The EU Water Framework Directive: From great expectations to problems with implementation

Water Quality and Hydromorphological Variability in Greek Rivers: A Nationwide Assessment with Implications for Management

European rivers are under ecological threat by a variety of stressors. Nutrient pollution, soil erosion, and alteration in hydrology are considered the most common problems that riverine ecosystems are facing today. Not surprisingly, river monitoring activities in Europe have been intensified during the last few years to fulfil the Water Framework Directive (WFD) requirements. With this article, we present a nationwide assessment of the water quality and hydromorphological variability in Greek Rivers based on the results of the national monitoring program under the WFD. Water quality and hydromorphological data from 352 sites belonging to 221 rivers were explored with principal component analysis (PCA) to identify main environmental gradients and the variables that contribute the most to the total variance. Nitrate, phosphate, ammonium and electrical conductivity were identified as the most important water chemistry parameters, and typical vector-based spatial data analysis was applied to map their spatial distribution at sub-basin scale. In addition, we conducted simple linear models between the aforementioned parameters and the share of land uses within the basin of each sampling site in order to identify significant relationships. Agriculture was the most important land use affecting the nitrate and electrical conductivity, while artificial surfaces were the best predictor for phosphate and ammonium. Concerning the hydromorphological variability, fine types of substrate and discharge were the variables with the highest contribution to the total variance. Overall, the results of this article can be used for the preliminary assessment of susceptible areas/rivers to high levels of nutrient pollution that can aid water managers to formulate recommendations for improvement of further monitoring activities. Furthermore, our findings implicate the need for enhancement of agri-environmental measures and reduction of point-source pollution in disturbed areas to avert the risk of further environmental degradation under the anticipated global change.

Supporting Sustainable Development of Water Resources: A Social Welfare Maximization Game Model

Water can carry a boat but can also overturn it (human societal sustainable development). Governments faced aquatic ecosystem restoration and preservation challenges following the establishment of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This paper proposes a social welfare maximization game model to analyze the dominant strategy equilibrium of enterprise-1 and enterprise-2 based on welfare maximization under the total sewage emission control policy. Under the aforementioned control policy, a stricter total sewage emission control of an enterprise corresponds to a lower enterprise output and a higher output of a competing enterprise; that is, the profit transfer effect occurs. When the government implements a relatively strict total sewage emission control policy for an enterprise, it is beneficial to reduce the amount of sewage emission from an enterprise but has no impact on the amount of sewage emission from a competing enterprise; however, the amount of sewage reduction of both enterprises will increase. If the government does not provide capital and technical support to enterprise-2, then enterprise-1 and enterprise-2 should implement total quantity control policies with different rigor degrees to avoid the one-size-fits-all phenomenon. To maximize social welfare, the government should adjust the total sewage emission control policy in time according to sewage stock changes and focus more on enterprises with insufficient capital and poor technical skills and provide financial and technical support.

The Principal Threats to the Standing Water Habitats in the Continental Biogeographical Region of Central Europe

This paper discusses threats of standing water habitats of high importance to the European Community in the Continental Biogeographical Region (CBR) of Europe, specifically in Poland, as a reference. The study covers five standing water habitats types distinguished in Natura 2000: 3110, 3130, 3140, 3150, 3160, occurring in 806 Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) in Poland. The most significant threats to standing water habitats in the Continental biogeographical region, result from human-induced changes in hydrological conditions that have modified whole natural systems. Based on multivariate analysis, we found that significant differences in the conservation status of the standing water habitats resulted from a variety of threats, pressures, and activities, among which the most significant are decreased and unstable water resources (3110, 3130, 3140, 3150, 3160), fishing and harvesting aquatic resources (3110, 3130, 3140, 3150, 3160), pollution from use of the catchment (3130, 3140, 3150), improper management and use of the agricultural catchment (3110, 3130, 3140, 3150, 3160) and forest catchment (3110, 3140, 3160), urbanisation, residential and commercial development (3150, 3140), transportation and service corridors (3140> 3160 > 3110, 3150), including parking areas (3140), changes in biocenotic evolution, succession, plant species composition (3110, 3130, 3140, 3150, 3160), succession of invasive species (3130), and more intense touristic exploration (3110, 3130, 3140, 3150, 3160). Only in the case of habitats 3110, 3130, 3140 changes in their conservation status have been associated with climate change.

Critical Review of Adaptation Measures to Reduce the Vulnerability of European Drinking Water Resources to the Pressures of Climate Change

One of the consequences of the generally agreed rise of global temperatures, furtherly exacerbated by the growth of water demand caused by the needs of a growing population, is an increase of areas with water stress. This will imply and in part is already implying, an always greater imbalance between water (and in particular drinking water) demand and supply. These issues are among those investigated by the "Adapting Drinking Water resources to the Impacts of Climate change in Europe" (ADWICE) project that had, among its main goals, the identification of priority adaptation measures aimed at reducing drinking water vulnerability to the pressures of a changing climate. In this paper these adaptation measures are described, with special attention given to their associated European water policy context. The complexity of designing and implementing such adaptation measures will benefit from integrating drinking water concerns with wider water management, within a framework able to facilitate the necessary complex collaborations between various actors involved in the different scales of the decision-making arena and to develop an effective science policy interfacing mechanism. Last, but not least, because drinking water is commonly considered by stakeholders and citizens to be a public service, drinking water managers should enable their involvement in the adaptation decision-making process, to ensure their acceptance and cooperation and to prevent conflicts.

Chemical mixtures and fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis of natural microbial community in the Tiber river

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) regulates freshwater and coastal water quality assessment in Europe. Chemical and ecological water quality status is based on measurements of chemical pollutants in water and biota together with other indicators such as temperature, nutrients, species compositions (phytoplankton, microalgae, benthos and fish) and hydromorphological conditions. However, in the current strategy a link between the chemical and the ecological status is missing. In the present WFD, no microbiological indicators are foreseen for integrating the different anthropogenic pressures, including mixtures of chemicals, nutrients and temperature changes, to provide a holistic view of the freshwater ecosystem water quality. The main aim of this work was to evaluate if natural microbial populations can be valuable indicators of multiple stressors (e.g. chemical pollutants, temperature, nutrients etc.) to guide preventive and remediation actions by water authorities. A preliminary survey was conducted to identify four sites reflecting a contamination gradient from the source to the mouth of a river suitable to the objectives of the European Marie Curie project, MicroCoKit. The River Tiber (Italy) was selected as a pilot case study to investigate the correlation between bacteria taxa and the chemical status of the river. The main physicochemical parameters, inorganic elements, organic pollutants and natural microbial community composition were assessed at four selected sites corresponding to pristine, agricultural, industrial and urban areas for three consecutive years. The overall chemical results indicated a correspondence between different groups of contaminants and the main contamination sources at the selected sampling points. Phylogenetic analysis of the microbial community analyzed by Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization method (FISH) revealed differences among the four sampling sites which could reflect an adaptive bacterial response to the different anthropogenic pressures.

