Catecholamine systems in the brain of vertebrates: new perspectives through a comparative approach

A role for phasic dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens in encoding aversion: a review of the neurochemical literature

Survival is dictated by an organism's fitness in approaching positive stimuli and avoiding harm. While a rich literature outlines a role for mesolimbic dopamine in reward and appetitive behaviors, dopamine's involvement in aversion and avoidance behaviors remains controversial. Debate surrounding dopamine's function in the processing of negative stimuli likely stems from conflicting results reported by single-unit electrophysiological studies. Indeed, a number of studies suggest that midbrain dopaminergic cells are inhibited by the presentation of negative or fearful stimuli, while others report no change, or even an increase, in their activity. These disparate results may be due to population heterogeneity. Recent evidence demonstrates that midbrain dopamine neurons are heterogeneous in their projection targets, responses to environmental stimuli, pharmacology, and influences on motivated behavior. Thus, in order to assemble an accurate account of dopamine function during aversive stimulus experience and related behavior, it is necessary to examine the functional output of dopamine neural activity at mesolimbic terminal regions. This Review presents a growing body of evidence that dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens encodes not only reward, but also aversion. For example, our laboratory recently utilized fast-scan cyclic voltammetry to show that real-time changes in accumbal dopamine release are detected when animals are presented with predictors of aversion and its avoidance. These data, along with other reports, support a considerably more nuanced view of dopamine neuron function, wherein accumbal dopamine release is differentially modulated by positive and negative affective stimuli to promote adaptive behaviors.

Sampling phasic dopamine signaling with fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in awake, behaving rats

Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) is an electrochemical technique that permits the in vivo measurement of extracellular fluctuations in multiple chemical species. The technique is frequently utilized to sample sub-second (phasic) concentration changes of the neurotransmitter dopamine in awake and behaving rats. Phasic dopamine signaling is implicated in reinforcement, goal-directed behavior, and locomotion, and FSCV has been used to investigate how rapid changes in striatal dopamine concentration contribute to these and other behaviors. This unit describes the instrumentation and construction, implantation, and use of components required to sample and analyze dopamine concentration changes in awake rats with FSCV.

Nucleotide sequence conservation of novel and established cis-regulatory sites within the tyrosine hydroxylase gene promoter

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) is the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine biosynthesis and its gene proximal promoter ( < 1 kb upstream from the transcription start site) is essential for regulating transcription in both the developing and adult nervous systems. Several putative regulatory elements within the TH proximal promoter have been reported, but evolutionary conservation of these elements has not been thoroughly investigated. Since many vertebrate species are used to model development, function and disorders of human catecholaminergic neurons, identifying evolutionarily conserved transcription regulatory mechanisms is a high priority. In this study, we align TH proximal promoter nucleotide sequences from several vertebrate species to identify evolutionarily conserved motifs. This analysis identified three elements (a TATA box, cyclic AMP response element (CRE) and a 5'-GGTGG-3' site) that constitute the core of an ancient vertebrate TH promoter. Focusing on only eutherian mammals, two regions of high conservation within the proximal promoter were identified: a ∼250 bp region adjacent to the transcription start site and a ∼85 bp region located approximately 350 bp further upstream. Within both regions, conservation of previously reported cis-regulatory motifs and human single nucleotide variants was evaluated. Transcription reporter assays in a TH -expressing cell line demonstrated the functionality of highly conserved motifs in the proximal promoter regions and electromobility shift assays showed that brain-region specific complexes assemble on these motifs. These studies also identified a non-canonical CRE binding (CREB) protein recognition element in the proximal promoter. Together, these studies provide a detailed analysis of evolutionary conservation within the TH promoter and identify potential cis-regulatory motifs that underlie a core set of regulatory mechanisms in mammals.

Quantitative cross-species extrapolation between humans and fish: the case of the anti-depressant fluoxetine

Fish are an important model for the pharmacological and toxicological characterization of human pharmaceuticals in drug discovery, drug safety assessment and environmental toxicology. However, do fish respond to pharmaceuticals as humans do? To address this question, we provide a novel quantitative cross-species extrapolation approach (qCSE) based on the hypothesis that similar plasma concentrations of pharmaceuticals cause comparable target-mediated effects in both humans and fish at similar level of biological organization (Read-Across Hypothesis). To validate this hypothesis, the behavioural effects of the anti-depressant drug fluoxetine on the fish model fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) were used as test case. Fish were exposed for 28 days to a range of measured water concentrations of fluoxetine (0.1, 1.0, 8.0, 16, 32, 64 µg/L) to produce plasma concentrations below, equal and above the range of Human Therapeutic Plasma Concentrations (H_TPCs). Fluoxetine and its metabolite, norfluoxetine, were quantified in the plasma of individual fish and linked to behavioural anxiety-related endpoints. The minimum drug plasma concentrations that elicited anxiolytic responses in fish were above the upper value of the H_TPC range, whereas no effects were observed at plasma concentrations below the H_TPCs. In vivo metabolism of fluoxetine in humans and fish was similar, and displayed bi-phasic concentration-dependent kinetics driven by the auto-inhibitory dynamics and saturation of the enzymes that convert fluoxetine into norfluoxetine. The sensitivity of fish to fluoxetine was not so dissimilar from that of patients affected by general anxiety disorders. These results represent the first direct evidence of measured internal dose response effect of a pharmaceutical in fish, hence validating the Read-Across hypothesis applied to fluoxetine. Overall, this study demonstrates that the qCSE approach, anchored to internal drug concentrations, is a powerful tool to guide the assessment of the sensitivity of fish to pharmaceuticals, and strengthens the translational power of the cross-species extrapolation.

Characterization of the hypothalamus of Xenopus laevis during development. II. The basal regions

The expression patterns of conserved developmental regulatory transcription factors and neuronal markers were analyzed in the basal hypothalamus of Xenopus laevis throughout development by means of combined immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization techniques. The connectivity of the main subdivisions was investigated by in vitro tracing techniques with dextran amines. The basal hypothalamic region is topologically rostral to the basal diencephalon and is composed of the tuberal (rostral) and mammillary (caudal) subdivisions, according to the prosomeric model. It is dorsally bounded by the optic chiasm and the alar hypothalamus, and caudally by the diencephalic prosomere p3. The tuberal hypothalamus is defined by the expression of Nkx2.1, xShh, and Isl1, and rostral and caudal portions can be distinguished by the distinct expression of Otp rostrally and Nkx2.2 caudally. In the mammillary region the xShh/Nkx2.1 combination defined the rostral mammillary area, expressing Nkx2.1, and the caudal retromammillary area, expressing xShh. The expression of xLhx1, xDll4, and Otp in the mammillary area and Isl1 in the tuberal region highlights the boundary between the two basal hypothalamic territories. Both regions are strongly connected with subpallial regions, especially those conveying olfactory/vomeronasal information, and also possess abundant intrahypothalamic connections. They show reciprocal connections with the diencephalon (mainly the thalamus), project to the midbrain tectum, and are bidirectionally related to the rhombencephalon. These results illustrate that the basal hypothalamus of anurans shares many features of specification, regionalization, and hodology with amniotes, reinforcing the idea of a basic bauplan in the organization of this prosencephalic region in all tetrapods.

