalling networks, in addition to well-known cytosolic calcium 'signatures'. According to the suggested concept, the intrinsically higher superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in halophytes are required for rapid induction of the H2O2 'signature', and to trigger a cascade of adaptive responses (both genetic and physiological), while the role of other enzymatic antioxidants may be in decreasing the basal levels of H2O2, once the signalling has been processed. Finally, we emphasize the importance of non-enzymatic antioxidants as the only effective means to prevent detrimental effects of hydroxyl radicals on cellular structures.

Acclimation of hydrogen peroxide enhances salt tolerance by activating defense-related proteins in Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer

The effect of exogenously applied hydrogen peroxide on salt stress tolerance was investigated in Panax ginseng. Pretreatment of ginseng seedlings with 100 μM H2O2 increased the physiological salt tolerance of the ginseng plant and was used as the optimum concentration to induce salt tolerance capacity. Treatment with exogenous H2O2 for 2 days significantly enhanced salt stress tolerance in ginseng seedlings by increasing the activities of ascorbate peroxidase, catalase and guaiacol peroxidase and by decreasing the concentrations of malondialdehyde (MDA) and endogenous H2O2 as well as the production rate of superoxide radical (O2(-)). There was a positive physiological effect on the growth and development of salt-stressed seedlings by exogenous H2O2 as measured by ginseng dry weight and both chlorophyll and carotenoid contents. Exogenous H2O2 induced changes in MDA, O2(-), antioxidant enzymes and antioxidant compounds, which are responsible for increases in salt stress tolerance. Salt treatment caused drastic declines in ginseng growth and antioxidants levels; whereas, acclimation treatment with H2O2 allowed the ginseng seedlings to recover from salt stress by up-regulation of defense-related proteins such as antioxidant enzymes and antioxidant compounds.

Taking one for the team: self-recognition and cell suicide in pollen

Self-incompatibility (SI) is an important genetically controlled mechanism used by many angiosperms to prevent self-fertilization and inbreeding. A multiallelic S-locus allows discrimination between 'self' (incompatible) pollen from 'nonself' pollen at the pistil. Interaction of matching pollen and pistil S-determinants allows 'self' recognition and triggers rejection of incompatible pollen. The S-determinants for Papaver rhoeas (poppy) are PrsS and PrpS. PrsS is a small secreted protein that acts as a signalling ligand to interact with its cognate pollen S-determinant PrpS, a small novel transmembrane protein. Interaction of PrsS with incompatible pollen stimulates increases in cytosolic free Ca(2+) and involves influx of Ca(2+) and K(+). Data implicate involvement of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide signalling in the SI response. Downstream targets include the cytoskeleton, a soluble inorganic pyrophosphatase, Pr-p26.1, and a MAP kinase, PrMPK9-1. A major focus for SI-induced signalling is to initiate programmed cell death (PCD). In this review we provide an overview of our understanding of SI, with focus on how the signals and components are integrated, in particular, how reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, and the actin cytoskeleton feed into a PCD network. We also discuss our recent functional expression of PrpS in Arabidopsis thaliana pollen in the context of understanding how PCD signalling systems may have evolved.

Reactive oxygen species: re-evaluation of generation, monitoring and role in stress-signaling in phototrophic organisms

This review provides an overview about recent developments and current knowledge about monitoring, generation and the functional role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) - H2O2, HO2, HO, OH(-), (1)O2 and O2(-) - in both oxidative degradation and signal transduction in photosynthetic organisms including microscopic techniques for ROS detection and controlled generation. Reaction schemes elucidating formation, decay and signaling of ROS in cyanobacteria as well as from chloroplasts to the nuclear genome in eukaryotes during exposure of oxygen-evolving photosynthetic organisms to oxidative stress are discussed that target the rapidly growing field of regulatory effects of ROS on nuclear gene expression.

Mapping the diatom redox-sensitive proteome provides insight into response to nitrogen stress in the marine environment

Diatoms are ubiquitous marine photosynthetic eukaryotes responsible for approximately 20% of global photosynthesis. Little is known about the redox-based mechanisms that mediate diatom sensing and acclimation to environmental stress. Here we used a quantitative mass spectrometry-based approach to elucidate the redox-sensitive signaling network (redoxome) mediating the response of diatoms to oxidative stress. We quantified the degree of oxidation of 3,845 cysteines in the Phaeodactylum tricornutum proteome and identified approximately 300 redox-sensitive proteins. Intriguingly, we found redox-sensitive thiols in numerous enzymes composing the nitrogen assimilation pathway and the recently discovered diatom urea cycle. In agreement with this finding, the flux from nitrate into glutamine and glutamate, measured by the incorporation of (15)N, was strongly inhibited under oxidative stress conditions. Furthermore, by targeting the redox-sensitive GFP sensor to various subcellular localizations, we mapped organelle-specific oxidation patterns in response to variations in nitrogen quota and quality. We propose that redox regulation of nitrogen metabolism allows rapid metabolic plasticity to ensure cellular homeostasis, and thus is essential for the ecological success of diatoms in the marine ecosystem.