The potential of ecosystem-based management to integrate biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provision in aquatic ecosystems

Global aquatic biodiversity keeps declining rapidly, despite international efforts providing a variety of policies and legislations that identify goals for, and give directions to protecting the world's aquatic fauna and flora. With the H2020 project AQUACROSS, we have made an unprecedented effort to unify policy strategies, knowledge, and management concepts of freshwater, coastal, and marine ecosystems to support the achievement of the targets set by the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. AQUACROSS has embraced the concept of ecosystem-based management (EBM), which approaches environmental management from a social-ecological system perspective to protect biodiversity and to sustainably harvest ecosystem services. This special issue includes contributions resulting from AQUACROSS, which either tackle selected EBM challenges from a theoretical point of view or apply EBM in one of the selected case studies across Europe. In this article, we introduce relevant topics, address the most important lessons learnt, and suggest where research should go with aquatic EBM. We hope that this special issue will foster and facilitate the uptake of EBM in aquatic ecosystems and, therewith, provide the on-ground applications needed for evaluating EBM's utility to safeguard aquatic biodiversity.

The 2011 National Wetland Condition Assessment: overview and an invitation

The first National Wetland Condition Assessment (NWCA) was conducted in 2011 by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and its federal and state partners, using a survey design that allowed inference of results to national and regional scales. Vegetation, algae, soil, water chemistry, and hydrologic data were collected at each of 1138 locations across the conterminous United States (US). Ecological condition was assessed in relation to a disturbance gradient anchored by least disturbed (reference) and most disturbed sites identified using chemical, physical, and biological disturbance indices based on site-level data. A vegetation multimetric index (VMMI) was developed as an indicator of condition, and included four metrics: a floristic quality assessment index, relative importance of native plants, number of disturbance-tolerant plant species, and relative cover of native monocots. Potential stressors to wetland condition were identified and incorporated into two indicators of vegetation alteration, four indicators of hydrologic alteration, a soil heavy metal index, and a nonnative plant indicator and were used to quantify national and regional stressor extent, and the associated relative and attributable risk. Approximately 48 ± 6% of the national wetland area was found to be in good condition and 32 ± 6% in poor condition as defined by the VMMI. Across the conterminous US, approximately 20% of wetland area had high or very high stressor levels related to nonnative plants. Vegetation removal, hardening, and ditching stressors had the greatest extent of wetland area with high stressor levels, affecting 23-27% of the wetland area in the NWCA sampled population. The results from the 2016 NWCA will build on those from the 2011 assessment and initiate the ability to report on trends in addition to status. The data and tools produced by the NWCA can be used by others to further our knowledge of wetlands in the conterminous US.

Water Framework Directive programmes of measures: Lessons from the 1st planning cycle of a catchment in England

The European Union's Water Framework Directive (WFD) required Member States to establish programmes of measures to achieve good water status formally by 2015, but on postponing the deadline by two six-year periods, by 2027 at the latest. With many Member States facing problems with developing such measures in the first planning cycle, and limited change in ecological status since the first river basin management plans were reported, we look at the implementation of the Directive in England, where only 17% of the surface water bodies were found at good status in 2015, a reduction of 4% since 2009. Using as a case study the Broadland Rivers catchment, we examine the measures taken for Cycle 1 and changes in the classifications of water body status, to investigate whether the way the measures were developed could have limited their potential to deliver WFD objectives. While the WFD was adopted to succeed and replace management practices targeting individually non-compliant element, findings indicate that little had changed in the way measures were developed. Although considerable progress has been made on the implementation of these measures, the limited progress in improving classifications demonstrates the limits of this approach and further makes the case for what the WFD was introduced for: the harmonised transposition of the Integrated River Basin Management paradigm, as the key for delivering good ecological status.

Toxicological and ecotoxicological evaluation of the water quality in a large and eutrophic freshwater lake of China

Effect-based methods (EBMs) are recommended as holistic approach for diagnosis and monitoring of water quality; however, the application of EBMs is still scare in China. In the present study, water quality of the freshwater lake Taihu (China) was investigated by EBMs. Different types of water samples were collected from three bays of the lake during 2015, 2016 and 2017. A battery of seven effect-based bioassays, including both specific and non-specific toxicity assays, was used. The bioassay battery was recently suggested based on joint activities of the EU project SOLUTIONS and the NORMAN network on emerging pollutants and is also under discussion for being implemented into monitoring activities in the context of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). Adverse effects were observed towards the primary producer, primary consumer and fish, indicating the potential ecotoxicity of water in Taihu Lake. Mutagenic and estrogenic effects were found in the Ames fluctuation assay and ERα CALUX (Chemically Activated Luciferase Gene-eXpression) assay, respectively, highlighting the potential risks on human health. Algal growth inhibition and mutagenic effects can be observed during each of the three years. Acute toxicity towards Daphnia magna and estrogen receptor agonistic effects were found in at least one of the samples collected in 2016 and 2017, but not in 2015. The endpoints for fish toxicity in the Danio rerio fish embryo test included both lethal and additionally several sublethal effects (only for samples from 2017) and were not compared between years. Algal growth inhibition, fish embryo toxicity, mutagenic effect and estrogenicity were observed in each of the three bays, while Daphnia acute toxicity was only found in Zhushan Bay. Taking together, this study provides a big picture on the water quality of Taihu Lake. The battery of effect-based tools is promising to be a routine for water quality monitoring in China.

Does intraspecific variability matter in ecological risk assessment? Investigation of genotypic variations in three macrophyte species exposed to copper

To limit anthropogenic impact on ecosystems, regulations have been implemented along with global awareness that human activities are harmful to the environment. Ecological risk assessment (ERA) is the main procedure which allows to assess potential impacts of stressors on the environment as a result of human activities. ERA is typically implemented through different steps of laboratory testing. The approaches taken for ERA evolve along with scientific knowledge, to improve predictions on ecological risks for ecosystems. We here address the importance of intraspecific variability as a potential source of error in the laboratory evaluation of pollutants. To answer this question, three aquatic macrophyte species with different life-history traits but with their leaves directly in contact with the water were chosen; Lemna minor and Myriophyllum spicatum, two OECD model species, and Ceratophyllum demersum. For each species, three or four genotypes were exposed to 7-8 copper concentrations (up to 1.9 mg/L, 2 mg/L or 36 mg/L for C. demersum, L. minor and M. spicatum, respectively). To assess species sensitivity, growth-related endpoints such as Relative Growth Rate (RGR), based either on biomass production or on length/frond production, and chlorophyll fluorescence F_v/F_m, were measured. For each endpoint, the effective concentration 50% (EC₅₀) was calculated. Almost all endpoints were affected by Cu exposure, except F_v/F_m of M. spicatum, and resulted in significant differences among genotypes for Cu sensitivity. Genotypes of L. minor exhibited up to 35% of variation in EC50 values based on F_v/F_m, showing differential sensivity among genotypes. Significant differences in EC₅₀ values were found for RGR based on length for M. spicatum, with up to 72% of variation. Finally, C. demersum demonstrated significant sensitivity differences among genotypes with up to 78% variation for EC₅₀ based on length. Overall, interspecific variation was higher than intraspecific variation, and explained 77% of the variation found among genotypes for RGR based on biomass, and 99% of the variation found for F_v/F_m. Our results highlight that depending on the endpoint, sensitivity can vary greatly within a species, and that pollutant- and species-specific endpoints should be considered in ERA.

