Mental work demands, retirement, and longitudinal trajectories of cognitive functioning

Occupational cognitive complexity in earlier adulthood is associated with brain structure and cognitive health in midlife: The CARDIA study

OBJECTIVE

In line with cognitive reserve theory, higher occupational cognitive complexity is associated with reduced cognitive decline in older adulthood. How and when occupational cognitive complexity first exerts protective effects during the life span remains unclear. We investigated associations between occupational cognitive complexity during early to midadulthood and brain structure and cognition in midlife.

METHOD

Participants were 669 adults from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults study (aged 18-30 years at baseline, 52% female, 38% Black). We calculated scores reflecting occupational cognitive complexity using Census Occupation Codes (years 10 and 15) and Occupational Information Network (O*NET) data. At year 25, participants had structural brain magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, and cognitive testing (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Digit Symbol Substitution Test, Stroop). In adjusted mixed models, we examined associations between occupational cognitive complexity during early to midadulthood and midlife brain structure, specifically gray matter volume and white matter fractional anisotropy, and cognition in midlife (all outcomes converted to z-scores).

RESULTS

Higher occupational cognitive complexity was associated with greater white matter fractional anisotropy (estimate = 0.10, p = .01) but not gray matter volume. Higher occupational cognitive complexity was associated with better Digit Symbol Substitution Test (estimate = 0.13, p < .001) and Stroop (estimate = 0.09, p = .01) performance but not Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Occupational cognitive complexity earlier in adulthood is associated with better white matter integrity, processing speed, and executive function in midlife. These associations may capture how occupational cognitive complexity contributes to cognitive reserve. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Effect of retirement on cognitive function: the Whitehall II cohort study

According to the 'use it or lose it' hypothesis, a lack of mentally challenging activities might exacerbate the loss of cognitive function. On this basis, retirement has been suggested to increase the risk of cognitive decline, but evidence from studies with long follow-up is lacking. We tested this hypothesis in a cohort of 3433 civil servants who participated in the Whitehall II Study, including repeated measurements of cognitive functioning up to 14 years before and 14 years after retirement. Piecewise models, centred at the year of retirement, were used to compare trajectories of verbal memory, abstract reasoning, phonemic verbal fluency, and semantic verbal fluency before and after retirement. We found that all domains of cognition declined over time. Declines in verbal memory were 38% faster after retirement compared to before, after taking account of age-related decline. In analyses stratified by employment grade, higher employment grade was protective against verbal memory decline while people were still working, but this 'protective effect' was lost when individuals retired, resulting in a similar rate of decline post-retirement across employment grades. We did not find a significant impact of retirement on the other cognitive domains. In conclusion, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that retirement accelerates the decline in verbal memory function. This study points to the benefits of cognitively stimulating activities associated with employment that could benefit older people's memory.

Change in Cognitive Performance From Midlife Into Old Age: Findings from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) Study

OBJECTIVES

A substantial body of research has documented age-related declines in cognitive abilities among adults over 60, yet there is much less known about changes in cognitive abilities during midlife. The goal was to examine longitudinal changes in multiple cognitive domains from early midlife through old age in a large national sample, the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study.

METHODS

The Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone (BTACT) was administered on two occasions (MIDUS 2, MIDUS 3), an average of 9 years apart. At MIDUS 3, those with the cognitive assessment (N=2518) ranged in age from 42 to 92 years (M=64.30; SD=11.20) and had a mean education of 14.68 years (SD=2.63). The BTACT includes assessment of key aging-sensitive cognitive domains: immediate and delayed free recall, number series, category fluency, backward digit span, processing speed, and reaction time for attention switching and inhibitory control, which comprise two factors: episodic memory and executive functioning.

RESULTS

As predicted, all cognitive subtests and factors showed very small but significant declines over 9 years, with differences in the timing and extent of change. Processing speed showed the earliest and steepest decrements. Those with higher educational attainment scored better on all tests except reaction time. Men had better executive functioning and women performed better on episodic memory.