Intraventricular injection of 6-hydroxydopamine results in an increased number of tyrosine hydroxylase immune-positive cells in the rat cortex

Previously we have demonstrated that intraventricular injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) results in increased proliferation and de-differentiation of rat cortical astrocytes into progenitor-like cells 4 days after lesion (Wachter et al., 2010). To find out if these cells express tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme in the catecholamine synthesis pathway, we performed immunohistochemistry in the rat cortex following intraventricular injection of 6-OHDA. Four days after injection we demonstrated a strong emergence of TH-positive (TH(+)) somata in the cortices of 6-OHDA-lesioned animals. The number of TH(+) cells in the cortex of 6-OHDA-lesioned animals was 15 times higher than in sham-operated animals, where virtually no TH(+) somata occurred. Combining TH immunohistochemistry with classical Nissl stain yielded complete congruency, and ∼45% of the TH(+) cells co-expressed calretinin, which indicates an interneuron affiliation. There was no co-staining of TH with other interneuron markers or with glial markers such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) or the neural stem/progenitor marker Nestin, nor could we find co-localization with the proliferation marker Ki67. However, we found a co-localization of TH with glial progenitor cell markers (Sox2 and S100β) and with polysialylated-neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM), which has been shown to be expressed in immature, but not recently generated cortical neurons. Taken together, this study seems to confirm our previous findings with respect to a 6-OHDA-induced expression of neuronal precursor markers in cells of the rat cortex, although the TH(+) cells found in this study are not identical with the potentially de-differentiated astrocytes described recently (Wachter et al., 2010). The detection of cortical cells expressing the catecholaminergic key enzyme TH might indicate a possible compensatory role of these cells in a dopamine-(DA)-depleted system. Future studies are needed to determine whether the TH(+) cells are capable of DA synthesis to confirm this hypothesis.

Catecholaminergic connectivity to the inner ear, central auditory, and vocal motor circuitry in the plainfin midshipman fish porichthys notatus

Although the neuroanatomical distribution of catecholaminergic (CA) neurons has been well documented across all vertebrate classes, few studies have examined CA connectivity to physiologically and anatomically identified neural circuitry that controls behavior. The goal of this study was to characterize CA distribution in the brain and inner ear of the plainfin midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus) with particular emphasis on their relationship with anatomically labeled circuitry that both produces and encodes social acoustic signals in this species. Neurobiotin labeling of the main auditory end organ, the saccule, combined with tyrosine hydroxylase immunofluorescence (TH-ir) revealed a strong CA innervation of both the peripheral and central auditory system. Diencephalic TH-ir neurons in the periventricular posterior tuberculum, known to be dopaminergic, send ascending projections to the ventral telencephalon and prominent descending projections to vocal-acoustic integration sites, notably the hindbrain octavolateralis efferent nucleus, as well as onto the base of hair cells in the saccule via nerve VIII. Neurobiotin backfills of the vocal nerve in combination with TH-ir revealed CA terminals on all components of the vocal pattern generator, which appears to largely originate from local TH-ir neurons but may include input from diencephalic projections as well. This study provides strong neuroanatomical evidence that catecholamines are important modulators of both auditory and vocal circuitry and acoustic-driven social behavior in midshipman fish. This demonstration of TH-ir terminals in the main end organ of hearing in a nonmammalian vertebrate suggests a conserved and important anatomical and functional role for dopamine in normal audition.

Nuclear organization of cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic systems in the brain of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii)

This study investigated the nuclear organization of four immunohistochemically identifiable neural systems (cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic) within the brains of three male Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii), which had a mean brain mass of 11.6g. We found that the nuclei generally observed for these systems in other mammalian brains were present in the brain of the Tasmanian devil. Despite this, specific differences in the nuclear organization of the cholinergic, catecholaminergic and serotonergic systems appear to carry a phylogenetic signal. In the cholinergic system, only the dorsal hypothalamic cholinergic nucleus could be observed, while an extra dorsal subdivision of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and cholinergic neurons within the gelatinous layer of the caudal spinal trigeminal nucleus were observed. Within the catecholaminergic system the A4 nucleus of the locus coeruleus complex was absent, as was the caudal ventrolateral serotonergic group of the serotonergic system. The organization of the orexinergic system was similar to that seen in many mammals previously studied. Overall, while showing strong similarities to the organization of these systems in other mammals, the specific differences observed in the Tasmanian devil reveal either order specific, or class specific, features of these systems. Further studies will reveal the extent of change in the nuclear organization of these systems in marsupials and how these potential changes may affect functionality.

Exercise alters resting-state functional connectivity of motor circuits in parkinsonian rats

Few studies have examined changes in functional connectivity after long-term aerobic exercise. We examined the effects of 4 weeks of forced running wheel exercise on the resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) of motor circuits of rats subjected to bilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesion of the dorsal striatum. Our results showed substantial similarity between lesion-induced changes in rsFC in the rats and alterations in rsFC reported in Parkinson's disease subjects, including disconnection of the dorsolateral striatum. Exercise in lesioned rats resulted in: (1) normalization of many of the lesion-induced alterations in rsFC, including reintegration of the dorsolateral striatum into the motor network; (2) emergence of the ventrolateral striatum as a new broadly connected network hub; and (3) increased rsFC among the motor cortex, motor thalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Our results showed for the first time that long-term exercise training partially reversed lesion-induced alterations in rsFC of the motor circuits, and in addition enhanced functional connectivity in specific motor pathways in the parkinsonian rats, which could underlie recovery in motor functions observed in these animals.

Neural activity in catecholaminergic populations following sexual and aggressive interactions in the brown anole, Anolis sagrei

Social behaviors in vertebrates are modulated by catecholamine (CA; dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine) release within the social behavior neural network. Few studies have examined activity across CA populations in relation to social behaviors. The involvement of CAs in social behavior regulation is especially underexplored in reptiles, relative to other amniotes. In this study, we mapped CA populations throughout the brain (excluding retina and olfactory bulb) of the male brown anole lizard, Anolis sagrei, via immunofluorescent visualization of the rate-limiting enzyme for CA synthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Colocalization of TH with the immediate early gene product Fos, an indirect marker of neural activity, also enabled us to relate activity in TH-immunoreactive (TH-ir) neurons to appetitive and consummatory sexual and aggressive behaviors. We detected most major TH-ir cell populations that are present in other amniotes (within the hypothalamus, midbrain, and hindbrain), although the A15 population was entirely absent. We also detected a few novel or rare cell clusters within the amygdala, medial septum, and inferior raphe. Many CA populations, especially dopaminergic groups, showed increased TH-Fos colocalization in association with appetitive and consummatory sexual behavior expression, while a small number of regions showed increased colocalization in relation to solely consummatory aggression (biting of an opponent). In conclusion, we here map CA populations throughout the brown anole brain and demonstrate evidence for catecholaminergic involvement in appetitive and consummatory sexual behaviors and consummatory aggressive behaviors in this species.