Assessing Changes in Ecosystem Services Provision in Coastal Waters

Coastal ecosystems are important ecosystem services (ES) suppliers. The degradation of these ecosystems jeopardizes the quality of ES provision. The Biodiversity 2020 Strategy aims at maintaining and restoring ES, although clear guidelines are missing on how to define the state to which ES should be restored. In this respect, synergies between ES assessments and the Water Framework Directive (WFD) exist, but methodological approaches to connect both are lacking. The Marine Ecosystem Services Assessment Tool (MESAT) can overcome this problem. In this study, the tool is applied to semi-open and open coastal water bodies in the Southern Baltic Sea, the Greifswald Bay and Pomeranian Bay. The resulting changes in ES provision confirm the ability of MESAT to be applied in all WFD water body types and a multitude of environmental and anthropogenic gradients. Nevertheless, problems such as data scarcity, spatial extent and historical background of the case studies require adaptations in the assessment process. The spatial extent of all case studies allowed to cover a connected system with a strong environmental (salinity) gradient. Analyzing changes in ES provision in connected systems can help to better understand linkages between ES provision and environmental and anthropogenic stressors as well as trade-offs between ES across water bodies. This information can be further used to support the design of management plans. From the analysis of all MESAT case studies, major factors were identified for the tool to be transfered into a European context, as well as potential problems and solutions. Following the WFD is a strong advantage, which ensures the tool’s transferability to other areas.

Policy-driven monitoring and evaluation: Does it support adaptive management of socio-ecological systems?

Inadequate Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) is often thought to hinder adaptive management of socio-ecological systems. A key influence on environmental management practices are environmental policies: however, their consequences for M&E practices have not been well-examined. We examine three policy areas - the Water Framework Directive, the Natura 2000 Directives, and the Agri-Environment Schemes of the Common Agricultural Policy - whose statutory requirements influence how the environment is managed and monitored across Europe. We use a comparative approach to examine what is monitored, how monitoring is carried out, and how results are used to update management, based on publicly available documentation across nine regional and national cases. The requirements and guidelines of these policies have provided significant impetus for monitoring: however, we find this policy-driven M&E usually does not match the ideals of what is needed to inform adaptive management. There is a tendency to focus on understanding state and trends rather than tracking the effect of interventions; a focus on specific biotic and abiotic indicators at the expense of understanding system functions and processes, especially social components; and limited attention to how context affects systems, though this is sometimes considered via secondary data. The resulting data are sometimes publicly-accessible, but it is rarely clear if and how these influence decisions at any level, whether this be in the original policy itself or at the level of measures such as site management plans. Adjustments to policy-driven M&E could better enable learning for adaptive management, by reconsidering what supports a balanced understanding of socio-ecological systems and decision-making. Useful strategies include making more use of secondary data, and more transparency in data-sharing and decision-making. Several countries and policy areas already offer useful examples. Such changes are essential given the influence of policy, and the urgency of enabling adaptive management to safeguard socio-ecological systems.

A Field Method for Landscape Conservation Surveying: The Landscape Assessment Protocol (LAP)

We introduce a field survey method to assess the conservation condition of landscapes. Using a popular rapid assessment format, this study defines observable “stressed states” identified through the use of general metrics to gauge landscape degradation. Fifteen metrics within six thematic categories were selected through a literature review and extensive field trials. Field tests on the Greek island of Samothraki show a strong correlation between a single expert’s scores and five assessor’s scores at 35 landscape sites. Only three of the metrics did not maintain a high consistency among assessors; however, this is explained by the difficulty of interpreting certain anthropogenic stressors (such as livestock grazing) in Mediterranean semi-natural landscapes with culturally-modified vegetation patterns. The protocol and proposed index, with five conservation condition classes, identified areas of excellent and good quality, and reliably distinguished the most degraded landscape conditions on the island. Uncertainties and difficulties of the index are investigated, and further research and validation are proposed. The protocol effectively goes beyond a traditional visual aesthetic assessment; it can be used both by experts and non-scientists as a conservation-relevant multi-disciplinary procedure to support a holistic landscape diagnosis. The combination of an on-site experiential survey and its simple integrative format may be useful as a screening-level index, and for promoting local participation, landscape literacy and educational initiatives.

Protecting and restoring Europe's waters: An analysis of the future development needs of the Water Framework Directive

The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is a pioneering piece of legislation that aims to protect and enhance aquatic ecosystems and promote sustainable water use across Europe. There is growing concern that the objective of good status, or higher, in all EU waters by 2027 is a long way from being achieved in many countries. Through questionnaire analysis of almost 100 experts, we provide recommendations to enhance WFD monitoring and assessment systems, improve programmes of measures and further integrate with other sectoral policies. Our analysis highlights that there is great potential to enhance assessment schemes through strategic design of monitoring networks and innovation, such as earth observation. New diagnostic tools that use existing WFD monitoring data, but incorporate novel statistical and trait-based approaches could be used more widely to diagnose the cause of deterioration under conditions of multiple pressures and deliver a hierarchy of solutions for more evidence-driven decisions in river basin management. There is also a growing recognition that measures undertaken in river basin management should deliver multiple benefits across sectors, such as reduced flood risk, and there needs to be robust demonstration studies that evaluate these. Continued efforts in 'mainstreaming' water policy into other policy sectors is clearly needed to deliver wider success with WFD goals, particularly with agricultural policy. Other key policy areas where a need for stronger integration with water policy was recognised included urban planning (waste water treatment), flooding, climate and energy (hydropower). Having a deadline for attaining the policy objective of good status is important, but even more essential is to have a permanent framework for river basin management that addresses the delays in implementation of measures. This requires a long-term perspective, far beyond the current deadline of 2027.

Identifying multiple stressors that influence eutrophication in a Finnish agricultural river

In Finland, a recent ecological classification of surface waters showed that the rivers and coastal waters need attention to improve their ecological state. We combined eco-hydrological and empirical models to study chlorophyll-a concentration as an indicator of eutrophication in a small agricultural river. We used a modified story-and-simulation method to build three storylines for possible changes in future land use due to climate change and political change. The main objective in the first storyline is to stimulate economic activity but also to promote the sustainable and efficient use of resources. The second storyline is based on the high awareness but poor regulation of environmental protection, and the third is to survive as individual countries instead of being part of a unified Europe. We assumed trade of agricultural products to increase to countries outside Europe. We found that chlorophyll-a concentration in the river depended on total phosphorus concentration. In addition, there was a positive synergistic interaction between total phosphorus and water temperature. In future storylines, chlorophyll-a concentration increased due to land use and climate change. Climate change mainly had an indirect influence via increasing nutrient losses from intensified agriculture. We found that well-designed agri-environmental measures had the potential to decrease nutrient loading from fields, as long as the predicted increase in temperature remained under 2 °C. However, we were not able to achieve the nutrient reduction stated in current water protection targets. In addition, the ecological status of the river deteriorated. The influence of temperature on chlorophyll-a growth indicates that novel measures for shading rivers to decrease water temperature may be needed in the future.