CONCLUSIONS

Examining cognitive changes in midlife provides opportunities for early detection of cognitive impairments and possibilities for preventative interventions. (JINS, 2018, 24, 805-820).

Retirement: A concept for nurses to consider

PROBLEM

The large number of aging retirees is changing the landscape of US healthcare and economic systems. Many nurses will be among these retirees. While retirement has been studied in many fields, it has been explored considerably less in nursing science. Retirement as a concept is complex, not well-defined across disciplines, and the impact of this important transition on health and well-being is not well-understood.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this article is to explore the concept of retirement as a transition that may be related to health and well-being in aging individuals.

FINDINGS

Conceptual exploration supports that retirement is defined by two identified attributes: (a) It is a transitional period surrounding stopping or changing full or part-time, paid or unpaid employment status, and (b) it occurs at a time when a person self-identifies as being retired. Identified antecedents and consequences of retirement are closely related to health.

CONCLUSION

Many life changes often occur during the transition of retirement. As a concept, retirement is linked to healthy, transitional aging. Nursing's holistic perspective of addressing client needs can be better understood when caring for individuals who have retired or are planning to retire.

Workplace Exposures and Cognitive Function During Adulthood: Evidence From National Survey of Midlife Development and the O*NET

OBJECTIVE

Expand understanding of the role of selected workplace exposures (ie, occupational complexity, conflict in the workplace, pace of work, and physical hazards) in adults' cognitive function.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data (n = 1991) from the second wave of the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study; restricted to participants who completed telephone-based cognitive assessments of episodic memory, executive functioning, and self-perceived memory. Occupational exposure data were harvested from the ONET Release 6.0.

RESULTS

Greater complexity was associated with better self-perceived memory among women and men, and better episodic memory and executive functioning among women. Greater physical hazards were independently associated with poorer episodic memory and executive functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Objective assessments of physical and psychosocial exposures in the workplace are independently associated with cognitive outcomes in adulthood, with psychosocial exposures being particularly pronounced among women.

Relating Older Workers' Injuries to the Mismatch Between Physical Ability and Job Demands

OBJECTIVE

We examined the association between job demand and occupational injury among older workers.

METHODS

Participants were workers aged 50+ enrolled in the Health and Retirement Study, 2010 to 2014. Participants reported physical ability within three domains: physical effort, stooping/kneeling/crouching, and lifting. To measure subjective job demand, participants rated their job's demands within domains. We generated objective job demand measures through the Occupational Information Network (ONET). Using Poisson regression, we modeled the association between physical ability, job demand, and self-reported occupational injury. A second model explored interaction between job demand and physical ability.

RESULTS

The injury rate was 22/1000 worker-years. Higher job demand was associated with increased injury risk. Within high job demands, lower physical ability was associated with increased injury risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Older workers whose physical abilities do not meet job demands face increased injury risk.

Structural racism in the workplace: Does perception matter for health inequalities?

Structural racism has been linked to racial health inequalities and may operate through an unequal labor market that results in inequalities in psychosocial workplace environments (PWE). Experiences of the PWE may be a critical but understudied source of racial health disparities as most adults spend a large portion of their lives in the workplace, and work-related stress affects health outcomes. Further, it is not clear if the objective characteristics of the workplace are important for health inequalities or if these inequalities are driven by the perception of the workplace. Using data from the 2008 to 2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a probability-based sample of US adults 50 years of age and older and the Department of Labor's Occupational Information Network (O*NET), we examine the role of both standardized, objective (O*NET) and survey-based, subjective (as in HRS) measures of PWEs on health and Black-White health inequalities. We find that Blacks experience more stressful PWEs and have poorer health as measured by self-rated health, episodic memory function, and mean arterial pressure. Mediation analyses suggest that these objective O*NET ratings, but not the subjective perceptions, partially explain the relationship between race and health. We discuss these results within the extant literature on workplace and health and health inequalities. Furthermore, we discuss the use of standardized objective measures of the PWE to capture racial inequalities in workplace environment.

