101
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Van't Wout M, Longo SM, Reddy MK, Philip NS, Bowker MT, Greenberg BD. Transcranial direct current stimulation may modulate extinction memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Brain Behav 2017; 7:e00681. [PMID: 28523223 PMCID: PMC5434186 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abnormalities in fear extinction and recall are core components of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Data from animal and human studies point to a role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in extinction learning and subsequent retention of extinction memories. Given the increasing interest in developing noninvasive brain stimulation protocols for psychopathology treatment, we piloted whether transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) during extinction learning, vs. during consolidation of extinction learning, might improve extinction recall in veterans with warzone-related PTSD. METHODS Twenty-eight veterans with PTSD completed a 2-day Pavlovian fear conditioning, extinction, and recall paradigm. Participants received one 10-min session of 2 mA anodal tDCS over AF3, intended to target the vmPFC. Fourteen received tDCS that started simultaneously with extinction learning onset, and the remaining 14 participants received tDCS during extinction consolidation. Normalized skin conductance reactivity (SCR) was the primary outcome measure. Linear mixed effects models were used to test for effects of tDCS on late extinction and early extinction recall 24 hr later. RESULTS During early recall, veterans who received tDCS during extinction consolidation showed slightly lower SCR in response to previously extinguished stimuli as compared to veterans who received tDCS simultaneous with extinction learning (p = .08), generating a medium effect size (Cohen's d = .38). There was no significant effect of tDCS on SCR during late extinction. CONCLUSIONS These preliminary findings suggest that testing the effects of tDCS during consolidation of fear extinction may have promise as a way of enhancing extinction recall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mascha Van't Wout
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior Alpert Brown Medical School Brown University Providence RI USA.,Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology Providence VA Medical Center Providence RI USA
| | - Sharon M Longo
- Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology Providence VA Medical Center Providence RI USA
| | - Madhavi K Reddy
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior Alpert Brown Medical School Brown University Providence RI USA.,Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology Providence VA Medical Center Providence RI USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences McGovern Medical School at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Houston TX USA
| | - Noah S Philip
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior Alpert Brown Medical School Brown University Providence RI USA.,Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology Providence VA Medical Center Providence RI USA
| | - Marguerite T Bowker
- Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology Providence VA Medical Center Providence RI USA
| | - Benjamin D Greenberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior Alpert Brown Medical School Brown University Providence RI USA.,Center for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology Providence VA Medical Center Providence RI USA
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102
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Pretreatment biomarkers predicting PTSD psychotherapy outcomes: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 75:140-156. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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103
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Zilverstand A, Sorger B, Kaemingk A, Goebel R. Quantitative representations of an exaggerated anxiety response in the brain of female spider phobics-a parametric fMRI study. Hum Brain Mapp 2017; 38:3025-3038. [PMID: 28321945 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
We employed a novel parametric spider picture set in the context of a parametric fMRI anxiety provocation study, designed to tease apart brain regions involved in threat monitoring from regions representing an exaggerated anxiety response in spider phobics. For the stimulus set, we systematically manipulated perceived proximity of threat by varying a depicted spider's context, size, and posture. All stimuli were validated in a behavioral rating study (phobics n = 20; controls n = 20; all female). An independent group participated in a subsequent fMRI anxiety provocation study (phobics n = 7; controls n = 7; all female), in which we compared a whole-brain categorical to a whole-brain parametric analysis. Results demonstrated that the parametric analysis provided a richer characterization of the functional role of the involved brain networks. In three brain regions-the mid insula, the dorsal anterior cingulate, and the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex-activation was linearly modulated by perceived proximity specifically in the spider phobia group, indicating a quantitative representation of an exaggerated anxiety response. In other regions (e.g., the amygdala), activation was linearly modulated in both groups, suggesting a functional role in threat monitoring. Prefrontal regions, such as dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, were activated during anxiety provocation but did not show a stimulus-dependent linear modulation in either group. The results confirm that brain regions involved in anxiety processing hold a quantitative representation of a pathological anxiety response and more generally suggest that parametric fMRI designs may be a very powerful tool for clinical research in the future, particularly when developing novel brain-based interventions (e.g., neurofeedback training). Hum Brain Mapp 38:3025-3038, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Zilverstand
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, Maastricht, EV 6229, The Netherlands.,Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, 10029
| | - Bettina Sorger
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, Maastricht, EV 6229, The Netherlands
| | - Anita Kaemingk
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, Maastricht, EV 6229, The Netherlands
| | - Rainer Goebel
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Oxfordlaan 55, Maastricht, EV 6229, The Netherlands.,Department of Neuroimaging and Neuromodeling, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience (KNAW), Meibergdreef 47, Amsterdam, BA 1105, The Netherlands
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104