Sexually-dimorphic expression of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity in the brain of a vocal teleost fish (Porichthys notatus)

Vocal communication has emerged as a powerful model for the study of neural mechanisms of social behavior. Modulatory neurochemicals postulated to play a central role in social behavior, related to motivation, arousal, incentive and reward, include the catecholamines, particularly dopamine and noradrenaline. Many questions remain regarding the functional mechanisms by which these modulators interact with sensory and motor systems. Here, we begin to address these questions in a model system for vocal and social behavior, the plainfin midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus). We mapped the distribution of immunoreactivity for the catecholamine-synthesizing enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in the midshipman brain. The general pattern of TH(+) cell groups in midshipman appears to be highly conserved with other teleost fish, with a few exceptions, including the apparent absence of pretectal catecholamine cells. Many components of the midshipman vocal and auditory systems were innervated by TH(+) fibers and terminals, including portions of the subpallial area ventralis, the preoptic complex, and the anterior hypothalamus, the midbrain periaqueductal gray and torus semicircularis, several hindbrain auditory nuclei, and parts of the hindbrain vocal pattern generator. These areas thus represent potential sites for catecholamine modulation of vocal and/or auditory behavior. To begin to test functionally whether catecholamines modulate vocal social behaviors, we hypothesized that male and female midshipman, which are sexually dimorphic in both their vocal-motor repertoires and in their responses to hearing conspecific vocalizations, should exhibit sexually dimorphic expression of TH immunoreactivity in their vocal and/or auditory systems. We used quantitative immunohistochemical techniques to test this hypothesis across a number of brain areas. We found significantly higher levels of TH expression in male midshipman relative to females in the TH cell population in the paraventricular organ of the diencephalon and in the TH-innervated torus semicircularis, the main teleost midbrain auditory structure. The torus semicircularis has been implicated in sexually dimorphic behavioral responses to conspecific vocalizations. Our data thus support the general idea that catecholamines modulate vocal and auditory processing in midshipman, and the specific hypothesis that they shape sexually dimorphic auditory responses in the auditory midbrain.

Expression patterns of Pax6 and Pax7 in the adult brain of a urodele amphibian, Pleurodeles waltl

Expression patterns of Pax6, Pax7, and, to a lesser extent, Pax3 genes were analyzed by a combination of immunohistochemical techniques in the central nervous system of adult specimens of the urodele amphibian Pleurodeles waltl. Only Pax6 was found in the telencephalon, specifically the olfactory bulbs, striatum, septum, and lateral and central parts of the amygdala. In the diencephalon, Pax6 and Pax7 were distinct in the alar and basal parts, respectively, of prosomere 3. The distribution of Pax6, Pax7, and Pax3 cells correlated with the three pretectal domains. Pax7 specifically labeled cells in the dorsal mesencephalon, mainly in the optic tectum, and Pax6 cells were the only cells found in the tegmentum. Large populations of Pax7 cells occupied the rostral rhombencephalon, along with lower numbers of Pax6 and Pax3 cells. Pax6 was found in most granule cells of the cerebellum. Pax6 cells also formed a column of scattered neurons in the reticular formation and were found in the octavolateral area. The rhombencephalic ventricular zone of the alar plate expressed Pax7. Dorsal Pax7 cells and ventral Pax6 cells were found along the spinal cord. Our results show that the expression of Pax6 and Pax7 is widely maintained in the brains of adult urodeles, in contrast to the situation in other tetrapods. This discrepancy could be due to the generally pedomorphic features of urodele brains. Although the precise role of these transcription factors in adult brains remains to be determined, our findings support the idea that they may also function in adult urodeles.

Chronic cocaine effects in retinal metabolism and electrophysiology: treatment with topiramate

PURPOSE

Cocaine abuse is a major public health problem with multiple-related complications. Indeed, cocaine can affect almost every organ of the human body, but little is known about its effects on the visual system. The main purpose of this work was to study if topiramate was able to reverse changes in retinal metabolism and retinal function induced by chronic cocaine exposure in adult rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixteen Wistar rats were treated with a daily oral dose of cocaine during 36 days. Sixteen rats receiving NaCl 0.9% served as controls. Eight control and eight cocaine animals were administered topiramate from day 18 to day 36 of the experiment. Malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) and glutamate content, as well as glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in retina tissue homogenates were determined. Retinal function was assessed by electroretinogram (ERG).

RESULTS

Glutamate concentration was increased in the retinas of cocaine-treated rats. No changes in oxidative stress parameters were observed in the retinas of cocaine-treated rats when compared with the control ones. Cocaine induced a decrease in the a-wave and b-wave ERG amplitude. The administration of topiramate reversed cocaine-induced increase in glutamate concentration and had little effect on a-wave and b-wave ERG amplitude. Topiramate, a drug used during the last decade for the treatment of epileptic seizures, is able to reverse the cocaine-induced alterations observed in retinal glutamate concentration.

CONCLUSIONS

We can conclude that retinal glutamate metabolism and function may be affected by exposure to cocaine. We confirm that topiramate, a treatment recently proposed for cocaine dependence, is also able to recover partially cocaine-induced changes in the retina.

Orthopedia transcription factor otpa and otpb paralogous genes function during dopaminergic and neuroendocrine cell specification in larval zebrafish

The homeodomain transcription factor Orthopedia (Otp) is an important regulator for specification of defined subsets of neuroendocrine cells and dopaminergic neurons in vertebrates. In zebrafish, two paralogous otp genes, otpa and otpb, are present in the genome. Neither complete loss of Otp activity nor differential contributions of Otpa and Otpb to specification of defined neuronal populations have been analyzed in detail. We characterized zebrafish embryos and early larvae mutant for null alleles of otpa, otpb, or both genes to determine their individual contributions to the specification of th expressing dopaminergic neuronal populations as well as of crh, oxt, avp, trh or sst1.1 expressing neuroendocrine cells. otpa mutant larvae show an almost complete reduction of ventral diencephalic dopaminergic neurons, as reported previously. A small reduction in the number of trh cells in the preoptic region is detectable in otpa mutants, but no significant loss of crh, oxt and avp preoptic neuroendocrine cells. otpb single mutant larvae do not display a reduction in dopaminergic neurons or neuroendocrine cells in the otp expressing regions. In contrast, in otpa and otpb double mutant larvae specific groups of dopaminergic neurons as well as of crh, oxt, avp, trh and sst1.1-expressing neuroendocrine cells are completely lost. These observations suggest that the requirement for otpa and otpb function during development of the larval diencephalon is partially redundant. During evolutionary diversification of the paralogous otp genes, otpa maintained the prominent role in ventral diencephalic dopaminergic and neuroendocrine cell specification and is capable of partially compensating otpb loss of function. In addition, we identified a role of Otp in the development of a domain of somatostatin1-expressing cells in the rostral hindbrain, a region with strong otp expression but so far uncharacterized Otp function. Otp may thus be crucial for defined neuronal cell types also in the hindbrain.