Overview of the Health and Retirement Study and Introduction to the Special Issue

Twenty five years ago, the largest academic behavioral and social science project ever undertaken in the U.S. began: the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). The HRS is an invaluable publicly available dataset for investigating work, aging, and retirement and informing public policy on these issues. This biennial longitudinal study began in 1992 and has studied more than 43,000 individuals and produced almost 4000 journal articles, dissertations, books, book chapters, and reports to date. The purpose of this special issue of Work, Aging and Retirement is to describe the HRS and highlight relevant research that utilizes this rich and complex dataset. First, we briefly describe the background that led to the development of the HRS. Then we summarize key aspects of the study, including its development, sampling, and methodology. Our review of the content of the survey focuses on the aspects of the study most relevant to research on worker aging and retirement. Next, we identify key strengths and important limitations of the study and provide advice to current and future HRS data users. Finally, we summarize the articles in this Special Issue (all of which use data from the HRS) and how they advance our knowledge and understanding of worker aging and retirement.

A Comparison of Subjective and Objective Job Demands and Fit with Personal Resources as Predictors of Retirement Timing in a National U.S. Sample

Population aging and attendant pressures on public budgets have spurred considerable interest in understanding factors that influence retirement timing. A range of sociodemographic and economic characteristics predict both earlier and later retirement. Less is known about the role of job characteristics on the work choices of older workers. Researchers are increasingly using the subjective ratings of job characteristics available in the Health and Retirement Study in conjunction with more objective measures of job characteristics from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) database. Employing a theoretically-informed model of job demands-personal resources fit, we constructed mismatch measures between resources and job demands (both subjectively and objectively assessed) in physical, emotional, and cognitive domains. When we matched comparable measures across the two data sources in the domains of physical, emotional, and cognitive job demands, we found that both sources of information held predictive power in relation to retirement timing. Physical and emotional but not cognitive mismatch were associated with earlier retirement. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of these findings and directions for future research.

A Comparison of Subjective and Objective Job Demands and Fit with Personal Resources as Predictors of Retirement Timing in a National U.S. Sample

Population aging and attendant pressures on public budgets have spurred considerable interest in understanding factors that influence retirement timing. A range of sociodemographic and economic characteristics predict both earlier and later retirement. Less is known about the role of job characteristics on the work choices of older workers. Researchers are increasingly using the subjective ratings of job characteristics available in the Health and Retirement Study in conjunction with more objective measures of job characteristics from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) database. Employing a theoretically-informed model of job demands-personal resources fit, we constructed mismatch measures between resources and job demands (both subjectively and objectively assessed) in physical, emotional, and cognitive domains. When we matched comparable measures across the two data sources in the domains of physical, emotional, and cognitive job demands, we found that both sources of information held predictive power in relation to retirement timing. Physical and emotional but not cognitive mismatch were associated with earlier retirement. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of these findings and directions for future research.

Do Effort and Reward at Work Predict Changes in Cognitive Function? First Longitudinal Results from the Representative German Socio-Economic Panel

It has been suggested that work characteristics, such as mental demands, job control, and occupational complexity, are prospectively related to cognitive function. However, current evidence on links between psychosocial working conditions and cognitive change over time is inconsistent. In this study, we applied the effort–reward imbalance model that allows to build on previous research on mental demands and to introduce reward-based learning as a principle with beneficial effect on cognitive function. We aimed to investigate whether high effort, high reward, and low over-commitment in 2006 were associated with positive changes in cognitive function in terms of perceptual speed and word fluency (2006–2012), and whether the co-manifestation of high effort and high reward would yield the strongest association. To this end, we used data on 1031 employees who participated in a large and representative study. Multivariate linear regression analyses supported our main hypotheses (separate and combined effects of effort and reward), particularly on changes in perceptual speed, whereas the effects of over-commitment did not reach the level of statistical significance. Our findings extend available knowledge by examining the course of cognitive function over time. If corroborated by further evidence, organization-based measures in the workplace can enrich efforts towards preventing cognitive decline in ageing workforces.