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Moratti S, Giménez-Fernández T, Méndez-Bértolo C, de Vicente-Pérez F. Conditioned inhibitory and excitatory gain modulations of visual cortex in fear conditioning: Effects of analysis strategies of magnetocortical responses. Psychophysiology 2017; 54:882-893. [PMID: 28169431 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In unpredictable environments, stimuli that predict potential danger or its absence can change rapidly. Therefore, it is highly adaptive to prioritize incoming sensory information flexibly as a function of prior experience. Previously, these changes have only been conceptualized as excitatory gain increases in sensory cortices for acquired fear-relevant stimuli during associative learning. However, formal descriptions of associative processes by Rescorla and Wagner predict both conditioned excitatory and inhibitory processes in response systems for fear and safety cues, respectively. Magnetocortical steady-state visual evoked fields (ssVEFs) have been shown to vary in amplitude as a function of associative strength. Therefore, we wondered why previous studies reporting ssVEF modulations by fear learning did not observe conditioned inhibition of ssVEF responses for the safety cue. Three analysis strategies were applied: (1) traditional analysis of ssVEF amplitude at occipital MEG sensors, (2) applying a general linear model (GLM) at each sensor, and (3) fitting the same GLM to cortically localized ssVEF responses. First, we replicated previous findings of increased ssVEFs for acquired fear-relevant stimuli using all three analysis strategies. Critically, we demonstrated conditioned inhibition of ssVEF responses for fear-irrelevant cues for specific gradiometer sensor types using the traditional analysis technique and for all sensor types when applying a GLM to the sensor space. However, sensor space effects were rather small. In stark contrast, cortical source space effect sizes were most pronounced. The results of opposing CS+ and CS- modulations in sensory cortex reflect predictions of the Rescorla-Wagner model and current neurobiological findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Moratti
- Department of Basic Psychology I, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Laboratory of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Laboratory for Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Constantino Méndez-Bértolo
- Laboratory of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Biomedical Technology, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco de Vicente-Pérez
- Department of Basic Psychology I, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Laboratory for Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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105
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Balderston NL, Vytal KE, O’Connell K, Torrisi S, Letkiewicz A, Ernst M, Grillon C. Anxiety Patients Show Reduced Working Memory Related dlPFC Activation During Safety and Threat. Depress Anxiety 2017; 34:25-36. [PMID: 27110997 PMCID: PMC5079837 DOI: 10.1002/da.22518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anxiety patients exhibit deficits in cognitive tasks that require prefrontal control of attention, including those that tap working memory (WM). However, it is unclear whether these deficits reflect threat-related processes or symptoms of the disorder. Here, we distinguish between these hypotheses by determining the effect of shock threat versus safety on the neural substrates of WM performance in anxiety patients and healthy controls. METHODS Patients, diagnosed with generalized and/or social anxiety disorder, and controls performed blocks of an N-back WM task during periods of safety and threat of shock. We recorded blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) activity during the task, and investigated the effect of clinical anxiety (patients vs. controls) and threat on WM load-related BOLD activation. RESULTS Behaviorally, patients showed an overall impairment in both accuracy and reaction time compared to controls, independent of threat. At the neural level, patients showed less WM load-related activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region critical for cognitive control. In addition, patients showed less WM load-related deactivation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex, which are regions of the default mode network. Most importantly, these effects were not modulated by threat. CONCLUSIONS This work suggests that the cognitive deficits seen in anxiety patients may represent a key component of clinical anxiety, rather than a consequence of threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas L. Balderston
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Katherine E. Vytal
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Katherine O’Connell
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Salvatore Torrisi
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Allison Letkiewicz
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Monique Ernst
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Christian Grillon
- Section on Neurobiology of Fear and Anxiety, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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106
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Muench HM, Westermann S, Pizzagalli DA, Hofmann SG, Mueller EM. Self-relevant threat contexts enhance early processing of fear-conditioned faces. Biol Psychol 2016; 121:194-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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107
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Scheveneels S, Boddez Y, Vervliet B, Hermans D. The validity of laboratory-based treatment research: Bridging the gap between fear extinction and exposure treatment. Behav Res Ther 2016; 86:87-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2016.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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108
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Ceyhan E, Nishino T, Botteron KN, Miller MI, Ratnanather JT. Analysis of cortical morphometric variability using labeled cortical distance maps. STATISTICS AND ITS INTERFACE 2016; 10:313-341. [PMID: 37476472 PMCID: PMC10358742 DOI: 10.4310/sii.2017.v10.n2.a13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Morphometric (i.e., shape and size) differences in the anatomy of cortical structures are associated with neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. Such differences can be quantized and detected by a powerful tool called Labeled Cortical Distance Map (LCDM). The LCDM method provides distances of labeled gray matter (GM) voxels from the GM/white matter (WM) surface for specific cortical structures (or tissues). Here we describe a method to analyze morphometric variability in the particular tissue using LCDM distances. To extract more of the information provided by LCDM distances, we perform pooling and censoring of LCDM distances. In particular, we employ Brown-Forsythe (BF) test of homogeneity of variance (HOV) on the LCDM distances. HOV analysis of pooled distances provides an overall analysis of