2008–2017 Bogota River Water Quality Assessment based on the Water Quality Index

This article provides a deep analysis of the water quality at the upper basin of the Bogota River (Colombia) between 2008 and 2017. The Water Quality Index has been the indicator employed to determine the ecological status of the river. This index was chosen in order to normalize the analysis, given that it is commonly used by the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies, a government agency of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of Colombia, to determine the state of surface effluents. The results obtained were organized in a double-entry matrix in order to relate the variables of the sample period and the sampling station. The research revealed an insufficient quality of water, demonstrating that the high stretch of the Bogota River basin has, in general, regular or acceptable water quality, while only five stations showed an acceptable status. Surprisingly, the stations located close to the wastewater treatment plants of the municipalities of Choconta, Suesca, Gachancipa, and Tocancipa, as well as Rio Negro, have a poor water quality, discharging a high load of contaminants into the river. Although great efforts have been made by Colombian authorities to restore the critical state of the majority of their aquatic ecosystems, recent implementation of policies and instruments have not shown significant achievements yet. For this reason, this study aims to present a powerful decision-tool for the monitoring and evaluation of correction measures implemented on this river basin. The data used in this research were provided by the Regional Autonomous Corporation of Cundinamarca.

Integrated catchment management for reducing pesticide levels in water: Engaging with stakeholders in East Anglia to tackle metaldehyde

In the agriculture intensive eastern region of England, plant protection products are widely applied to protect crops such as wheat and oilseed rape from pests and diseases, thus creating a risk of reaching nearby water courses through surface runoff. The EU Drinking Water Directive sets a stringent limit of 0.1 μg/l and 0.5 μg/l for individual and total pesticides respectively in treated potable water. However, peak metaldehyde levels have been persistently detected in raw water and reducing them to these limits has proven challenging and costly, in particular when using conventional treatment. In line with the EU Water Framework Directive, a more suitable approach and one adopted by the local water company, Anglian Water Services Ltd., would require moving towards mitigating pollution at source, preferably through participative action with multiple stakeholders in the agricultural industry. Initial findings demonstrate the potential of product substitution for reducing metaldehyde levels in surface waters. Reviewing Anglian Water's "Slug it Out" trial, we discuss key learnings derived from their experiences and make recommendations about the potential of the catchment approach to address the wider pesticide challenge.

An affordable and reliable assessment of aquatic decomposition: Tailoring the Tea Bag Index to surface waters

Litter decomposition is a vital part of the global carbon cycle as it determines not only the amount of carbon to be sequestered, but also how fast carbon re-enters the cycle. Freshwater systems play an active role in the carbon cycle as it receives, and decomposes, terrestrial litter material alongside decomposing aquatic plant litter. Decomposition of organic matter in the aquatic environment is directly controlled by water temperature and nutrient availability, which are continuously affected by global change. We adapted the Tea Bag Index (TBI), a highly standardized methodology for determining soil decomposition, for lakes by incorporating a leaching factor. By placing Lipton pyramid tea bags in the aquatic environment for 3 h, we quantified the period of intense leaching which usually takes place prior to litter (tea) decomposition. Standard TBI methodology was followed after this step to determine how fast decomposition takes place (decomposition rate, k₁) and how much of the material cannot be broken down and is thus sequestered (stabilization factor, S). A Citizen Science project was organized to test the aquatic TBI in 40 European lakes located in four climate zones, ranging from oligotrophic to hypereutrophic systems. We expected that warmer and/or eutrophic lakes would have a higher decomposition rate and a more efficient microbial community resulting in less tea material to be sequestered. The overall high decomposition rates (k₁) found confirm the active role lakes play in the global carbon cycle. Across climate regions the lakes in the warmer temperate zone displayed a higher decomposition rate (k₁) compared to the colder lakes in the continental and polar zones. Across trophic states, decomposition rates were higher in eutrophic lakes compared to oligotrophic lakes. Additionally, the eutrophic lakes showed a higher stabilization (S), thus a less efficient microbial community, compared to the oligotrophic lakes, although the variation within this group was high. Our results clearly show that the TBI can be used to adequately assess the decomposition process in aquatic systems. Using "alien standard litter" such as tea provides a powerful way to compare decomposition across climates, trophic states and ecosystems. By providing standardized protocols, a website, as well as face to face meetings, we also showed that collecting scientifically relevant data can go hand in hand with increasing scientific and environmental literacy in participants. Gathering process-based information about lake ecosystems gives managers the best tools to anticipate and react to future global change. Furthermore, combining this process-based information with citizen science, thus outreach, is in complete agreement with the Water Framework Directive goals as set in 2010.

The Link between Ecosystem Services and Human Wellbeing in the Implementation of the European Water Framework Directive: Assessing Four River Basins in Europe

: This paper explores the relationship between the environment and human wellbeing whilst considering water resource pressures in the context of ecosystem services, before assessing the management actions to facilitate human wellbeing under the European Union’s Water Framework Directive (WFD). By focusing on four river basins in four European countries currently working to implement the WFD, we explore the effects of multiple pressures faced within each one on human wellbeing. Under an Ecosystem Services framework, we identify those effects and consolidate them into Human Wellbeing Factors to assess the management actions. Then, by conducting a qualitative content analysis, we assess the effectiveness of each Program of Measures at river basin level and relate them to Human Wellbeing Factors. Findings indicate that factors such as population growth trends intensify the effects of these pressures on human wellbeing. Finally, the paper pinpoints that human wellbeing must remain an ever-present consideration to be weighed against any other competing policy objectives.

A Petri net modeling approach to explore the temporal dynamics of the provision of multiple ecosystem services

The representation of the temporal dynamics of ecosystem services (ES) is a crucial research frontier in the field of ES modeling. In fact, most current ES models focus on static ES assessments, that need to be repeated with different inputs per time step to explore potential changes in ES. Here, we present a new approach for the dynamic modeling of multiple ES, based on the Petri Net modeling framework. The key features are: (i) multiple ES are modeled together as a single network, using a social-ecological systems (SES) perspective; (ii) the model accounts for the interactions occurring among ES, by distinguishing between the ES whose provision is mediated by some type of human input, which can produce some side-effects on the system, and those that are generated directly through ecosystem functions and do not generate side-effects; (iii) the model can reproduce the effects of changing drivers on the elements of the SES. These features allow to use the model to explore how ES can evolve over time under different "what-if" scenarios. The importance of considering the ES interactions is tested, showing that failing to include them in the model remarkably affects the results. Due to its complexity, the model should be used as an exploratory tool, focusing on the analysis of the general trends of multiple ES provision, rather than on the generation of quantitative projections. A first conceptual application to the Venice lagoon, Italy, is presented, in which the trends of 13 different ES are simulated. This application shows the potential of the model in exploring the development produced by climate change and socio-economic pressures, and the effects of a set of possible management actions. This modeling approach can contribute to generate new perspectives on the dynamic modeling of multiple ES and on the integrated management of SES.