Adjustment to retirement: effects of resource change on physical and psychological well-being

A 1-year longitudinal study was conducted to examine the effects of retirement resources on the physical and psychological well-being of Hong Kong Chinese retirees during the transition to retirement. This study consisted of two assessments: Time 1 was conducted 6 months before retirement, while Time 2 was implemented 6 months after retirement. Personal resources and physical and psychological well-being were measured in the two assessments. The final sample contained 128 retirees who completed both assessments. Compared with Time 1, the retirees reported fewer financial resources at Time 2. Change in cognitive resources was significantly predictive of the changes in physical functioning, life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and psychological distress during the transition period. The findings of this longitudinal study reveal that in addition to financial, physical, and social resources that have often been emphasized in the past literature, mental resources also play an important role in positive adjustment to retirement. Future retirement planning programs are recommended to include modules for strengthening cognitive, emotional, and motivational resources of retired persons.

The impact of retirement on age related cognitive decline - a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Knowledge on factors affecting the rate of cognitive decline and how to maintain cognitive functioning in old age becomes increasingly relevant. The purpose of the current study was to systematically review the evidence for the impact of retirement on cognitive functioning and on age related cognitive decline.

METHOD

We conducted a systematic literature review, following the principles of the PRISMA statement, of longitudinal studies on the association between retirement and cognition.

RESULTS

Only seven studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. We found weak evidence that retirement accelerates the rate of cognitive decline in crystallised abilities, but only for individuals retiring from jobs high in complexity with people. The evidence of the impact of retirement on the rate of decline in fluid cognitive abilities is conflicting.

CONCLUSION

The review revealed a major knowledge gap in regards to the impact of retirement on cognitive decline. More knowledge on the association between retirement and age related cognitive decline as well as knowledge on the mechanisms behind these associations is needed.

Dementia in the workplace case study research: understanding the experiences of individuals, colleagues and managers

This article reports case study research which addresses the gap in knowledge about dementia in the workplace. Receiving a diagnosis of dementia whilst still in employment may have negative consequences for a person's identity, further compounded by loss of employment. This study is the first to explore the employment-related experiences of people with dementia and their employers to determine the potential for continued employment post-diagnosis. Sixteen case studies centred on a person with dementia who was still in employment or had left in the previous 18 months. Each involved interviews with the person with dementia, a family member and a workplace representative. This triangulation of the data promoted rigour, allowing the experiences to be viewed through a variety of lenses to build a clear picture of each situation. Thematic analysis was carried out and three themes were developed: (a) dementia as experienced in the workplace; (b) work keeps me well; and (c) wider impact of dementia in the workplace. These findings have the potential to initiate changes to policy and practice related to supporting employees with dementia. The implications of this research are multifaceted and need to be considered in terms of the individuals’ wellbeing, organisational support, as well as the wider theoretical, economic and societal consequences of supporting an employee with dementia.

Effects of Degree of Urbanization and Lifetime Longest-Held Occupation on Cognitive Impairment Prevalence in an Older Spanish Population

Our aim was to estimate the prevalence of cognitive impairment in rural and urban elderly populations and to examine the relationship between lifetime occupation and general cognitive performance. A cross-sectional study was carried out covering a representative sample (n = 749) of adults aged ≥65 years. Two categories were created to define the degree of urbanization using a criterion of geographical contiguity in combination with a minimum population threshold: densely populated (urban) areas and intermediate-thinly populated (rural) areas. Occupational histories were ranked by skill level requirements according to the Spanish National Classification of Occupations. Prevalence estimates of cognitive impairment were measured with the Mini-Mental State Examination. Results show that rural residence was not significantly associated with higher risk of cognitive impairment. A protective effect of cognitive demands at work against age-related cognitive decline was observed. However, this effect was not independent of confounder factors, such as age and education. A low overall prevalence of cognitive impairment was observed (6.5%), compared with previous estimates, possibly due to the sample selection in senior centers. Occupation during active life is not an isolated protective factor against cognitive impairment, and it is closely related to educational level. In future geriatric programs, description of both factors should be taken into consideration in screening older adults at increased risk of cognitive impairment and dementia.