morphometric variability of the LCDMs due to the disease in question, while the HOV analysis of censored distances suggests the location(s) of significant variation in these differences (i.e., at which distance from the GM/WM surface the morphometric variability starts to be significant). We also check for the influence of assumption violations on the HOV analysis of LCDM distances. In particular, we demonstrate that BF HOV test is robust to assumption violations such as the non-normality and within sample dependence of the residuals from the median for pooled and censored distances and are robust to data aggregation which occurs in analysis of censored distances. We recommend HOV analysis as a complementary tool to the analysis of distribution/location differences. We also apply the methodology on simulated normal and exponential data sets and assess the performance of the methods when more of the underlying assumptions are satisfied. We illustrate the methodology on a real data example, namely, LCDM distances of GM voxels in ventral medial prefrontal cortices (VMPFCs) to see the effects of depression or being of high risk to depression on the morphometry of VMPFCs. The methodology used here is also valid for morphometric analysis of other cortical structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Ceyhan
- Dept. of Mathematics, Koç University, 34450, Sarıyer, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - T. Nishino
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - K. N. Botteron
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
- Dept. of Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - M. I. Miller
- Center for Imaging Science, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- Institute for Computational Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - J. T. Ratnanather
- Center for Imaging Science, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- Institute for Computational Medicine, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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109
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Helpman L, Marin MF, Papini S, Zhu X, Sullivan GM, Schneier F, Neria M, Shvil E, Malaga Aragon MJ, Markowitz JC, Lindquist MA, Wager T, Milad M, Neria Y. Neural changes in extinction recall following prolonged exposure treatment for PTSD: A longitudinal fMRI study. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2016; 12:715-723. [PMID: 27761402 PMCID: PMC5065048 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2016.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Background Neurobiological models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) implicate fear processing impairments in the maintenance of the disorder. Specific deficits in extinction recall, the retention of learned extinction, have been demonstrated. While deficient extinction recall, and the associated activation pattern of prefrontal and hippocampal regions, distinguishes individuals with PTSD from controls, research has not yet examined changes following treatment. We examined the behavioral and neural correlates of extinction recall before and after cognitive behavioral treatment of PTSD. Methods Fifty-eight participants (30 with PTSD, 28 trauma-exposed matched controls) underwent a 2-day behavioral fear conditioning, extinction, and recall paradigm during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The same procedures were repeated 10 weeks later, after PTSD patients had completed prolonged exposure treatment. We analyzed fMRI data from 32 subjects (16 PTSD; 16 controls) and skin conductance response (SCR) data from 33 subjects (16 PTSD; 17 controls). Neural activity during extinction recall, SCR, and PTSD symptoms were compared across groups and over time. Results PTSD patients exhibited pre- to post-treatment reduction in rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) activation during extinction recall, and increase in functional coherence between the rACC and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC). Reduced PTSD symptom severity from pre- to post-treatment was significantly associated with reduced subgenual ACC and parahippocampal activation during this task. SCR during the extinction recall phase did not significantly change with treatment in the PTSD group, but change in SCR was associated with reduction in PTSD symptom severity. Conclusions Prolonged exposure treatment appears to alter neural activation in PTSD patients during recall of fear extinction, and change in extinction recall (measured by SCR) is associated with symptom reduction. We discuss results in the context of neural systems involved in response to affective stimuli. Deficient recall of extinguished fear (extinction recall; ER) has been associated with PTSD. Prolonged exposure (PE) is a first line treatment for PTSD which relies on extinction. Changes in prefrontal activation and functional connectivity during ER appeared following PE. Changes in ER following PE corresponded to changes in PTSD severity. Taken together, these findings suggest normalization of ER deficits in PTSD following PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liat Helpman
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Marie-France Marin
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 149 13th Street, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States
| | - Santiago Papini
- The University of Texas at Austin, Institute for Mental Health Research, 305 E. 23rd St., Stop E9000, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Xi Zhu
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Gregory M. Sullivan
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Franklin Schneier
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Mariana Neria
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Erel Shvil
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Maria Josefa Malaga Aragon
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - John C Markowitz
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Martin A Lindquist
- Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, E3634, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Tor Wager
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado at Boulder, 345 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0345, United States
| | - Mohammad Milad
- Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, E3634, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Yuval Neria
- Columbia University Department of Psychiatry and the New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Dr., New York, NY 10032, United States
- Corresponding author at: New York State Psychiatric Institute & Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, Unit #69, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY, 10032, United States.New York State Psychiatric Institute & Department of PsychiatryCollege of Physicians and SurgeonsColumbia UniversityUnit #691051 Riverside DriveNew YorkNY10032United States
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110