Plastid thioredoxins: a "one-for-all" redox-signaling system in plants

The sessile nature of plants forces them to face an ever-changing environment instead of escape from hostile conditions as animals do. In order to overcome this survival challenge, a fine monitoring and controlling of the status of the photosynthetic electron transport chain and the general metabolism is vital for these organisms. Frequently, evolutionary plant adaptation has consisted in the appearance of multigenic families, comprising an array of enzymes, structural components, or sensing, and signaling elements, in numerous occasions with highly conserved primary sequences that sometimes make it difficult to discern between redundancy and specificity among the members of a same family. However, all this gene diversity is aimed to sort environment-derived plant signals to efficiently channel the external incoming information inducing a right physiological answer. Oxygenic photosynthesis is a powerful source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), molecules with a dual oxidative/signaling nature. In response to ROS, one of the most frequent post-translational modifications occurring in redox signaling proteins is the formation of disulfide bridges (from Cys oxidation). This review is focused on the role of plastid thioredoxins (pTRXs), proteins containing two Cys in their active site and largely known as part of the plant redox-signaling network. Several pTRXs types have been described so far, namely, TRX f, m, x, y, and z. In recent years, improvements in proteomic techniques and the study of loss-of-function mutants have enabled us to grasp the importance of TRXs for the plastid physiology. We will analyze the specific signaling function of each TRX type and discuss about the emerging role in non-photosynthetic plastids of these redox switchers.

Fine tuning of reactive oxygen species homeostasis regulates primed immune responses in Arabidopsis

Selected stimuli can prime the plant immune system for a faster and stronger defense reaction to pathogen attack. Pretreatment of Arabidopsis with the chemical agent β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) augmented H2O2 and callose production after induction with the pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) chitosan, or inoculation with the necrotrophic fungus Plectosphaerella cucumerina. However, BABA failed to prime H2O2 and callose production after challenge with the bacterial PAMP Flg22. Analysis of Arabidopsis mutants in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (rbohD) or ROS scavenging (pad2, vtc1, and cat2) suggested a regulatory role for ROS homeostasis in priming of chitosan- and P. cucumerina-inducible callose and ROS. Moreover, rbohD and pad2 were both impaired in BABA-induced resistance against P. cucumerina. Gene expression analysis revealed direct induction of NADPH/respiratory burst oxidase protein D (RBOHD), γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase 1 (GSH1), and vitamin C defective 1 (VTC1) genes after BABA treatment. Conversely, ascorbate peroxidase 1 (APX1) transcription was repressed by BABA after challenge with chitosan or P. cucumerina, probably to provide a more oxidized environment in the cell and facilitate augmented ROS accumulation. Measuring ratios between reduced and oxidized glutathione confirmed that augmented defense expression in primed plants is associated with a more oxidized cellular status. Together, our data indicate that an altered ROS equilibrium is required for augmented defense expression in primed plants.

Transient transcriptional regulation of the CYS-C1 gene and cyanide accumulation upon pathogen infection in the plant immune response

Cyanide is produced concomitantly with ethylene biosynthesis. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) detoxifies cyanide primarily through the enzyme β-cyanoalanine synthase, mainly by the mitochondrial CYS-C1. CYS-C1 loss of function is not toxic for the plant and leads to an increased level of cyanide in cys-c1 mutants as well as a root hairless phenotype. The classification of genes differentially expressed in cys-c1 and wild-type plants reveals that the high endogenous cyanide content of the cys-c1 mutant is correlated with the biotic stress response. Cyanide accumulation and CYS-C1 gene expression are negatively correlated during compatible and incompatible plant-bacteria interactions. In addition, cys-c1 plants present an increased susceptibility to the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea and an increased tolerance to the biotrophic Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 bacterium and Beet curly top virus. The cys-c1 mutation produces a reduction in respiration rate in leaves, an accumulation of reactive oxygen species, and an induction of the alternative oxidase AOX1a and pathogenesis-related PR1 expression. We hypothesize that cyanide, which is transiently accumulated during avirulent bacterial infection and constitutively accumulated in the cys-c1 mutant, uncouples the respiratory electron chain dependent on the cytochrome c oxidase, and this uncoupling induces the alternative oxidase activity and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which act by stimulating the salicylic acid-dependent signaling pathway of the plant immune system.