Characterization of the hypothalamus of Xenopus laevis during development. I. The alar regions

The patterns of expression of a set of conserved developmental regulatory transcription factors and neuronal markers were analyzed in the alar hypothalamus of Xenopus laevis throughout development. Combined immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization techniques were used for the identification of subdivisions and their boundaries. The alar hypothalamus was located rostral to the diencephalon in the secondary prosencephalon and represents the rostral continuation of the alar territories of the diencephalon and brainstem, according to the prosomeric model. It is composed of the supraoptoparaventricular (dorsal) and the suprachiasmatic (ventral) regions, and limits dorsally with the preoptic region, caudally with the prethalamic eminence and the prethalamus, and ventrally with the basal hypothalamus. The supraoptoparaventricular area is defined by the orthopedia (Otp) expression and is subdivided into rostral and caudal portions, on the basis of the Nkx2.2 expression only in the rostral portion. This region is the source of many neuroendocrine cells, primarily located in the rostral subdivision. The suprachiasmatic region is characterized by Dll4/Isl1 expression, and was also subdivided into rostral and caudal portions, based on the expression of Nkx2.1/Nkx2.2 and Lhx1/7 exclusively in the rostral portion. Both alar regions are mainly connected with subpallial areas strongly implicated in the limbic system and show robust intrahypothalamic connections. Caudally, both regions project to brainstem centers and spinal cord. All these data support that in terms of topology, molecular specification, and connectivity the subdivisions of the anuran alar hypothalamus possess many features shared with their counterparts in amniotes, likely controlling similar reflexes, responses, and behaviors.

Exposure to advertisement calls of reproductive competitors activates vocal-acoustic and catecholaminergic neurons in the plainfin midshipman fish, Porichthys notatus

While the neural circuitry and physiology of the auditory system is well studied among vertebrates, far less is known about how the auditory system interacts with other neural substrates to mediate behavioral responses to social acoustic signals. One species that has been the subject of intensive neuroethological investigation with regard to the production and perception of social acoustic signals is the plainfin midshipman fish, Porichthys notatus, in part because acoustic communication is essential to their reproductive behavior. Nesting male midshipman vocally court females by producing a long duration advertisement call. Females localize males by their advertisement call, spawn and deposit all their eggs in their mate’s nest. As multiple courting males establish nests in close proximity to one another, the perception of another male’s call may modulate individual calling behavior in competition for females. We tested the hypothesis that nesting males exposed to advertisement calls of other males would show elevated neural activity in auditory and vocal-acoustic brain centers as well as differential activation of catecholaminergic neurons compared to males exposed only to ambient noise. Experimental brains were then double labeled by immunofluorescence (-ir) for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), an enzyme necessary for catecholamine synthesis, and cFos, an immediate-early gene product used as a marker for neural activation. Males exposed to other advertisement calls showed a significantly greater percentage of TH-ir cells colocalized with cFos-ir in the noradrenergic locus coeruleus and the dopaminergic periventricular posterior tuberculum, as well as increased numbers of cFos-ir neurons in several levels of the auditory and vocal-acoustic pathway. Increased activation of catecholaminergic neurons may serve to coordinate appropriate behavioral responses to male competitors. Additionally, these results implicate a role for specific catecholaminergic neuronal groups in auditory-driven social behavior in fishes, consistent with a conserved function in social acoustic behavior across vertebrates.

Organization of afferents to the striatopallidal systems in the fire-bellied toad Bombina orientalis

The cerebral hemispheres of amphibians display paired dorsal and ventral striatum (commonly referred to as striatum proper and nucleus accumbens, respectively). Each striatal region is proposed to be closely associated with a pallidal structure located caudal to it to form a striatopallidal system. In the present study, afferents to the dorsal and ventral striatopallidal systems of the fire-bellied toad (Bombina orientalis) were investigated using the neuronal tracer biocytin. A quantitative analysis of the topographical distribution of afferent neurons from the thalamus and posterior tubercle/ventral tegmentum was emphasised. The main results show that inputs to the two striatopallidal systems originate from distinct dorsal thalamic nuclei, with dorsal and ventral striatopallidal afferent neurons favouring strongly the lateral/central and anterior thalamic nuclei, respectively. However, afferent neuron distribution in the dorsal thalamus does not differ in the rostrocaudal axis of the brain. Afferent neurons from the posterior tubercle and ventral tegmentum, on the other hand, are organised topographically along the rostrocaudal axis. About 85 % of afferent neurons to the dorsal striatopallidal system are located rostrally in the posterior tubercle, while 75 % of afferent neurons to the ventral striatopallidal system are found more caudally in the ventral tegmentum. This difference is statistically significant and confirms the presence of distinct mesostriatal pathways in an amphibian. These findings demonstrate that an amphibian brain displays striatopallidal systems integrating parallel streams of sensory information potentially under the influence of distinct ascending mesostriatal pathways.

Social modulation of brain monoamine levels in zebrafish

In social species animals tend to adjust their social behaviour according to the available social information in the group, in order to optimize and improve their one social status. This changing environment requires for rapid and transient behavioural changes that relies primarily on biochemical switching of existing neural networks. Monoamines and neuropeptides are the two major candidates to mediate these changes in brain states underlying socially behavioural flexibility. In the current study we used zebrafish (Danio rerio) males to study the effects of acute social interactions on rapid regional changes in brain levels of monoamines (serotonin and dopamine). A behavioural paradigm under which male zebrafish consistently express fighting behaviour was used to investigate the effects of different social experiences: winning the interaction, losing the interaction, or fighting an unsolved interaction (mirror image). We found that serotonergic activity is significantly higher in the telencephalon of winners and in the optic tectum of losers, and no significant changes were observed in mirror fighters suggesting that serotonergic activity is differentially regulated in different brain regions by social interactions. Dopaminergic activity it was also significantly higher in the telencephalon of winners which may be representative of social reward. Together our data suggests that acute social interactions elicit rapid and differential changes in serotonergic and dopaminergic activity across different brain regions.