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Gold AL, Sheridan MA, Peverill M, Busso DS, Lambert HK, Alves S, Pine DS, McLaughlin KA. Childhood abuse and reduced cortical thickness in brain regions involved in emotional processing. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2016; 57:1154-64. [PMID: 27647051 PMCID: PMC5031358 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations in gray matter development represent a potential pathway through which childhood abuse is associated with psychopathology. Several prior studies find reduced volume and thickness of prefrontal (PFC) and temporal cortex regions in abused compared with nonabused adolescents, although most prior research is based on adults and volume-based measures. This study tests the hypothesis that child abuse, independent of parental education, predicts reduced cortical thickness in prefrontal and temporal cortices as well as reduced gray mater volume (GMV) in subcortical regions during adolescence. METHODS Structural MRI scans were obtained from 21 adolescents exposed to physical and/or sexual abuse and 37 nonabused adolescents (ages 13-20). Abuse was operationalized using dichotomous and continuous measures. We examined associations between abuse and brain structure in several a priori-defined regions, controlling for parental education, age, sex, race, and total brain volume for subcortical GMV. Significance was evaluated at p < .05 with a false discovery rate correction. RESULTS Child abuse exposure and severity were associated with reduced thickness in ventromedial prefrontal cortex (PFC), right lateral orbitofrontal cortex, right inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral parahippocampal gyrus (PHG), left temporal pole, and bilateral inferior, right middle, and right superior temporal gyri. Neither abuse measure predicted cortical surface area or subcortical GMV. Bilateral PHG thickness was inversely related to externalizing symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Child abuse, an experience characterized by a high degree of threat, is associated with reduced cortical thickness in ventromedial and ventrolateral PFC and medial and lateral temporal cortex in adolescence. Reduced PHG thickness may be a mediator linking abuse with externalizing psychopathology, although prospective research is needed to evaluate this possibility.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Sonia Alves
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, MA, USA
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111
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Abend R, Jalon I, Gurevitch G, Sar-el R, Shechner T, Pine DS, Hendler T, Bar-Haim Y. Modulation of fear extinction processes using transcranial electrical stimulation. Transl Psychiatry 2016; 6:e913. [PMID: 27727241 PMCID: PMC5315554 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Research associates processes of fear conditioning and extinction with treatment of anxiety and stress-related disorders. Manipulation of these processes may therefore be beneficial for such treatment. The current study examines the effects of electrical brain stimulation on fear extinction processes in healthy humans in order to assess its potential relevance for treatment enhancement. Forty-five participants underwent a 3-day fear conditioning and extinction paradigm. Electrical stimulation targeting the medial prefrontal cortex was applied during the extinction-learning phase (Day 2). Participants were randomly assigned to three stimulation conditions: direct-current (DC) stimulation, aimed at enhancing extinction-learning; low-frequency alternating-current (AC) stimulation, aimed at interfering with reconsolidation of the activated fear memory; and sham stimulation. The effect of stimulation on these processes was assessed in the subsequent extinction recall phase (Day 3), using skin conductance response and self-reports. Results indicate that AC stimulation potentiated the expression of fear response, whereas DC stimulation led to overgeneralization of fear response to non-reinforced stimuli. The current study demonstrates the capability of electrical stimulation targeting the medial prefrontal cortex to modulate fear extinction processes. However, the stimulation parameters tested here yielded effects opposite to those anticipated and could be clinically detrimental. These results highlight the potential capacity of stimulation to manipulate processes relevant for treatment of anxiety and stress-related disorders, but also emphasize the need for additional research to identify delivery parameters to enable its translation into clinical practice. Clinical trial identifiers: Modulation of Fear Extinction Processes Using Transcranial Electrical Stimulation; https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02723188; NCT02723188 NCT02723188.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Abend
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel,Functional Brain Center, Wohl Institute for Advanced Imaging, Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel,School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, PO Box 39040, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel. E-mail:
| | - I Jalon
- Functional Brain Center, Wohl Institute for Advanced Imaging, Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,Israel
| | - G Gurevitch
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel,Functional Brain Center, Wohl Institute for Advanced Imaging, Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - R Sar-el
- Functional Brain Center, Wohl Institute for Advanced Imaging, Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - T Shechner
- Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - D S Pine
- Section on Developmental Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - T Hendler
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel,Functional Brain Center, Wohl Institute for Advanced Imaging, Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,Israel,Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Y Bar-Haim
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,Israel
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112
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Horn SR, Charney DS, Feder A. Understanding resilience: New approaches for preventing and treating PTSD. Exp Neurol 2016; 284:119-132. [PMID: 27417856 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