Current Insights into the Effectiveness of Riparian Management, Attainment of Multiple Benefits, and Potential Technical Enhancements

Buffer strips between land and waters are widely applied measures in diffuse pollution management, with desired outcomes across other factors. There remains a need for evidence of pollution mitigation and wider habitat and societal benefits across scales. This paper synthesizes a collection of 16 new primary studies and review papers to provide the latest insights into riparian management. We focus on the following areas: (i) diffuse pollution removal efficiency of conventional and saturated buffer strips, (ii) enhancing biodiversity of buffers, (iii) edge-of-field technologies for improving nutrient retention, and (iv) potential reuse of nutrients and biomass from buffers. Although some topics represent emerging areas, for other well-studied topics (e.g., diffuse pollution), it remains that effectiveness of conventional vegetated buffer strips for water quality improvement varies. The collective findings highlight the merits of targeted, designed buffers that support multiple benefits, more efficiently interrupting surface and subsurface contaminant flows while enhancing diversity in surface topography, soil moisture and C, vegetation, and habitat. This synthesis also highlights that despite the significant number of studies on the functioning of riparian buffers, research gaps remain, particularly in relation to (i) the capture and retention of soluble P and N in subsurface flows through buffers, (ii) the utilization of captured nutrients, (iii) the impact of buffer design and management on terrestrial and aquatic habitats and species, and (iv) the effect of buffers (saturated) on greenhouse gas emissions and the potential for pollution swapping.

Assessment and management of pesticide pollution at a river basin level part II: Optimization of pesticide monitoring networks on surface aquatic ecosystems by data analysis methods

The high cost of extensive pesticide monitoring studies, required for the protection of water resources, and the necessity of early identification of environmental threats, highlighted the need for prioritization of pesticides and sampling sites to be monitored. The aim of this study was to develop an optimum surface water monitoring network at a catchment scale including only the sites of a catchment vulnerable to pesticide pollution. The identification of sampling sites vulnerable to pesticide pollution (VPS) was based on the data of an intensive monitoring survey of 302 pesticides in 102 stationary sampling sites located on the surface water network of a river basin. In the proposed methodology the left-censored data of the analytical results derived from the above mentioned monitoring campaign were included in the statistical analyses by transforming all the raw data into categorical variables and arranging them in ordinal scales based on ecotoxicological thresholds derived from pesticide toxicity tests on aquatic non-target organisms. The categorized data were subjected to Categorical Principal Component Analysis with Optimal Scaling. For the identification of the VPS, the Squared Mahalanobis Distance criterion was applied on the extracted values (scores) of the significant principal components. With this methodology a 46% reduction in the number of the monitoring stations was achieved. This approach will be valuable in establishing more cost effective monitoring schemes in the future in other basins and in developing targeted measures to eliminate or limit the effect of critical pollution sources in surface aquatic systems. Moreover, by applying the proposed methodology, historical monitoring data can be used to initiate more efficient pesticide monitoring campaigns in the future.

Assessing the role of CAP for more sustainable and healthier food systems in Europe: A literature review

Today, the European food system is characterized by unhealthy dietary trends, environmentally unsustainable production, and a dependency on an ageing farming population. The ongoing reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) represents an opportunity to redress these issues. This literature review highlights trends in how academic and grey literature have received CAP attempts in addressing the (i) environmental issues, (ii) nutritional outcomes, and (iii) rural livelihoods. Additionally, future policy and research directions relating to the CAP have been identified from the selected literature. The reviewed literature varies in approach and perspective. In particular, since the environment and rural development are already part of the CAP, the reviewed studies analyze and propose improvements to existing mechanisms. While for nutrition, the reviewed studies assessed possible policy strategies for integrating this sphere within the CAP, highlighting both the complexity of this task as well as its potential benefits. Despite these differences, a clear commonality emerged from the policy recommendations: the CAP should promote the European Union (EU) policy integration and multi-disciplinary and participatory research as key strategies to meet food system sustainability targets.

The adaptive capacity of local water basin authorities to climate change: The Thau lagoon basin in France

Climate change exacerbates climate variability, and makes water governance more complex. The French local water management plans (SAGE) developed an integrated approach that relies on a balance between bottom-up and top-down governance. The aim of this article is to question the actual role of the local basin authorities and ask whether they are central in water governance. The Social Network Analysis of the Thau basin shows that the key actors of the SAGE, namely the Rhone-Mediterranean-Corsica Water Agency, the local water agency and the local water commission, are the most powerful actors in the management of the river basin and play a crucial brokerage role in climate change adaptation. Integrated water resource management shifted power from territorial and central authorities to functional and local managers.

Design and Implementation of a Mixed IoT LPWAN Network Architecture

IoT is much more than a large number of objects or customer devices connected to the Internet. IoT offers organizations many more opportunities than they can imagine. According to this, sooner or later they will probably choose to build their own IoT network. In this article, we review the technologies of IoT LPWAN Sigfox and LoRa. It can be considered the most important at present due to its ability to make the smart city possible. We also propose the development, deployment and implementation of a mixed IoT architecture LoRa-Sigfox composed of components based on open hardware and software. The architecture is evaluated in a real environment focused on remote monitoring of water meter devices.

Fabrication of Phosphate-Imprinted PNIPAM/SiO₂ Hybrid Particles and Their Phosphate Binding Property

A SiO₂ microsphere imprinted by phosphate ions was prepared with the use of phosphate ion as the template molecule and tetraethoxysilane as the precursor. Thereafter, the imprinted SiO₂ microspheres were modified with 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate (TMSPMA@SiO₂), followed by introducing the double bond. In the presence of TMSPMA@SiO₂, using N-isopropylacrylamide as monomer, and potassium persulfate as initiator, polymer/inorganic hybrid particles (PNIPAM/SiO₂) were prepared. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, nitrogen adsorption-desorption test, and transmission electron microscope were employed for the characterization of molecular imprinted SiO₂ microspheres and PNIPAM/SiO₂ hybrid particles. The effects of phosphate concentration, pH value, and adsorption temperature on the phosphate binding properties of PNIPAM/SiO₂ hybrid particles were studied by UV-vis spectrophotometer. The experimental results shed light on the fact that the PNIPAM structure is beneficial for the improvement of the adsorption ability of phosphate-imprinted SiO₂ microspheres. With the increase in the initial phosphate concentration, the adsorption capacity of hybrid particles to phosphate ions increased to 274 mg/g at pH = 7 and 15 °C. The acid condition and the temperature below the low critical solution temperature (LCST) of PNIPAM are favorable to the adsorption of phosphate ions by PNIPAM/SiO₂ hybrid particles, and the maximum adsorption capacity can reach 287 mg/g (at pH = 5 and 15 °C). The phosphate imprinted polymer/inorganic hybrid material is expected to be put to use in the fields of phosphate ions adsorption, separation, and recovery.