LcSAIN1, a novel salt-induced gene from sheepgrass, confers salt stress tolerance in transgenic Arabidopsis and rice

Previously, we identified >1,500 genes that were induced by high salt stress in sheepgrass (Leymus chinensis, Gramineae: Triticeae) when comparing the changes in their transcription levels in response to high salt stress by next-generation sequencing. Among the identified genes, a gene of unknown function (designated as Leymus chinensis salt-induced 1, LcSAIN1) showed a high sequence identity to its homologs from wheat, Hordeum vulgare and Oryza sativa, but LcSAIN1 and its homologs produce hypothetical proteins with no conserved functional domains. Transcription of the LcSAIN1 gene was up-regulated by various stresses. The overexpression of LcSAIN1 in Arabidopsis and rice increased the greening rate of cotyledons, the fresh weight, root elongation, plant height and the plant survival rate when compared with control plants and conferred a tolerance against salt stress. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that LcSAIN1 is localized predominantly in the nucleus. Our results show that the LcSAIN1 gene might play an important positive modulation role in increasing the expression of transcription factors (MYB2 and DREB2A) and functional genes (P5CS and RAB18) in transgenic plants under salt stress and that it augments stress tolerance through the accumulation of compatible solutes (proline and soluble sugar) and the alleviation of changes in reactive oxygen species. The LcSAIN1 gene could be a potential resource for engineering salinity tolerance in important crop species.

The mitochondrial glutathione peroxidase GPX3 is essential for H2O2 homeostasis and root and shoot development in rice

Glutathione (GSH) peroxidases (GPXs: EC 1.11.1.9 and EC1.11.1.12) are non-heme thiol peroxidases that catalyze the reduction of H2O2 or organic hydroperoxides to water, and they have been identified in almost all kingdoms of life. The rice glutathione peroxidase (OsGPX) gene family is comprised of 5 members spread throughout a range of sub cellular compartments. The OsGPX gene family is induced in response to exogenous H2O2 and cold stress. In contrast, they are down regulated in response to drought and UV-B light treatments. Transgenic rice plants have been generated that lack mitochondrial OsGPX3. These GPX3s plants showed shorter roots and shoots compared to non-transformed (NT) plants, and higher amounts of H2O2 mitochondrial release were observed in the roots of these plants cultivated under normal conditions. This accumulation of H2O2 is positively associated with shorter root length in GPX3s plants compared to NT ones. Moreover, GPX3 promoter analysis indicated that it is mainly expressed in root tissue. These results suggest that silencing the mitochondrial OsGPX3 gene impairs normal plant development and leads to a stress-induced morphogenic response via H2O2 accumulation.

Water deficit modulates the response of Vitis vinifera to the Pierce's disease pathogen Xylella fastidiosa

Pierce's disease, caused by the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, is one of the most devastating diseases of cultivated grape, currently restricted to the Americas. To test the long-standing hypothesis that Pierce's disease results from pathogen-induced drought stress, we used the Affymetrix Vitis GeneChip to compare the transcriptional response of Vitis vinifera to Xylella infection, water deficit, or a combination of the two stresses. The results reveal a redirection of gene transcription involving 822 genes with a minimum twofold change (P < 0.05), including the upregulation of transcripts for phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis, pathogenesis-related proteins, abscisic acid- and jasmonic acid-responsive biosynthesis, and downregulation of transcripts related to photosynthesis, growth, and nutrition. Although the transcriptional response of plants to Xylella infection was largely distinct from the response of healthy plants to water stress, we find that 138 of the pathogen-induced genes exhibited a significantly stronger transcriptional response when plants were simultaneously exposed to infection and drought stress, suggesting a strong interaction between disease and water deficit. This interaction between drought stress and disease was mirrored in planta at the physiological level for aspects of water relations and photosynthesis and in terms of the severity of disease symptoms and the extent of pathogen colonization, providing a molecular correlate of the classical concept of the disease triangle in which environment impacts disease severity.

The cell morphogenesis ANGUSTIFOLIA (AN) gene, a plant homolog of CtBP/BARS, is involved in abiotic and biotic stress response in higher plants

BACKGROUND

ANGUSTIFOLIA (AN), one of the CtBP family proteins, plays a major role in microtubule-dependent cell morphogenesis. Microarray analysis of mammalian AN homologs suggests that AN might function as a transcriptional activator and regulator of a wide range of genes. Genetic characterization of AN mutants suggests that AN might be involved in multiple biological processes beyond cell morphology regulation.

RESULTS

Using a reverse genetic approach, we provide in this paper the genetic, biochemical, and physiological evidence for ANGUSTIFOLIA's role in other new biological functions such as abiotic and biotic stress response in higher plants. The T-DNA knockout an-t1 mutant exhibits not only all the phenotypes of previously described angustifolia null mutants, but also copes better than wild type under dehydration and pathogen attack. The stress tolerance is accompanied by a steady-state modulation of cellular H(2)O(2) content, malondialdehyde (MDA) derived from cellular lipid peroxidation, and over-expression of stress responsive genes. Our results indicate that ANGUSTIFOLIA functions beyond cell morphology control through direct or indirect functional protein interaction networks mediating other biological processes such as drought and pathogen attacks.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the ANGUSTIFOLIA gene participates in several biochemical pathways controlling cell morphogenesis, abiotic, and biotic stress responses in higher plants. Our results suggest that the in vivo function of plant ANGUSTIFOLIA has been overlooked and it needs to be further studied beyond microtubule-dependent cell morphogenesis.