All individuals experience stressful life events, and up to 84% of the general population will experience at least one potentially traumatic event. In some cases, acute or chronic stressors lead to the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or other psychopathology; however, the majority of people are resilient to such effects. Resilience is the ability to adapt successfully in the face of stress and adversity. A wealth of research has begun to identify the genetic, epigenetic, neural, and environmental underpinnings of resilience, and has indicated that resilience is mediated by adaptive changes encompassing several environmental factors, neural circuits, numerous neurotransmitters, and molecular pathways. The first part of this review focuses on recent findings regarding the genetic, epigenetic, developmental, psychosocial, and neurochemical factors as well as neural circuits and molecular pathways that underlie the development of resilience. Emerging and exciting areas of research and novel methodological approaches, including genome-wide gene expression studies, immune, endocannabinoid, oxytocin, and glutamatergic systems, are explored to help delineate innovative mechanisms that may contribute to resilience. The second part reviews several interventions and preventative approaches designed to enhance resilience in both developmental and adult populations. Specifically, the review will delineate approaches aimed to bolster resilience in individuals with PTSD. Furthermore, we discuss novel pharmacologic approaches, including the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor ketamine and neuropeptide Y (NPY), as exciting new prospects for not only the treatment of PTSD but as new targets to enhance resilience. Our growing understanding of resilience and interventions will hopefully lead to the development of new strategies for not just treating PTSD but also screening and early identification of at-risk youth and adults. Taken together, efforts aimed at dissemination and implementation of novel interventions to enhance resilience will have to keep pace with the growth of new preventive and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Horn
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dennis S Charney
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adriana Feder
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA, Gold AL, Duys A, Lambert HK, Peverill M, Heleniak C, Shechner T, Wojcieszak Z, Pine DS. Maltreatment Exposure, Brain Structure, and Fear Conditioning in Children and Adolescents. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:1956-64. [PMID: 26677946 PMCID: PMC4908632 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Revised: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in learning processes and the neural circuitry that supports fear conditioning and extinction represent mechanisms through which trauma exposure might influence risk for psychopathology. Few studies examine how trauma or neural structure relates to fear conditioning in children. Children (n=94) aged 6-18 years, 40.4% (n=38) with exposure to maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, or domestic violence), completed a fear conditioning paradigm utilizing blue and yellow bells as conditioned stimuli (CS+/CS-) and an aversive alarm noise as the unconditioned stimulus. Skin conductance responses (SCR) and self-reported fear were acquired. Magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired from 60 children. Children without maltreatment exposure exhibited strong differential conditioning to the CS+ vs CS-, based on SCR and self-reported fear. In contrast, maltreated children exhibited blunted SCR to the CS+ and failed to exhibit differential SCR to the CS+ vs CS- during early conditioning. Amygdala and hippocampal volume were reduced among children with maltreatment exposure and were negatively associated with SCR to the CS+ during early conditioning in the total sample, although these associations were negative only among non-maltreated children and were positive among maltreated children. The association of maltreatment with externalizing psychopathology was mediated by this perturbed pattern of fear conditioning. Child maltreatment is associated with failure to discriminate between threat and safety cues during fear conditioning in children. Poor threat-safety discrimination might reflect either enhanced fear generalization or a deficit in associative learning, which may in turn represent a central mechanism underlying the development of maltreatment-related externalizing psychopathology in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie A McLaughlin
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA,Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA 98195, USA, Tel: +1 206 616 7863, Fax: +1 206 685 3157, E-mail:
| | - Margaret A Sheridan
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Andrea L Gold
- Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Andrea Duys
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Hilary K Lambert
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Matthew Peverill
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Tomer Shechner
- Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | | | - Daniel S Pine
- Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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114
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Hölzel BK, Brunsch V, Gard T, Greve DN, Koch K, Sorg C, Lazar SW, Milad MR. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, Fear Conditioning, and The Uncinate Fasciculus: A Pilot Study. Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 10:124. [PMID: 27378875 PMCID: PMC4908122 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Mindfulness has been suggested to impact emotional learning, but research on these processes is scarce. The classical fear conditioning/extinction/extinction retention paradigm is a well-known method for assessing emotional learning. The present study tested the impact of mindfulness training on fear conditioning and extinction memory and further investigated whether changes in white matter fiber tracts might support such changes. The uncinate fasciculus (UNC) was of particular interest in the context of emotional learning. In this pilot study, 46 healthy participants were quasi-randomized to a Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR, N = 23) or waitlist control (N = 23) group and underwent a two-day fear conditioning, extinction learning, and extinction memory protocol before and after the course or control period. Skin conductance response (SCR) data served to measure the physiological response during conditioning and extinction memory phases. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data were analyzed with probabilistic tractography and analyzed for changes of fractional anisotropy in the UNC. During conditioning, participants were able to maintain a differential response to conditioned vs. not conditioned stimuli following the MBSR course (i.e., higher sensitivity to the conditioned stimuli), while controls dropped the response. Extinction memory results were not interpretable due to baseline differences. MBSR participants showed a significant increase in fractional anisotropy in the UNC, while controls did not (group by time interaction missed significance). Pre-post changes in UNC were correlated with changes in the response to the conditioned stimuli. The findings suggest effects of mindfulness practice on the maintenance of sensitivity of emotional responses and suggest underlying neural plasticity. (ClinicalTrials.gov, Identifier NCT01320969, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01320969).