Evaluating the success of public participation in integrated catchment management

Recognition of the need to manage the water environment in more holistic ways has resulted in the global growth of Integrated Catchment Management (ICM). ICM is characterised by horizontal integration, encouraging interdisciplinary working between traditionally disparate management sectors, alongside vertical integration, characterised by the engagement of communities; central is the promotion of participatory governance and management decision-making. ICM has been translated into policy through, for example, the EU Water Framework Directive and at a national level by policies such as the Catchment Based Approach in England. Research exploring the implementation of these policies has reported success at a catchment level, but further research is required to explore practices of management at local level within catchments. This paper presents the findings of participatory research undertaken with a catchment partnership in the northeast of England to explore the integration of top-down policy translation with how local communities interact with management agencies at sub-catchment scale (a bottom-up perspective). The research found that supra-catchment scale drivers dominate the vertical interplay between management systems at more local levels. These drivers embed traditional practices of management, which establishes public participation as a barrier to delivery of top-down management objectives, resulting in practices that exclude communities and participatory movements at the local level. Although collaboration between agencies at the partnership scale offers a potential solution to overcoming these obstacles, the paper recommends changes to supra-catchment governance structures to encourage flexibility in developing local participatory movements as assets. Further research is necessary to develop new practices of management to integrate local people more effectively into the management process.

Development of a Cost-Effective Sensing Platform for Monitoring Phosphate in Natural Waters

A sensing platform for the in situ, real-time analysis of phosphate in natural waters has been realised using a combination of microfluidics, colorimetric reagent chemistries, low-cost LED-based optical detection and wireless communications. Prior to field deployment, the platform was tested over a period of 55 days in the laboratory during which a total of 2682 autonomous measurements were performed (854 each of sample, high standard and baseline, and 40 × 3 spiked solution measurements). The platform was subsequently field-deployed in a freshwater stream at Lough Rea, Co., Galway, Ireland, to track changes in phosphate over a five day period. During this deployment, 165 autonomous measurements (55 each of sample, high standard, and baseline) were performed and transmitted via general packet radio service (GPRS) to a web interface for remote access. Increases in phosphate levels at the sampling location coincident with rainfall events (min 1.45 µM to max 10.24 µM) were detected during the deployment. The response was found to be linear up to 50 µM PO43−, with a lower limit of detection (LOD) of 0.09 µM. Laboratory and field data suggest that despite the complexity of reagent-based analysers, they are reasonably reliable in remote operation, and offer the best opportunity to provide enhanced in situ chemical sensing capabilities. Modifications that could further improve the reliability and scalability of these platforms while simultaneously reducing the unit cost are discussed.

Sustainable Water Management in Iraq (Kurdistan) as a Challenge for Governmental Responsibility

During the last few decades, a critical scarcity of water has occurred in the Middle East due to climate change and the mismanagement of water resources. The situation is complicated by the absence of an effective legislative framework at the local level as well as by the incapability and disrepute of the local water authorities. Most Iraqi citizens depend on the surface waters of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which have their sources in upstream neighbouring countries. Water crises concerning the shared waters urgently require a solution at the international level. Unfortunately, Iraq has faced several wars in a row (1980–2003), which has prevented the country from establishing its institutions. The rapid increase in the population of the transboundary countries on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and the high demands on agriculture, are accelerating water exploitation. In this paper, the present state of water management in Iraq from the viewpoint of the legislative framework, water balance, and transboundary issues will be discussed, with special attention to Kurdistan. Many legislative documents have been established or amended by the Iraqi and Kurdistan parliaments since 2003. In 2015, the Kurdistan Government Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources, in cooperation with the EU, issued a guide for environmental legislation related to all environmental components such as air, water, and soil. The recommendations on actions needed in the water management in Kurdistan will be presented; they are inspired by the Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EC) implemented in EU member states.

The Transition of EU Water Policy Towards the Water Framework Directive's Integrated River Basin Management Paradigm

Introduced in 2000 to reform and rationalise water policy and management across the European Union (EU) Member States (MS), the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the EU's flagship legislation on water protection, is widely acknowledged as the embodiment and vessel for the application of the Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) paradigm. Its ecological objectives, perhaps even more challenging than the prospect of statutory catchment planning itself, were for all EU waters to achieve 'good status' by 2015 (except where exemptions applied) and the prevention of any further deterioration. In support of the upcoming WFD review in 2019, the paper reviews the transition of EU policies that led to the adoption of the WFD, to identify the reasons why the Directive was introduced and what it is trying to deliver, and to place progress with its implementation into context. It further investigates reasons that might have limited the effectiveness of the Directive and contributed to the limited delivery and delays in water quality improvements. Findings reveal that different interpretations on the Directive's objectives and exemptions left unresolved since its negotiation, ambiguity and compromises observed by its Common Implementation Strategy and lack of real support for the policy shift required have all been barriers to the harmonised transposition of the IRBM paradigm, the key to delivering good ecological status. The 2019 WFD review offers a unique opportunity to realign the implementation of the Directive to its initial aspirations and goals.

Impacts of the water framework directive on learning and knowledge practices in a Swedish catchment

Catchments are complex social-ecological systems involving multiple, and often competing, interests. Water governance and management regimes are increasingly embracing pluralistic, participatory, and holistic norms as a means to engage with issues of complexity, uncertainty, and value-conflicts. Integrated, participatory approaches are theoretically linked to improved learning amongst stakeholders across sectors and decision-making that is grounded in shared knowledge, experiences and scientific evidence. However, few studies have empirically examined the impacts of an integrated approach to learning and knowledge practices related to water resources. Here, a Swedish sub-catchment that has adopted such an approach in association with implementation of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) is examined. Interview-based analyses show that WFD implementation has both helped and hindered learning and knowledge practices surrounding both water planning and spatial planning. Whilst communities of practice have developed in the study area, a number of important challenges remain. These include the rigid goal-orientation of the WFD, the fragmentation of knowledge caused by an over-reliance on external consultants, as well as a lack of resources to synthesise information from multiple sources. Present results raise questions regarding the efficacy of the WFD to sufficiently enable the development of learning and knowledge practices capable of handling the complexity, uncertainties and value-conflicts facing catchments in Sweden and elsewhere.

Review of national methodologies for rivers' hydromorphological assessment: A comparative approach in France, Romania, and Croatia

Conducting hydromorphological assessments for evaluating the ecological status of rivers is a key requirement of the Directive 2000/60/EC (Water Framework Directive - WFD) within European Union (EU) Member States. This paper aims at understanding how this requirement was implemented, through an original comparative review of methodologies for rivers' hydromorphological assessment in three EU Member States, which joined the EU at different times, and with many differences in terms of hydrographic features, socio-economic and water management systems: France, Romania, and Croatia. More precisely, the paper aims at identifying and understanding the main principles guiding the hydromorphological assessment methodologies, elements and data used, giving an overview of the results of hydromorphological river status assessment, and concluding on the stage of hydromorphological assessment implementation. France developed numerous methodologies for physical habitat survey since the 1990s and it is currently conducting a rigorous hydromorphological field survey, but it does not yet have any national methodology for rivers' hydromorphological status assessment, nevertheless foreseen for the next cycle of the WFD. Besides, Romania and Croatia have already started the assessment of the hydromorphological status of rivers within the two cycles of the River Basin Management Plans and are making efforts to improve the hydromorphological monitoring activity. The methods generally differ in indicators, data used, and spatial scale of analysis, which makes it difficult to compare the results of the assessments. Despite a common water policy, the methodological dissimilarities seem to be rather usual between EU Member States. Therefore, the standardization of methodologies appears to be necessary, but the current results could be useful for setting priorities for river restoration and for achieving a better status at a national scale.