Don't Lose Your Brain at Work - The Role of Recurrent Novelty at Work in Cognitive and Brain Aging

Cognitive and brain aging is strongly influenced by everyday settings such as work demands. Long-term exposure to low job complexity, for instance, has detrimental effects on cognitive functioning and regional gray matter (GM) volume. Brain and cognition, however, are also characterized by plasticity. We postulate that the experience of novelty (at work) is one important trigger of plasticity. We investigated the cumulative effect of recurrent exposure to work-task changes (WTC) at low levels of job complexity on GM volume and cognitive functioning of middle-aged production workers across a time window of 17 years. In a case-control study, we found that amount of WTC was associated with better processing speed and working memory as well as with more GM volume in brain regions that have been associated with learning and that show pronounced age-related decline. Recurrent novelty at work may serve as an ‘in vivo’ intervention that helps counteracting debilitating long-term effects of low job complexity.

Do working conditions at older ages shape the health gradient?

This study examines whether working conditions at the end of workers' careers impact health and contribute to health disparities across occupations. A dynamic panel correlated random effects model is used in conjunction with a rich data set that combines information from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), expert ratings of job demands from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET), and mid-career earnings records from the Social Security Administration's (SSA) Master Earnings File (MEF). Results reveal a strong relationship between positive aspects of the psychosocial work environment and improved self-reported health status, blood pressure, and cognitive function. However, there is little evidence to suggest that working conditions shape observed health disparities between occupations in the years leading up to retirement.

Can psychosocial work conditions protect against age-related cognitive decline? Results from a systematic review

According to the use it or lose it hypothesis, intellectually stimulating activities postpone age-related cognitive decline. A previous systematic review concluded that a high level of mental work demands and job control protected against cognitive decline. However, it did not distinguish between outcomes that were measured as cognitive function at one point in time or as cognitive decline. Our study aimed to systematically review which psychosocial working conditions were prospectively associated with high levels of cognitive function and/or changes in cognitive function over time. Articles were identified by a systematic literature search (MEDLINE, Web of Science (WOS), PsycNET, Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)). We included only studies with longitudinal designs examining the impact of psychosocial work conditions on outcomes defined as cognitive function or changes in cognitive function. Two independent reviewers compared title-abstract screenings, full-text screenings and quality assessment ratings. Eleven studies were included in the final synthesis and showed that high levels of mental work demands, occupational complexity or job control at one point in time were prospectively associated with higher levels of cognitive function in midlife or late life. However, the evidence to clarify whether these psychosocial factors also affected cognitive decline was insufficient, conflicting or weak. It remains speculative whether job control, job demands or occupational complexity can protect against cognitive decline. Future studies using methodological advancements can reveal whether workers gain more cognitive reserve in midlife and late life than the available evidence currently suggests. The public health implications of a previous review should thereby be redefined accordingly.

Occupation, retirement and cognitive functioning

The purpose of this paper is to examine the causal impact of the duration of retirement on the cognitive functioning of male elderly workers in Japan using data from the National Survey of Japanese Elderly. We explore how the complexity of a worker's longest served job affects cognitive functioning after retirement. In particular, we investigate eight dimensions of the longest served job using information listed in the United States Dictionary of Occupational Titles, namely physical demands, mathematical development, reasoning development, language development, the job's relationship to data, the job's relationship to people, the job's relationship to things and the specific vocational preparation required. Our estimator takes account of the potential endogeneity of the duration of retirement and the left-censoring of the duration of retirement. Our empirical evidence suggests that the duration of retirement has a negative and significant impact on cognitive functioning. Moreover, among the eight dimensions of job characteristics, high complexity in the job's relation to data is found to be an important job characteristic in delaying the deterioration of cognitive functioning after retirement.