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta K Hölzel
- Department of Neuroradiology, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of MunichMunich, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA
| | - Vincent Brunsch
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tim Gard
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBoston, MA, USA; Institute for Complementary and Integrative Medicine, University Hospital Zurich and University ZurichZurich, Switzerland; Translational Neuromodeling Unit (TNU), Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Douglas N Greve
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA
| | - Kathrin Koch
- Department of Neuroradiology, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Sorg
- Department of Neuroradiology, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich Munich, Germany
| | - Sara W Lazar
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA
| | - Mohammed R Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA
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115
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Holz NE, Boecker R, Jennen-Steinmetz C, Buchmann AF, Blomeyer D, Baumeister S, Plichta MM, Esser G, Schmidt M, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Banaschewski T, Brandeis D, Laucht M. Positive coping styles and perigenual ACC volume: two related mechanisms for conferring resilience? Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2016; 11:813-20. [PMID: 26743466 PMCID: PMC4847701 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsw005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress exposure has been linked to increased rates of depression and anxiety in adults, particularly in females, and has been associated with maladaptive changes in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which is an important brain structure involved in internalizing disorders. Coping styles are important mediators of the stress reaction by establishing homeostasis, and may thus confer resilience to stress-related psychopathology. Anatomical scans were acquired in 181 healthy participants at age 25 years. Positive coping styles were determined using a self-report questionnaire (German Stress Coping Questionnaire, SVF78) at age 22 years. Adult anxiety and depression symptoms were assessed at ages 22, 23 and 25 years with the Young Adult Self-Report. Information on previous internalizing diagnoses was obtained by diagnostic interview (2-19 years). Positive coping styles were associated with increased ACC volume. ACC volume and positive coping styles predicted anxiety and depression in a sex-dependent manner with increased positive coping and ACC volume being related to lower levels of psychopathology in females, but not in males. These results remained significant when controlled for previous internalizing diagnoses. These findings indicate that positive coping styles and ACC volume are two linked mechanisms, which may serve as protective factors against internalizing disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie E Holz
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany,
| | - Regina Boecker
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Christine Jennen-Steinmetz
- Department of Biostatistics, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Arlette F Buchmann
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany, University Outpatient Clinic of the Institute for Psychiatric and Psychosomatic Psychotherapy, ,Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Dorothea Blomeyer
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Sarah Baumeister
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Michael M Plichta
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy ,Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Günter Esser
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Martin Schmidt
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy ,Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Tobias Banaschewski
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Daniel Brandeis
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Manfred Laucht
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany, Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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116
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van 't Wout M, Mariano TY, Garnaat SL, Reddy MK, Rasmussen SA, Greenberg BD. Can Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Augment Extinction of Conditioned Fear? Brain Stimul 2016; 9:529-36. [PMID: 27037186 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2016.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure-based therapy parallels extinction learning of conditioned fear. Prior research points to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex as a potential site for the consolidation of extinction learning and subsequent retention of extinction memory. OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS The present study aimed to evaluate whether the application of non-invasive transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) during extinction learning enhances late extinction and early recall in human participants. METHODS Forty-four healthy volunteers completed a 2-day Pavlovian fear conditioning, extinction, and recall paradigm while skin conductance activity was continuously measured. Twenty-six participants received 2 mA anodal tDCS over EEG coordinate AF3 during extinction of a first conditioned stimulus. The remaining 18 participants received similar tDCS during extinction of a second conditioned stimulus. Sham stimulation was applied for the balance of extinction trials in both groups. Normalized skin conductance changes were analyzed using linear mixed models to evaluate effects of tDCS over late extinction and early recall trials. RESULTS We observed a significant interaction between timing of tDCS during extinction blocks and changes in skin conductance reactivity over late extinction trials. These data indicate that tDCS was associated with accelerated late extinction learning of a second conditioned stimulus after tDCS was combined with extinction learning of a previous conditioned stimulus. No significant effects of tDCS timing were observed on early extinction recall. CONCLUSIONS Results could be explained by an anxiolytic aftereffect of tDCS and extend previous studies on tDCS-induced modulation of fear and threat related learning processes. These findings support further exploration of the clinical use of tDCS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mascha van 't Wout
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Butler Hospital, 345 Blackstone Boulevard, Providence, RI 02906, USA; Center of Excellence for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Providence Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 830 Chalkstone Avenue, Providence, RI 02908, USA.