Social signals increase monoamine levels in the tegmentum of juvenile Mexican spadefoot toads (Spea multiplicata)

Monoamines are important neuromodulators that respond to social cues and that can, in turn, modify social responses. Yet we know very little about the ontogeny of monoaminergic systems and whether they contribute to the development of social behavior. Anurans are an excellent model for studying the development of social behavior because one of its primary components, phonotaxis, is expressed early in life. To examine the effect of social signals on monoamines early in ontogeny, we presented juvenile Mexican spadefoot toads (Spea multiplicata) with a male mating call or no sound and measured norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and a serotonin metabolite, across the brain using high-pressure liquid chromatography. Our results demonstrate that adult-like monoaminergic systems are in place shortly after metamorphosis. Perhaps more interestingly, we found that mating calls increased the level of monoamines in the juvenile tegmentum, a midbrain region involved in sensory-motor integration and that contributes to brain arousal and attention. We saw no such increase in the auditory midbrain or in forebrain regions. We suggest that changes in monoamine levels in the juvenile tegmentum may reflect the effects of social signals on arousal state and could contribute to context-dependent modulation of social behavior.

The vertebrate diencephalic MCH system: a versatile neuronal population in an evolving brain

Neurons synthesizing melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) are described in the posterior hypothalamus of all vertebrates investigated so far. However, their anatomy is very different according to species: they are small and periventricular in lampreys, cartilaginous fishes or anurans, large and neuroendocrine in bony fishes, or distributed over large regions of the lateral hypothalamus in many mammals. An analysis of their comparative anatomy alongside recent data about the development of the forebrain, suggests that although very different, MCH neurons of the caudal hypothalamus are homologous. We further hypothesize that their divergent anatomy is linked to divergence in the forebrain - in particular telencephalic evolution.

Dynamic expression of tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA and protein in neurons of the striatum and amygdala of mice, and experimental evidence of their multiple embryonic origin

Emotional and motivational dysfunctions observed in Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and drug addiction are associated to an alteration of the mesocortical and mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways, which include axons projecting to the prefrontal cortex, the ventral striatum, and the amygdala. Subpopulations of catecholaminergic neurons have been described in the cortex and striatum of several mammals, but the presence of such cells in the adult amygdala is unclear in murine rodents, and in other rodents appears to show variations depending on the species. Moreover, the embryonic origin of telencephalic tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) cells is unknown, which is essential for trying to understand aspects of their evolution, distribution and function. Herein we investigated the expression of TH mRNA and protein in cells of the striatum and amygdala of developing and adult mice, and analyzed the embryonic origin of such cells using in vitro migration assays. Our results showed the presence of TH mRNA and protein expressing cells in the striatum (including nucleus accumbens), central and medial extended amygdala during development, which are persistent in adulthood although they are less numerous, generally show weak mRNA expression, and some appear to lack the protein. Fate mapping analysis showed that these cells include at least two subpopulations with different embryonic origin in either the commissural preoptic area of the subpallium or the supraopto-paraventricular domain of the alar hypothalamus. These data are important for future studies trying to understand the role of catecholamines in modulation of emotion, motivation, and reward.

Neuroanatomical organization of the cholinergic system in the central nervous system of a basal actinopterygian fish, the senegal bichir Polypterus senegalus

Polypterid bony fishes are believed to be basal to other living ray-finned fishes, and their brain organization is therefore critical in providing information as to primitive neural characters that existed in the earliest ray-finned fishes. The cholinergic system has been characterized in more advanced ray-finned fishes, but not in polypterids. In order to establish which cholinergic neural centers characterized the earliest ray-finned fishes, the distribution of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) is described in Polypterus and compared with the distribution of this molecule in other ray-finned fishes. Cell groups immunoreactive for ChAT were observed in the hypothalamus, the habenula, the optic tectum, the isthmus, the cranial motor nuclei, and the spinal motor column. Cholinergic fibers were observed in both the telencephalic pallium and the subpallium, in the thalamus and pretectum, in the optic tectum and torus semicircularis, in the mesencephalic tegmentum, in the cerebellar crest, in the solitary nucleus, and in the dorsal column nuclei. Comparison of the data within a segmental neuromeric context indicates that the cholinergic system in polypterid fishes is generally similar to that in other ray-finned fishes, but cholinergic-positive neurons in the pallium and subpallium, and in the thalamus and cerebellum, of teleosts appear to have evolved following the separation of polypterids and other ray-finned fishes.

Mapping of tyrosine hydroxylase in the diencephalon of alpaca (Lama pacos) and co-distribution with somatostatin-28 (1-12)

Based on previous work describing the distribution of somatostatin-28 (1-12) in the male alpaca (Lama pacos) diencephalon, and owing to the well known interactions between this peptide and the catecholaminergic system, the aims of this work are (1) to describe the distribution of putative catecholaminergic cell groups in the alpaca diencephalon and (2) to study the possible morphological basis of the interactions between these substances in the diencephalon of the alpaca by using double immunohistochemistry methods. Thus, the distribution of catecholaminergic cell groups in the alpaca diencephalon agrees with that previously described in the diencephalon of other mammalian species of the same order: the A11, A12, A13, A14 and A15d cell groups have been identified; however, we have observed an additional hitherto undescribed cell group containing tyrosine hydroxylase in the medial habenula. In addition, double-labelling procedures did not reveal neurons containing tyrosine hydroxylase and somatostatin, suggesting that the hypothalamic interactions between catecholamines and somatostatin at intra-cellular level must be carried out by a somatostatin molecule other than fragment (1-12). Otherwise, the overlapping distribution patterns of these substances would suggest some interconnections between groups of chemospecific neurons. These results could be the starting point for future studies on hypothalamic functions in alpacas, for example those concerning reproductive control, since other physiological studies have suggested that this species could have different regulatory mechanisms from other mammalian species. Our results support the Manger hypothesis that the same nuclear complement of neural systems exists in the brain of species of the same order.

Developmental exposure to fluoxetine modulates the serotonin system in hypothalamus

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine (FLU, Prozac®) is commonly prescribed for depression in pregnant women. This results in SSRI exposure of the developing fetus. However, there are knowledge gaps regarding the impact of SSRI exposure during development. Given the role of serotonin in brain development and its cross-talk with sex hormone function, we investigated effects of developmental exposure to pharmacologically relevant concentrations of FLU (3 and 30 nM (measured)) on brain neurotransmitter levels, gonadal differentiation, aromatase activity in brain and gonads, and the thyroid system, using the Xenopus tropicalis model. Tadpoles were chronically exposed (8 weeks) until metamorphosis. At metamorphosis brains were cryosectioned and levels of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and their metabolites 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, and homovanillic acid were measured in discrete regions (telencephalon, hypothalamus and the reticular formation) of the cryosections using high-performance liquid chromatography. Exposure to 30 nM FLU increased the concentration of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in hypothalamus compared with controls. FLU exposure did not affect survival, time to metamorphosis, thyroid histology, gonadal sex differentiation, or aromatase activity implying that the effect on the serotonergic neurotransmitter system in the hypothalamus region was specific. The FLU concentration that impacted the serotonin system is lower than the concentration measured in umbilical cord serum, suggesting that the serotonin system of the developing brain is highly sensitive to in utero exposure to FLU. To our knowledge this is the first study showing effects of developmental FLU exposure on brain neurochemistry. Given that SSRIs are present in the aquatic environment the current results warrant further investigation into the neurobehavioral effects of SSRIs in aquatic wildlife.