Association of retirement age with mortality: a population-based longitudinal study among older adults in the USA

BACKGROUND

Retirement is an important transitional process in later life. Despite a large body of research examining the impacts of health on retirement, questions still remain regarding the association of retirement age with survival. We aimed to examine the association between retirement age and mortality among healthy and unhealthy retirees and to investigate whether sociodemographic factors modified this association.

METHODS

On the basis of the Health and Retirement Study, 2956 participants who were working at baseline (1992) and completely retired during the follow-up period from 1992 to 2010 were included. Healthy retirees (n=1934) were defined as individuals who self-reported health was not an important reason to retire. The association of retirement age with all-cause mortality was analysed using the Cox model. Sociodemographic effect modifiers of the relation were examined.

RESULTS

Over the study period, 234 healthy and 262 unhealthy retirees died. Among healthy retirees, a 1-year older age at retirement was associated with an 11% lower risk of all-cause mortality (95% CI 8% to 15%), independent of a wide range of sociodemographic, lifestyle and health confounders. Similarly, unhealthy retirees (n=1022) had a lower all-cause mortality risk when retiring later (HR 0.91, 95% CI 0.88 to 0.94). None of the sociodemographic factors were found to modify the association of retirement age with all-cause mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Early retirement may be a risk factor for mortality and prolonged working life may provide survival benefits among US adults.

Occupational cognitive requirements and late-life cognitive aging

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether occupational cognitive requirements, as a marker of adulthood cognitive activity, are associated with late-life cognition and cognitive decline.

METHODS

Main lifetime occupation information for 7,637 participants aged >65 years of the Chicago Health and Aging Project (CHAP) was linked with standardized data on worker attributes and job characteristics from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET). Ratings of cognitive processes required in 10 work-related tasks were used to create a summary measure of occupational cognitive requirements (possible range 0-7). Multivariable-adjusted linear mixed models were used to estimate the association of occupational cognitive requirements score (OCRS) with cognitive function and rate of cognitive decline.

RESULTS

Higher OCRS corresponded to significantly better late-life cognitive performance at baseline in 1993 (p < 0.001) and to slower decline in global cognitive function over time (p = 0.004). Within a genotyped subsample (n = 4,104), the associations of OCRS with rate of cognitive decline did not differ significantly by APOE ε4 carriership (p = 0.11).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that occupational cognitive requirements are associated with better cognition and a slower rate of cognitive decline in older age. Adulthood cognitive activity may contribute to cognitive reserve in late life.

Self-Reported Change in Quality of Life with Retirement and Later Cognitive Decline: Prospective Data from the Nurses' Health Study

To investigate whether a positive transition into retirement may be associated with later cognitive aging, we included a subset of 4,926 Nurses' Health Study participants who retired from work at ages 60-69, then provided a subjective assessment of the change in overall quality of life (QOL) with retirement. Subsequently (range: 1 month to 4.7 years later), when all were aged 70+ years, they completed a baseline telephone cognitive battery evaluating global cognition, episodic memory, and executive function. They had up to three follow-up cognitive assessments. Controlling for various occupational factors before retirement and socioeconomic, lifestyle, and health-related factors as of the baseline cognitive assessment, we used generalized linear models for repeated measures to estimate mean differences in rates of cognitive decline across categories of QOL transition at retirement: "worse", "same", or "better". Over a median 6 years of follow-up, the global cognitive score change was -0.123 on average. Compared with women who reported no change in QOL at retirement (31%), women who reported improvement (61%) showed a significantly slower rate of cognitive decline (difference = +0.011 95% CI = 0.004, 0.019). This mean difference was equivalent to that observed between women who were 2 years apart in age. No significant differences in cognitive decline rates were observed for the women who reported worsened QOL (8%). Secondary analyses to address possible reverse causation showed robust associations. A positive transition into retirement was associated with better maintenance of cognitive function over time in aging women. These findings need to be replicated in other populations.