| | - Timothy Y Mariano
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Butler Hospital, 345 Blackstone Boulevard, Providence, RI 02906, USA; Center of Excellence for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Providence Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 830 Chalkstone Avenue, Providence, RI 02908, USA
| | - Sarah L Garnaat
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Butler Hospital, 345 Blackstone Boulevard, Providence, RI 02906, USA
| | - Madhavi K Reddy
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Butler Hospital, 345 Blackstone Boulevard, Providence, RI 02906, USA
| | - Steven A Rasmussen
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Butler Hospital, 345 Blackstone Boulevard, Providence, RI 02906, USA; Center of Excellence for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Providence Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 830 Chalkstone Avenue, Providence, RI 02908, USA
| | - Benjamin D Greenberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Butler Hospital, 345 Blackstone Boulevard, Providence, RI 02906, USA; Center of Excellence for Neurorestoration and Neurotechnology, Providence Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 830 Chalkstone Avenue, Providence, RI 02908, USA
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117
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NPY+-, but not PV+- GABAergic neurons mediated long-range inhibition from infra- to prelimbic cortex. Transl Psychiatry 2016; 6:e736. [PMID: 26882036 PMCID: PMC4872436 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are thought to reflect deficits in the regulation of fear memories. While the amygdala has long been considered a site of storage of fear memories, newer findings suggest that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is essential in the regulation of amygdala-dependent memories and fear expression. Here, activation of the prelimbic cortex (PrL) enhances the expression of fear, while an elevated activity in the infralimbic cortex (IL) enhances fear extinction. Despite the presence of these facts, we still know very little about the synaptic interconnectivity within the PFC. The aim of the present study was to investigate the inhibitory circuits between prelimbic and IL using morphological and electrophysiological methods. Our immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the distribution of PV(+)- and NPY(+)-GABAergic neurons was strikingly different within the PFC. In addition, we provided the first experimental evidence that the pyramidal neurons in the PrL received a direct inhibitory input mediated by bipolar NPY(+)-GABAergic projection neurons in the IL. Deletion of the anxiety-related neuroligin 2 gene caused a decrease of this direct synaptic inhibition that originated from the IL. Thus, our data suggested that activation of the IL might not only directly activate the corresponding downstream anxiolytic pathway, but also suppress the PrL-related anxiogenic pathway and thus could differentially bias the regulation of fear expression and extinction.
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118
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Fear conditioning seems to account for the acquisition of post-traumatic stress disorder, whereas conscious recall of events in aftermath of trauma reflects episodic memory. Studies show that both fear conditioning and episodic memory are heritable, but no study has evaluated whether they reflect common or separate genetic factors. To this end, we studied episodic memory and fear conditioning in 173 healthy twin pairs using visual stimuli predicting unconditioned electric shocks. METHODS Fear conditioning acquisition and extinction was determined using conditioned visual stimuli predicting unconditioned mild electric shocks, whereas electrodermal activity served as the fear learning index. Episodic memory was evaluated using cued recall of pictorial stimuli unrelated to conditioning. We used multivariate structural equation modeling to jointly analyze memory performance and acquisition as well as extinction of fear conditioning. RESULTS Best-fit twin models estimated moderate genetic loadings for conditioning and memory measures, with no genetic covariation between them. CONCLUSION Individual differences in fear conditioning and episodic memory reflect distinct genetically influenced processes, suggesting that the genetic risk for learning-induced anxiety disorders includes at least two memory-related genetic factors. These findings are consistent with the facts that the two separate learning forms are distant in their evolutionary development, involve different brain mechanisms, and support that genetically independent memory systems are pivotal in the development and maintenance of syndromes related to fear learning.