Introducing a new framework for mapping subsidence vulnerability indices (SVIs): ALPRIFT

Proof-of-concept (PoC) is presented for a new framework to serve as a proactive capability to mapping subsidence vulnerability of Shabestar plain of approximately 500km² overlaying an important aquifer supporting a region renowned for diversity of agricultural products. This aquifer is one of 12 in East and West Azerbaijan provinces, Northwest Iran, which surround the distressed Lake Urmia, with its water table declined approximately 4m in between 2004 and 2014. The decline of water table in aquifers undermines their soil texture and structure by exposure to pressures under their weight and thereby induce or trigger land subsidence. Inspired by the DRASTIC framework to map intrinsic aquifer vulnerability to anthropogenic pollution, the paper introduces the ALPRIFT framework for subsidence, which comprises the seven data layers of Aquifer media (A), Land use (L), Pumping of groundwater, Recharge (R), aquifer thickness Impact (I), Fault distance (F) and decline of water Table (T). The paper prescribes rates to account for local variations and weights for the relative importance of the data layers. The proof-of-concept for ALPRIFT is supported by the correlation of Subsidence Vulnerability Indices (SVIs) with measured subsidence values, which renders a value of 0.5 but improves significantly to 0.86 when using fuzzy logic. Similar improvements are suggested by the ROC/AUC performance metric.

Performance of National Maps of Watershed Integrity at Watershed Scales

Watershed integrity, the capacity of a watershed to support and maintain ecological processes essential to the sustainability of services provided to society, can be influenced by a range of landscape and in-stream factors. Ecological response data from four intensively monitored case study watersheds exhibiting a range of environmental conditions and landscape characteristics across the United States were used to evaluate the performance of a national level Index of Watershed Integrity (IWI) at regional and local watershed scales. Using Pearson's correlation coefficient (r), and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (rs ), response variables displayed highly significant relationships and were significantly correlated with IWI and ICI (Index of Catchment Integrity) values at all watersheds. Nitrogen concentration and flux-related watershed response metrics exhibited significantly strong negative correlations across case study watersheds, with absolute correlations (|r|) ranging from 0.48 to 0.97 for IWI values, and 0.31 to 0.96 for ICI values. Nitrogen-stable isotope ratios measured in chironomids and periphyton from streams and benthic organic matter from lake sediments also demonstrated strong negative correlations with IWI values, with |r| ranging from 0.47 to 0.92, and 0.35 to 0.89 for correlations with ICI values. This evaluation of the performance of national watershed and catchment integrity metrics and their strong relationship with site level responses provides weight-of-evidence support for their use in state, local and regionally focused applications.

Recent advances in karst research: from theory to fieldwork and applications

Karst landscapes and karst aquifers, which are composed of a variety of soluble rocks such as salt, gypsum, anhydrite, limestone, dolomite and quartzite, are fascinating areas of study. As karst rocks are abundant on the Earth's surface, the fast evolution of karst landscapes and the rapid flow of water through karst aquifers present challenges from a number of different perspectives. This collection of 25 papers deals with different aspects of these challenges, including karst geology, geomorphology and speleogenesis, karst hydrogeology, karst modelling, and karst hazards and management. Together these papers provide a state-of-the-art review of the current challenges and solutions in describing karst from a scientific perspective.

Reasserting the primacy of human needs to reclaim the 'lost half' of sustainable development

The concept of sustainable development evolved from growing awareness of the interdependence of social and economic progress with the limits of the supporting natural environment, becoming progressively integrated into global agreements and transposition into local regulatory and implementation frameworks. We argue that transposition of the concept into regulation and supporting tools reduced the focus to minimal environmental and social standards, perceived as imposing constraints rather than opportunities for innovation to meet human needs. The aspirational 'half' of the concept of sustainable development specifically addressing human needs was thus lost in transposing high ideals into regulatory instruments. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) restore focus on interlinked human needs, stimulating innovation of products and processes to satisfy them. Through three case studies - PVC water pipes, river quality management in England, and UK local air quality management - we explore the current operationalisation of the concept in diverse settings, using the SDG framework to highlight the broader societal purposes central to sustainable development. Partnerships involving civil society support evolution of regulatory instruments and their implementation, optimising social and ecological benefits thereby serving more human needs. Restoring the visionary 'lost half' of sustainable development - meeting human needs in sustainable ways - creates incentives for innovation and partnership; an innovation framework rather than a perceived constraint.

Phosphorus and metal removal combined with lipid production by the green microalga Desmodesmus sp.: An integrated approach

This work focused on the potential of Desmodesmus sp. to be employed for wastewater bioremediation and biodiesel production. The green microalga was grown in a culture medium with a phosphorus (P) content of 4.55 mg L^-1 simulating an industrial effluent; it was also exposed to a bimetal solution of copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) for 2 days. P removal was between 94 and 100%. After 2 days of exposure to metals, 94% of Cu and 85% of Ni were removed by Desmodesmus sp. Adsorption tests showed that the green microalga was able to remove up to 90% of Cu and 43% of Ni in less than 30 min. The presence of metals decreased the lipid yield, but biodiesel quality from the biomass obtained from metal exposed samples was higher than that grown without metals. This result revealed that this technology could offer a new alternative solution to environmental pollution and carbon-neutral fuel generation.

Biomonitoring of intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams in Europe: Current practice and priorities to enhance ecological status assessments

Intermittent rivers and ephemeral streams (IRES) are common across Europe and dominate some Mediterranean river networks. In all climate zones, IRES support high biodiversity and provide ecosystem services. As dynamic ecosystems that transition between flowing, pool, and dry states, IRES are typically poorly represented in biomonitoring programmes implemented to characterize EU Water Framework Directive ecological status. We report the results of a survey completed by representatives from 20 European countries to identify current challenges to IRES status assessment, examples of best practice, and priorities for future research. We identify five major barriers to effective ecological status classification in IRES: 1. the exclusion of IRES from Water Framework Directive biomonitoring based on their small catchment size; 2. the lack of river typologies that distinguish between contrasting IRES; 3. difficulties in defining the 'reference conditions' that represent unimpacted dynamic ecosystems; 4. classification of IRES ecological status based on lotic communities sampled using methods developed for perennial rivers; and 5. a reliance on taxonomic characterization of local communities. Despite these challenges, we recognize examples of innovative practice that can inform modification of current biomonitoring activity to promote effective IRES status classification. Priorities for future research include reconceptualization of the reference condition approach to accommodate spatiotemporal fluctuations in community composition, and modification of indices of ecosystem health to recognize both taxon-specific sensitivities to intermittence and dispersal abilities, within a landscape context.