New trends in the electrochemical sensing of dopamine

Since the early 70s electrochemistry has been used as a powerful analytical technique for monitoring electroactive species in living organisms. In particular, after extremely rapid evolution of new micro and nanotechnology it has been established as an invaluable technique ranging from experiments in vivo to measurement of exocytosis during communication between cells under in vitro conditions. This review highlights recent advances in the development of electrochemical sensors for selective sensing of one of the most important neurotransmitters--dopamine. Dopamine is an electroactive catecholamine neurotransmitter, abundant in the mammalian central nervous system, affecting both cognitive and behavioral functions of living organisms. We have not attempted to cover a large time-span nor to be comprehensive in presenting the vast literature devoted to electrochemical dopamine sensing. Instead, we have focused on the last five years, describing recent progress as well as showing some problems and directions for future development.

Increasing heterogeneity in the organization of synaptic inputs of mature olfactory bulb neurons generated in newborn rats

New neurons are added into the mammalian olfactory bulb throughout life, but it remains unknown whether the properties of new neurons generated in newborn animals differ from those added during adulthood. We compared the densities of glutamatergic synapses of granule cells (GCs) generated in newborn and adult rats over extended periods of time. We observed that, whereas adult-born GCs maintained stable cell-to-cell variability of synaptic densities soon after they integrated into the circuit, cell-to-cell variability of synaptic densities of neonatal-born GCs increased months after their integration. We also investigated whether the synaptic reorganization induced by sensory deprivation occurred differently in mature neonatal- and adult-born GCs. Sensory deprivation after new GCs had differentiated induced more pronounced changes in the synaptic densities of neonatal-born GCs than in adult-born GCs. These observations suggest that the synapses of mature neonatal-born GCs retain a higher degree of malleability in response to changes in neuronal activity than adult-born GCs.

The conserved dopaminergic diencephalospinal tract mediates vertebrate locomotor development in zebrafish larvae

The most conserved part of the vertebrate dopaminergic system is the orthopedia (otp)-expressing diencephalic neuronal population that constitutes the dopaminergic diencephalospinal tract (DDT). Although studies in the neonatal murine spinal cord in vitro suggest an early locomotor role of the DDT, the function of the DDT in developing vertebrates in vivo remains unknown. Here, we investigated the role of the DDT in the locomotor development of zebrafish larvae. To assess the development of the behavioral and neural locomotor pattern, we used high-throughput video tracking in combination with peripheral nerve recordings. We found a behavioral and neural correspondence in the developmental switch from an immature to mature locomotor pattern. Blocking endogenous dopamine receptor 4 (D(4)R) signaling in vivo either before or after the developmental switch prevented or reversed the switch, respectively. Spinal transections of post-switch larvae reestablished the immature locomotor pattern, which was rescued to a mature-like pattern via spinal D(4)R agonism. Selective chemogenetic ablation of otp b (otpb) neurons that contribute to the DDT perpetuated the immature locomotor pattern in vivo. This phenotype was recapitulated by diencephalic transections that removed the dopaminergic otpb population and was rescued to a mature-like locomotor pattern by D(4)R agonism. We conclude that the dopaminergic otpb population, via the DDT, is responsible for spinal D(4)R signaling to mediate the developmental switch to the mature locomotor pattern of zebrafish. These results, integrated with the mammalian literature, suggest that the DDT represents an evolutionarily conserved neuromodulatory system that is necessary for normal vertebrate locomotor development.

Coapplication of noisy patterned electrical stimuli and NMDA plus serotonin facilitates fictive locomotion in the rat spinal cord

A new stimulating protocol [fictive locomotion-induced stimulation (FL istim)], consisting of intrinsically variable weak waveforms applied to a single dorsal root is very effective (though not optimal as it eventually wanes away) in activating the locomotor program of the isolated rat spinal cord. The present study explored whether combination of FL istim with low doses of pharmacological agents that raise network excitability might further improve the functional outcome, using this in vitro model. FL istim was applied together with N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) + serotonin, while fictive locomotion (FL) was electrophysiologically recorded from lumbar ventral roots. Superimposing FL istim on FL evoked by these neurochemicals persistently accelerated locomotor-like cycles to a set periodicity and modulated cycle amplitude depending on FL istim rate. Trains of stereotyped rectangular pulses failed to replicate this phenomenon. The GABAB agonist baclofen dose dependently inhibited, in a reversible fashion, FL evoked by either FL istim or square pulses. Sustained episodes of FL emerged when FL istim was delivered, at an intensity subthreshold for FL, in conjunction with subthreshold pharmacological stimulation. Such an effect was, however, not found when high potassium solution instead of NMDA + serotonin was used. These results suggest that the combined action of subthreshold FL istim (e.g., via epidural stimulation) and neurochemicals should be tested in vivo to improve locomotor rehabilitation after injury. In fact, reactivation of spinal locomotor circuits by conventional electrical stimulation of afferent fibers is difficult, while pharmacological activation of spinal networks is clinically impracticable due to concurrent unwanted effects. We speculate that associating subthreshold chemical and electrical inputs might decrease side effects when attempting to evoke human locomotor patterns.

Dopaminergic and noradrenergic circuit development in zebrafish

Dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons constitute some of the major far projecting systems in the vertebrate brain and spinal cord that modulate the activity of circuits controlling a broad range of behaviors. Degeneration or dysfunction of dopaminergic neurons has also been linked to a number of neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease.Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have emerged over the past two decades into a major genetic vertebrate model system,and thus contributed to a better understanding of developmental mechanisms controlling dopaminergic neuron specification and axonogenesis. In this review, we want to focus on conserved and dynamic aspects of the different catecholaminergic systems, which may help to evaluate the zebrafish as a model for dopaminergic and noradrenergic cellular specification and circuit function as well as biomedical aspects of catecholamine systems.