Association Between Sedentary Work and BMI in a U.S. National Longitudinal Survey

INTRODUCTION

Technological advancements have made life and work more sedentary, and long hours of sitting are known to be associated with many health concerns. Several studies have reported an association between prolonged sitting time at work and weight gain, but the results are inconsistent. This study examined the relationship between sitting time at work and BMI using data from a large prospective cohort of U.S. men and women from 2002 to 2010. Initial analyses were performed in 2013, with additional analyses in 2014 and 2015.

METHODS

The sample size at the base year (2002) was 5,285 and the age range 38-45 years. The outcome, BMI, was based on self-reported measures of height and weight. Estimates of workplace sitting time were linked from an external database (Occupational Information Network), and the occupation-wide rating for sitting time was linked to survey participants by occupation. Fixed-effects models controlling for time-invariant effects of all time-invariant characteristics were employed to examine the association, controlling for age, education, work hours, and hours of vigorous and light/moderate physical activities.

RESULTS

Longer sitting time was significantly associated with higher BMI for the overall sample (β = 0.054; p<0.05) and men (β = 0.086; p<0.01). For women, the association was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings provide further support for initiatives to reduce workplace sitting time as a means of reducing the risk of weight gain and related health conditions.

Effect of Low-intensity Exercise on Physical and Cognitive Health in Older Adults: a Systematic Review

Background

It is well known that physical exercise is important to promote physical and cognitive health in older population. However, inconsistent research findings were shown regarding exercise intensity, particularly on whether low-intensity exercise (1.5 metabolic equivalent tasks (METs) to 3.0 METs) can improve physical and cognitive health of older adults. This systematic review aimed to fill this research gap. The objective of this study is to conduct a systematic review of the effectiveness of low-intensity exercise interventions on physical and cognitive health of older adults.

Methods

Published research was identified in various databases including CINAHL, MEDLINE, PEDro, PubMed, Science Direct, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science. Research studies published from January 01, 1994 to February 01, 2015 were selected for examination. Studies were included if they were published in an academic peer-reviewed journal, published in English, conducted as randomized controlled trial (RCT) or quasi-experimental studies with appropriate comparison groups, targeted participants aged 65 or above, and prescribed with low-intensity exercise in at least one study arm. Two reviewers independently extracted the data (study, design, participants, intervention, and results) and assessed the quality of the selected studies. Fifteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Quality index ranged from 15 to 18 mean = 18.3 with a full score of 28, indicating a moderate quality. Most of the outcomes reported in these studied were lower limb muscle strength (n = 9), balancing (n = 7), flexibility (n = 4), and depressive symptoms (n = 3).

Results

Out of the 15 selected studies, 11 reported improvement in flexibility, balancing, lower limb muscle strength, or depressive symptoms by low-intensity exercises.

Conclusions

The current literature suggests the effectiveness of low-intensity exercise on improved physical and cognitive health for older adults. It may be a desired intensity level in promoting health among older adults with better compliance, lower risk of injuries, and long-term sustainability.

Lifetime Occupation and Late-Life Cognitive Performance Among Women

We examined whether women who had regular jobs throughout life performed better cognitively than older adult housewives. Linear regression was used to compare global cognitive performance scores of housewives (G1) and women exposed to work of low (G2) and high (G3) complexity. The sample comprised 477 older adult Brazilian women, 430 (90.4%) of whom had performed lifelong jobs. In work with data, the G2 group's cognitive performance scores were 1.73 points higher (p =.03), and the G3 group scored 1.76 points (p =.02) higher, than the G1. In work with things and with people, the G3 scored, respectively, 2.04 (p <.01) and 2.21 (p <.01) cognitive test points higher than the G1. Based on our findings we suggest occupation of greater complexity is associated with better cognitive performance in women later in life.