Interactive effects of water quality, physical habitat, and watershed anthropogenic activities on stream ecosystem health

Ecological degradation of streams remains a major environmental concern worldwide. While stream restoration has received considerable attention, mitigation efforts focused on the improvement of physical habitat have not proven completely effective. Several small-scale studies have emphasized that effective restoration strategies require a more holistic understanding of the variables at play, although the generalization of the findings based on the small-scale studies remains unclear. Using a comprehensive statewide stream monitoring database from West Virginia (WV), a detailed landscape dataset, and a machine learning algorithm, this study explores the interactive impacts of water quality and physical habitat on stream ecosystem health as indicated by benthic macroinvertebrate scores. Given the long history of energy extraction in this region (i.e., coal mining and oil/gas production), investigation of energy extraction influences is highlighted. Our results demonstrate that a combination of good habitat and low specific conductance is generally associated with favorable benthic macroinvertebrate scores, whereas poor habitat combined with water quality conditions typically indicative of high ionic strength are associated with impaired stream status. In addition, streams impacted by both energy extraction and residential development had a higher percentage of impairment compared to those impacted predominantly by energy extraction or residential development alone. While water quality played a more important role in the ecosystem health of streams impacted primarily by energy extraction activities, habitat seems to be more influential in streams impacted by residential development. Together, these findings emphasize that stream restoration strategies should consider interactive effects of multiple environmental stressors tailored to specific sites or site types - as opposed to considering a single stressor or multiple stressors separately.

Outcomes of the hydromorphology integration in the Water Framework Directive: A review based on science mapping

The goal of our review was to evaluate scientific outcomes connected to hydromorphology and Water Framework Directive by synthesizing the main themes based on keywords, research domains, and the spatial coverage of high visibility publications. These data were integrated into a social network analysis to understand the structure of science related to our topic. Thus, we investigated 183 articles and conference proceedings from the Web of Science Core Collection. Among the 505 authors keywords, the central ones in our network were Water Framework Directive, hydromorphology, macroinvertebrates, ecological status, water quality, reference conditions, and river. The characteristics of the network of keywords indicated that information developed around a few key-concepts linked to numerous peripheral keywords, which highlighted some main themes of research. Hydromorphology appeared mostly in articles with macroinvertebrates and river restoration, suggesting the acceptance of environmental-based paradigm in water bodies' management. Consequently, we expected to count the majority of publications in Environmental Sciences & Ecology research domain. Issues related to the society (e.g. public participation, stakeholders) didn't appear in our analysis. Publications covered especially European Union member states, the network being dominated by Germany, Italy, and UK in terms of both study area and authorship. Besides traditional scientific relations between Western and Northern European states, we also noticed numerous comparisons between Danube countries. To comment the position of these publications in the scientific world, we used the Article Influence Score, which was below the average for the main research domain of Environmental Sciences & Ecology, probably as a consequence of the regional cover and concern of the Water Framework Directive. Further, we recommend more connections between environmental and social sciences, as well as between countries and we encourage funding for open access publications in order to increase the visibility and influence of the topic of hydromorphology and Water Framework Directive both bibliometrically and for decision and policy makers.

The role of bioassays in the evaluation of ecotoxicological aspects within the PEF/OEF protocols: The case of WWTPs

The suitability evaluation of any industrial process should rely on economic, technical, social and, in particular, environmental aspects. The Commission Recommendation 2013/179/UE enables the improvement and the harmonization of the conventional evaluation of environmental footprints, such as LCA (Life Cycle Assessment), Carbon and Water Footprint, by suggesting the assessment of life cycle environmental performance of products and organisations (PEF, OEF). Novelty aspects reside in including new impact categories (namely, human toxicity cancer effects, human toxicity not-cancer effects and eco-toxicity). This paper presents an application of PEF/OEF protocol to the example case of an activated sludge wastewater treatment plant. Strengths and criticisms of this approach are discussed, by taking into consideration the possible final goal of the suitability assessment. Valuably, the adoption of bioassays (i.e., the input of their results in the models for calculating the life cycle environmental performance) for a more reliable evaluation of the impact on the ecosystem and human health is proposed.

Water Quality and Management Changes Over the History of Poland

Poland is one of the countries distinguished by a long and colorful past. Undergoing numerous turbulent socio-economic changes forced by the course of history, Poland is now one of the member states of the European Union. Experiencing low water quantity and high contamination levels in surface waters, Poland is following other EU countries in the effort to reach a "good" water status. Herein are presented impacts of changes in Polish history on water legislation, management, and research, as well as explanations for the perceptible split between engineering and scientific approaches to the aquatic issues. Drawbacks caused by unsatisfactory state research funding for the sciences and division of the water related contemporary scientific interests are also discussed.

Using a multi-criteria analysis to identify rivers with hydromorphological restoration priority: Braided rivers in the south-eastern Subcarpathians (Romania)

In order to systematically plan river restoration actions at a regional scale, this paper develops a multi-criteria analysis that classifies rivers, based on their priority for hydromorphological restoration. This priority is defined by severe human pressures within the erodible corridor of the river, drastic alteration of the stream channel, and low intensity of river pattern functioning. Based on relevant indicators for three groups of features (human pressures, channel changes, and river functionality), a Hydromorphological Restoration Priority Index (HRPI) was designed. The high values (>66%) of HRPI reflect an urgent need for hydromorphological restoration while low values (<33%) reveal a less immediate necessity for restoration. The proposed methodology was applied on braided sectors of rivers crossing the south-eastern (Curvature) Subcarpathians (Romania). The values of the total HRPI ranged between 21% (Zăbrăuţ River) and almost 44% (Prahova River). According to our results, most of the analyzed sectors have a low need for hydromorphological restoration of the braided pattern, while some have a moderate necessity for restoration. Whereas the Prahova River has the highest HRPI, it should be given priority for restoration at a regional scale, which corresponds to the objectives of River Basin Management Plans for the interval beyond 2021.

Sources of nitrogen and phosphorus emissions to Irish rivers and coastal waters: Estimates from a nutrient load apportionment framework

More than half of surface water bodies in Europe are at less than good ecological status according to Water Framework Directive assessments, and diffuse pollution from agriculture remains a major, but not the only, cause of this poor performance. Agri-environmental policy and land management practices have, in many areas, reduced nutrient emissions to water. However, additional measures may be required in Ireland to further decouple the relationship between agricultural productivity and emissions to water, which is of vital importance given on-going agricultural intensification. The Source Load Apportionment Model (SLAM) framework characterises sources of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) emissions to water at a range of scales from sub-catchment to national. The SLAM synthesises land use and physical characteristics to predict emissions from point (wastewater, industry discharges and septic tank systems) and diffuse sources (agriculture, forestry, etc.). The predicted annual nutrient emissions were assessed against monitoring data for 16 major river catchments covering 50% of the area of Ireland. At national scale, results indicate that total average annual emissions to surface water in Ireland are over 2700tyr^-1 of P and 82,000tyr^-1 of N. The proportional contributions from individual sources show that the main sources of P are from municipal wastewater treatment plants and agriculture, with wide variations across the country related to local anthropogenic pressures and the hydrogeological setting. Agriculture is the main source of N emissions to water across all regions of Ireland. These policy-relevant results synthesised large amounts of information in order to identify the dominant sources of nutrients at regional and local scales, contributing to the national nutrient risk assessment of Irish water bodies.