Subdivisions of the turtle Pseudemys scripta hypothalamus based on the expression of regulatory genes and neuronal markers

The patterns of distribution of a set of conserved brain developmental regulatory transcription factors and neuronal markers were analyzed in the hypothalamus of the juvenile turtle, Pseudemys scripta. Combined immunohistochemical techniques were used for the identification of the main boundaries and subdivisions in the optic, paraventricular, tuberal, and mammillary hypothalamic regions. The combination of Tbr1 and Pax6 with Nkx2.1 allowed identification of the boundary between the telencephalic preoptic area, rich in Nkx2.1 expression, and the prethalamic eminence, rich in Tbr1 expression. In addition, at this level Nkx2.2 expression defined the boundary between the telencephalon and the hypothalamus. The dorsalmost hypothalamic domain was the supraoptoparaventricular region that was defined by the expression of Otp/Pax6 and the lack of Nkx2.1/Isl1. It is subdivided into rostral, rich in Otp and Nkx2.2, and caudal, only Otp-positive, portions. Ventrally, the suprachiasmatic area was identified by its catecholaminergic groups and the lack of Otp, and could be further divided into a rostral portion, rich in Nkx2.1 and Nkx2.2, and a caudal portion, rich in Isl1 and devoid of Nkx2.1 expression. The expressions of Nkx2.1 and Isl1 defined the tuberal hypothalamus, whereas only the rostral portion expressed Otp. Its caudal boundary was evident by the lack of Isl1 in the adjacent mammillary area, which expressed Nkx2.1 and Otp. All these results provide an important set of data on the interpretation of the hypothalamic organization in a reptile, and hence make a useful contribution to the understanding of hypothalamic evolution.

Plasticity in D1-like receptor expression is associated with different components of cognitive processes

Dopamine D1-like receptors consist of D1 (D1A) and D5 (D1B) receptors and play a key role in working memory. However, their possibly differential contribution to working memory is unclear. We combined a working memory training protocol with a stepwise increase of cognitive subcomponents and real-time RT-PCR analysis of dopamine receptor expression in pigeons to identify molecular changes that accompany training of isolated cognitive subfunctions. In birds, the D1-like receptor family is extended and consists of the D1A, D1B, and D1D receptors. Our data show that D1B receptor plasticity follows a training that includes active mental maintenance of information, whereas D1A and D1D receptor plasticity in addition accompanies learning of stimulus-response associations. Plasticity of D1-like receptors plays no role for processes like response selection and stimulus discrimination. None of the tasks altered D2 receptor expression. Our study shows that different cognitive components of working memory training have distinguishable effects on D1-like receptor expression.

Nuclear organization of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic systems in the brain of the African pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides): organizational complexity is preserved in small brains

This study investigated the nuclear organization of four immunohistochemically identifiable neural systems (cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic) within the brain of the African pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides). The African pygmy mice studied had a brain mass of around 275 mg, making these the smallest rodent brains to date in which these neural systems have been investigated. In contrast to the assumption that in this small brain there would be fewer subdivisions of these neural systems, we found that all nuclei generally observed for these systems in other rodent brains were also present in the brain of the African pygmy mouse. As with other rodents previously studied in the subfamily Murinae, we observed the presence of cortical cholinergic neurons and a compactly organized locus coeruleus. These two features of these systems have not been observed in the non-Murinae rodents studied to date. Thus, the African pygmy mouse displays what might be considered a typical Murinae brain organization, and despite its small size, the brain does not appear to be any less complexly organized than other rodent brains, even those that are over 100 times larger such as the Cape porcupine brain. The results are consistent with the notion that changes in brain size do not affect the evolution of nuclear organization of complex neural systems. Thus, species belonging to the same order generally have the same number and complement of the subdivisions, or nuclei, of specific neural systems despite differences in brain size, phenotype or time since evolutionary divergence.

Characterization of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in the forebrain of anuran amphibians

Major common features have been reported for the organization of the basal telencephalon in amniotes, and most characteristics were thought to be acquired in the transition from anamniotes to amniotes. However, gene expression, neurochemical, and hodological data obtained for the basal ganglia and septal and amygdaloid complexes in amphibians (anamniotic tetrapods) have strengthened the idea of a conserved organization in tetrapods. A poorly characterized region in the forebrain of amniotes has been the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), but numerous recent investigations have characterized it as a member of the extended amygdala. Our study analyzes the main features of the BST in anuran amphibians to establish putative homologies with amniotes. Gene expression patterns during development identified the anuran BST as a subpallial, nonstriatal territory. The BST shows Nkx2.1 and Lhx7 expression and contains an Islet1-positive cell subpopulation derived from the lateral ganglionic eminence. Immunohistochemistry for diverse peptides and neurotransmitters revealed that the distinct chemoarchitecture of the BST is strongly conserved among tetrapods. In vitro tracing techniques with dextran amines revealed important connections between the BST and the central and medial amygdala, septal territories, medial pallium, preoptic area, lateral hypothalamus, thalamus, and prethalamus. The BST receives dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area and is connected with the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and the rostral raphe in the brainstem. All these data suggest that the anuran BST shares many features with its counterpart in amniotes and belongs to a basal continuum, likely controlling similar reflexes, reponses, and behaviors in tetrapods.

L-amino acid decarboxylase- and tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive cells in the extended olfactory amygdala and elsewhere in the adult prairie vole brain

Neurons synthesizing dopamine (DA) are widely distributed in the brain and implicated in a tremendous number of physiological and behavioral functions, including socioreproductive behaviors in rodents. We have recently been investigating the possible involvement of sex- and species-specific TH-immunoreactive (TH-ir) cells in the male prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) principal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (pBST) and posterodorsal medial amygdala (MeApd) in the chemosensory control of their monogamous pairbonding and parenting behaviors. These TH-ir cells are not immunoreactive for dopamine-beta-hydroxylase (DBH), suggesting they are not noradrenergic but possibly DAergic. A DAergic phenotype would require them to contain aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) and here we examined the existence of cells immunoreactive for both TH and AADC in the pBST and MeApd of adult virgin male and female prairie voles. We also investigated the presence of TH/AADC cells in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV), medial preoptic area (MPO), arcuate nucleus (ARH), zona incerta (ZI), substantia nigra (SN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA). Among our findings were: (1) the pBST and MeApd each contained completely non-overlapping distributions of TH-ir and AADC-ir cells, (2) the AVPV contained surprisingly few AADC-ir cells and almost no TH-ir cells contained AADC-ir, (3) approximately 60% of the TH-ir cells in the MPO, ARH, and ZI also contained AADC-ir, (4) unexpectedly, only about half of TH-ir cells in the SN and VTA contained AADC-ir, and (5) notable populations of AADC-ir cells were found outside traditional monoamine-synthesizing regions, including some sites that do not contain AADC-ir cells in adult laboratory rats or cats (medial septum and cerebral cortex). In the absence of the chemical requirements to produce DA, monoenzymatic TH-ir cells in the virgin adult prairie vole pBST, MeApd, and elsewhere in their brain may instead produce L-DOPA as an end product and use it as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator, similar to what has been observed for monoenzymatic TH-synthesizing cells in the laboratory rat brain.