The Role of Employment on Neurocognitive Reserve in Adults With HIV: A Review of the Literature

The benefits of employment are enormous; when employed, people naturally: (a) engage socially with the public and colleagues/co-workers, (b) learn new skills to increase job productivity and competence, (c) establish routines that can prevent lethargy and boredom and may regulate sleep and healthy behaviors, (d) are provided purposeful and meaningful activity that may prevent depression, and (e) gain income to pursue cognitively stimulating interests. All of these and other employment influences can provide an enriched personal and social environment that stimulates positive neuroplasticity and promotes neurocognitive reserve, which are particularly relevant to adults with HIV because (a) approximately 50% of adults with HIV experience observable cognitive impairments that can adversely affect everyday functioning such as medication adherence, and (b) approximately 45% of adults with HIV are unemployed and do not receive the neurocognitive benefits of employment. From these considerations, implications for health care research and nursing practice are provided.

Effects of Preretirement Work Complexity and Postretirement Leisure Activity on Cognitive Aging

OBJECTIVES

We examined the influence of postretirement leisure activity on longitudinal associations between work complexity in main lifetime occupation and trajectories of cognitive change before and after retirement.

METHODS

Information on complexity of work with data, people, and things, leisure activity participation in older adulthood, and four cognitive factors (verbal, spatial, memory, and speed) was available from 421 individuals in the longitudinal Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. Participants were followed for an average of 14.2 years (SD = 7.1 years) and up to 23 years across eight cognitive assessments. Most of the sample (88.6%) completed at least three cognitive assessments.

RESULTS

Results of growth curve analyses indicated that higher complexity of work with people significantly attenuated cognitive aging in verbal skills, memory, and speed of processing controlling for age, sex, and education. When leisure activity was added, greater cognitive and physical leisure activity was associated with reduced cognitive aging in verbal skills, speed of processing, and memory (for cognitive activity only).

DISCUSSION

Engagement in cognitive or physical leisure activities in older adulthood may compensate for cognitive disadvantage potentially imposed by working in occupations that offer fewer cognitive challenges. These results may provide a platform to encourage leisure activity participation in those retiring from less complex occupations.

Individual and work factors related to perceived work ability and labor force outcomes

Perceived work ability refers to a worker's assessment of his or her ability to continue working in his or her job, given characteristics of the job along with his or her resources. Perceived work ability is a critical variable to study in the United States, given an aging workforce, trends to delay retirement, and U.S. policy considerations to delay the age at which full Social Security retirement benefits may be obtained. Based on the job demands-resources model, cognitive appraisal theory of stress, and push/pull factors related to retirement, we proposed and tested a conceptual model of antecedents and outcomes of perceived work ability using 3 independent samples of U.S. working adults. Data regarding workers' job characteristics were from self-report and Occupational Information Network measures. Results from relative importance analysis indicated that health and sense of control were consistently and most strongly related to work ability perceptions relative to other job demands and job and personal resources when perceived work ability was measured concurrently or 2 weeks later in samples with varying occupations. Job demands (along with health and sense of control) were most strongly related to work ability perceptions when perceived work ability was measured in a manufacturing worker sample 1.6 years later. Perceived work ability also predicted lagged labor force outcomes (absence, retirement, and disability leave) while controlling for other known predictors of each. Consistent indirect effects were observed from health status and sense of control to all 3 of these outcomes via perceived work ability.

Prosper and Live Long: Productive Life Span Tracks Increasing Overall Life Span Over Historical Time among Privileged Worker Groups

Life expectancy has increased continuously for at least 150 years, due at least in part to improving life conditions for the majority of the population. A substantial part of this historical increase is due to decreases in early life mortality. In this article, we analyze the longevity of four privileged sets of adults who have avoided childhood mortality and lived a life more similar to the modern middle class. Our analysis is focused on writers and musicians from the 17th through the 21st centuries. We show that their average age at death increased only slightly between 1600 and 1900, but in the 20th century increased at around 2 years/decade. We suggest that this confirms that modern life span extension is driven by delay of death in older life rather than avoidance of premature death. We also show that productive life span, as measured by writing and composition outputs, has increased in parallel with overall life span in these groups. Increase in age of death is confirmed in a group of the minor British aristocracy and in members of the US Congress from 1800 to 2010. We conclude that both life span and productive life span are increasing in the 20th and early 21st century, and that the modern prolongation of life is the extension of productive life and is not the addition of years of disabling illness to the end of life.