Drought stress acclimation imparts tolerance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Pseudomonas syringae in Nicotiana benthamiana

Acclimation of plants with an abiotic stress can impart tolerance to some biotic stresses. Such a priming response has not been widely studied. In particular, little is known about enhanced defense capacity of drought stress acclimated plants to fungal and bacterial pathogens. Here we show that prior drought acclimation in Nicotiana benthamiana plants imparts tolerance to necrotrophic fungus, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, and also to hemi-biotrophic bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci. S. sclerotiorum inoculation on N. benthamiana plants acclimated with drought stress lead to less disease-induced cell death compared to non-acclimated plants. Furthermore, inoculation of P. syringae pv. tabaci on N. benthamiana plants acclimated to moderate drought stress showed reduced disease symptoms. The levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in drought acclimated plants were highly correlated with disease resistance. Further, in planta growth of GFPuv expressing P. syringae pv. tabaci on plants pre-treated with methyl viologen showed complete inhibition of bacterial growth. Taken together, these experimental results suggested a role for ROS generated during drought acclimation in imparting tolerance against S. sclerotiorum and P. syringae pv. tabaci. We speculate that the generation of ROS during drought acclimation primed a defense response in plants that subsequently caused the tolerance against the pathogens tested.

Characterization of Rice NADPH oxidase genes and their expression under various environmental conditions

Plasma membrane NADPH oxidases (Noxs) are key producers of reactive oxygen species under both normal and stress conditions in plants. We demonstrate that at least eleven genes in the genome of rice (Oryza sativa L.) were predicted to encode Nox proteins, including nine genes (OsNox1–9) that encode typical Noxs and two that encode ancient Nox forms (ferric reduction oxidase 1 and 7, OsFRO1 and OsFRO7). Phylogenetic analysis divided the Noxs from nine plant species into six subfamilies, with rice Nox genes distributed among subfamilies I to V. Gene expression analysis using semi-quantitative RT-PCR and real-time qRT-PCR indicated that the expression of rice Nox genes depends on organs and environmental conditions. Exogenous calcium strongly stimulated the expression of OsNox3, OsNox5, OsNox7, and OsNox8, but depressed the expression of OsFRO1. Drought stress substantially upregulated the expression of OsNox1–3, OsNox5, OsNox9, and OsFRO1, but downregulated OsNox6. High temperature upregulated OsNox5–9, but significantly downregulated OsNox1–3 and OsFRO1. NaCl treatment increased the expression of OsNox2, OsNox8, OsFRO1, and OsFRO7, but decreased that of OsNox1, OsNox3, OsNox5, and OsNox6. These results suggest that the expression profiles of rice Nox genes have unique stress-response characteristics, reflecting their related but distinct functions in response to different environmental stresses.

Reactive oxygen species signaling in plants under abiotic stress

Abiotic stresses like heavy metals, drought, salt, low temperature, etc. are the major factors that limit crop productivity and yield. These stresses are associated with production of certain deleterious chemical entities called reactive oxygen species (ROS), which include hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), superoxide radical (O₂(-)), hydroxyl radical (OH(-)), etc. ROS are capable of inducing cellular damage by degradation of proteins, inactivation of enzymes, alterations in the gene and interfere in various pathways of metabolic importance. Our understanding on ROS in response to abiotic stress is revolutionized with the advancements in plant molecular biology, where the basic understanding on chemical behavior of ROS is better understood. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in ROS generation and its potential role during abiotic stress is important to identify means by which plant growth and metabolism can be regulated under acute stress conditions. ROS mediated oxidative stress, which is the key to understand stress related toxicity have been widely studied in many plants and the results in those studies clearly revealed that oxidative stress is the main symptom of toxicity. Plants have their own antioxidant defense mechanisms to encounter ROS that is of enzymic and non-enzymic nature . Coordinated activities of these antioxidants regulate ROS detoxification and reduces oxidative load in plants. Though ROS are always regarded to impart negative impact on plants, some reports consider them to be important in regulating key cellular functions; however, such reports in plant are limited. Molecular approaches to understand ROS metabolism and signaling have opened new avenues to comprehend its critical role in abiotic stress. ROS also acts as secondary messenger that signals key cellular functions like cell proliferation, apoptosis and necrosis. In higher eukaryotes, ROS signaling is not fully understood. In this review we summarize our understanding on ROS and its signaling behavior in plants under abiotic stress.