A cytoarchitectonic and chemoarchitectonic analysis of the dopamine cell groups in the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, and retrorubral field in the mouse

The three main dopamine cell groups of the brain are located in the substantia nigra (A9), ventral tegmental area (A10), and retrorubral field (A8). Several subdivisions of these cell groups have been identified in rats and humans but have not been well described in mice, despite the increasing use of mice in neurodegenerative models designed to selectively damage A9 dopamine neurons. The aim of this study was to determine whether typical subdivisions of these dopamine cell groups are present in mice. The dopamine neuron groups were analysed in 15 adult C57BL/6J mice by anatomically localising tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine transporter protein (DAT), calbindin, and the G-protein-activated inward rectifier potassium channel 2 (GIRK2) proteins. Measurements of the labeling intensity, neuronal morphology, and the proportion of neurons double-labeled with TH, DAT, calbindin, or GIRK2 were used to differentiate subregions. Coronal maps were prepared and reconstructed in 3D. The A8 cell group had the largest dopamine neurons. Five subregions of A9 were identified: the reticular part with few dopamine neurons, the larger dorsal and smaller ventral dopamine tiers, and the medial and lateral parts of A9. The latter has groups containing some calbindin-immunoreactive dopamine neurons. The greatest diversity of dopamine cell types was identified in the seven subregions of A10. The main dopamine cell groups in the mouse brain are similar in terms of diversity to those observed in rats and humans. These findings are relevant to models using mice to analyse the selective vulnerability of different types of dopamine neurons.

Two types of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive neurons in the zebrafish retina

The purpose of the present study is to identify the dopaminergic amacrine (DA) cells in the inner nuclear layer (INL) of zebrafish retina through immunocytochemistry and quantitative analysis. Two types of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (TH-IR) cells appeared on the basis of dendritic morphology and stratification patterns in the inner plexiform layer (IPL). The first (DA1) was bistratified, with branching planes in both s1 and s5 of the IPL. The second (DA2) was diffuse, with dendritic processes branched throughout the IPL. DA1 and DA2 cells corresponded morphologically to A(on)(-s1/s5) and A(diffuse)(-1) (Connaughton et al., 2004). The average number of total TH-IR cells was 1088±79cells per retina (n=5), and the mean density was 250±27cells/mm(2). Their density was highest in the mid central region of ventrotemporal retina and lowest in the periphery of dorsonasal retina. Quantitatively, 45.71% of the TH-IR cells were DA1 cells, while 54.29% were DA2 cells. No TH-IR cells expressed calbindin D28K, calretinin or parvalbumin, markers for the various INL cells present in several animals. Therefore the TH-IR cells in zebrafish are limited to very specific subpopulations of the amacrine cells.

Neural and hormonal mechanisms of reproductive-related arousal in fishes

The major classes of chemicals and brain pathways involved in sexual arousal in mammals are well studied and are thought to be of an ancient, evolutionarily conserved origin. Here we discuss what is known of these neurochemicals and brain circuits in fishes, the oldest and most species-rich group of vertebrates from which tetrapods arose over 350 million years ago. Highlighted are case studies in vocal species where well-delineated sensory and motor pathways underlying reproductive-related behaviors illustrate the diversity and evolution of brain mechanisms driving sexual motivation between (and within) sexes. Also discussed are evolutionary insights from the neurobiology and reproductive behavior of elasmobranch fishes, the most ancient lineage of jawed vertebrates, which are remarkably similar in their reproductive biology to terrestrial mammals.

The evolution of dopamine systems in chordates

Dopamine (DA) neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS) is found throughout chordates, and its emergence predates the divergence of chordates. Many of the molecular components of DA systems, such as biosynthetic enzymes, transporters, and receptors, are shared with those of other monoamine systems, suggesting the common origin of these systems. In the mammalian CNS, the DA neurotransmitter systems are diversified and serve for visual and olfactory perception, sensory–motor programming, motivation, memory, emotion, and endocrine regulations. Some of the functions are conserved among different vertebrate groups, while others are not, and this is reflected in the anatomical aspects of DA systems in the forebrain and midbrain. Recent findings concerning a second tyrosine hydroxylase gene (TH2) revealed new populations of DA-synthesizing cells, as evidenced in the periventricular hypothalamic zones of teleost fish. It is likely that the ancestor of vertebrates possessed TH2 DA-synthesizing cells, and the TH2 gene has been lost secondarily in placental mammals. All the vertebrates possess DA cells in the olfactory bulb, retina, and in the diencephalon. Midbrain DA cells are abundant in amniotes while absent in some groups, e.g., teleosts. Studies of protochordate DA cells suggest that the diencephalic DA cells were present before the divergence of the chordate lineage. In contrast, the midbrain cell populations have probably emerged in the vertebrate lineage following the development of the midbrain–hindbrain boundary. The functional flexibility of the DA systems, and the evolvability provided by duplication of the corresponding genes permitted a large diversification of these systems. These features were instrumental in the adaptation of brain functions to the very variable way of life of vertebrates.

Ontogenetic distribution of the transcription factor nkx2.2 in the developing forebrain of Xenopus laevis

The expression of the Nkx2.2 gene is involved in the organization of the alar-basal boundary in the forebrain of vertebrates. Its expression in different diencephalic and telencephalic regions, helped to define distinct progenitor domains in mouse and chick. Here we investigated the pattern of Nkx2.2 protein distribution throughout the development of the forebrain of the anuran amphibian, Xenopus laevis. We used immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization techniques for its detection in combination with other essential territorial markers in the forebrain. No expression was observed in the telencephalon. In the alar hypothalamus, Nkx2.2 positive cells were scattered in the suprachiasmatic territory, but also in the supraopto-paraventricular area, as defined by the expression of the transcription factor Orthopedia (Otp) and the lack of xDll4. In the basal hypothalamus Nkx2.2 expressing cells were localized in the tuberal region, with the exception of the arcuate nucleus, rich in Otp expressing cells. In the diencephalon it was expressed in all three prosomeres (P1–P3) and not in the zona limitans intrathalamica. The presence of Nkx2.2 expressing cells in P3 was restricted to the alar portion, as well as in prosomere P2, whereas in P1 the Nkx2.2 expressing cells were located in the basal plate and identified the alar/basal boundary. These results showed that Nkx2.2 and Sonic hedgehog are expressed in parallel adjacent stripes along the anterior–posterior axis. The results of this study showed a conserved distribution pattern of Nkx2.2 among vertebrates, crucial to recognize subdivisions that are otherwise indistinct, and supported the relevance of this transcription factor in the organization of the forebrain, particularly in the delineation of the alar/basal boundary of the forebrain.