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119
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Dissociating Value Representation and Inhibition of Inappropriate Affective Response during Reversal Learning in the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex. eNeuro 2016; 2:eN-NWR-0072-15. [PMID: 26730406 PMCID: PMC4698540 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0072-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Decision-making studies have implicated the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in tracking the value of rewards and punishments. At the same time, fear-learning studies have pointed to a role of the same area in updating previously learned cue-outcome associations. To disentangle these accounts, we used a reward reversal-learning paradigm in a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in 18 human participants. Participants first learned that one of two colored squares (color A) was associated with monetary reward, whereas the other (color B) was not, and then had to learn that these contingencies reversed. Consistent with value representation, activity of a dorsal region of vmPFC was positively correlated with reward magnitude. Conversely, a more ventral region of vmPFC responded more to color A than to color B after contingency reversal, compatible with a role of inhibiting the previously learned response that was no longer appropriate. Moreover, the response strength was correlated with subjects' behavioral learning strength. Our findings provide direct evidence for the spatial dissociation of value representation and affective response inhibition in the vmPFC.
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120
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Savitz J, Morris HM, Drevets WC. Neuroimaging Studies of Bipolar Depression: Therapeutic Implications. BIPOLAR DEPRESSION: MOLECULAR NEUROBIOLOGY, CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS, AND PHARMACOTHERAPY 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-31689-5_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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121
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Neural circuits and mechanisms involved in fear generalization: Implications for the pathophysiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 60:31-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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122
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Callaghan BL, Tottenham N. The Neuro-Environmental Loop of Plasticity: A Cross-Species Analysis of Parental Effects on Emotion Circuitry Development Following Typical and Adverse Caregiving. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:163-76. [PMID: 26194419 PMCID: PMC4677125 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Revised: 07/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Early experiences critically shape the structure and function of the brain. Perturbations in typical/species-expected early experiences are known to have profound neural effects, especially in regions important for emotional responding. Parental care is one species-expected stimulus that plays a fundamental role in the development of emotion neurocircuitry. Emerging evidence across species suggests that phasic variation in parental presence during the sensitive period of childhood affects the recruitment of emotional networks on a moment-to-moment basis. In addition, it appears that increasing independence from caregivers cues the termination of the sensitive period for environmental input into emotion network development. In this review, we examine how early parental care, the central nervous system, and behavior come together to form a 'neuro-environmental loop,' contributing to the formation of stable emotion regulation circuits. To achieve this end, we focus on the interaction of parental care and the developing amygdala-medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) network-that is at the core of human emotional functioning. Using this model, we discuss how individual or group variations in parental independence, across chronic and brief timescales, might contribute to neural and emotional phenotypes that have implications for long-term mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nim Tottenham
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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123
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Greco JA, Liberzon I. Neuroimaging of Fear-Associated Learning. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:320-34. [PMID: 26294108 PMCID: PMC4677141 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Revised: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Fear conditioning has been commonly used as a model of emotional learning in animals and, with the introduction of functional neuroimaging techniques, has proven useful in establishing the neurocircuitry of emotional learning in humans. Studies of fear acquisition suggest that regions such as amygdala, insula, anterior cingulate cortex, and hippocampus play an important role in acquisition of fear, whereas studies of fear extinction suggest that the amygdala is also crucial for safety learning. Extinction retention testing points to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex as an essential region in the recall of the safety trace, and explicit learning of fear and safety associations recruits additional cortical and subcortical regions. Importantly, many of these findings have implications in our understanding of the pathophysiology of psychiatric disease. Recent studies using clinical populations have lent insight into the changes in regional activity in specific disorders, and treatment studies have shown how pharmaceutical and other therapeutic interventions modulate brain activation during emotional learning. Finally, research investigating individual differences in neurotransmitter receptor genotypes has highlighted the contribution of these systems in fear-associated learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Greco
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Israel Liberzon
- VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Stebbings KA, Choi HW, Ravindra A, Caspary DM, Turner JG, Llano DA. Ageing-related changes in GABAergic inhibition in mouse auditory cortex, measured using in vitro flavoprotein autofluorescence imaging. J Physiol 2015; 594:207-21. [PMID: 26503482 DOI: 10.1113/jp271221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Ageing is associated with hearing loss and changes in GABAergic signalling in the auditory system. We tested whether GABAergic signalling in an isolated forebrain preparation also showed ageing-related changes. A novel approach was used, whereby population imaging was coupled to quantitative pharmacological sensitivity. Sensitivity to GABAA blockade was inversely associated with age and cortical thickness, but hearing loss did not independently contribute to the change in GABAA ergic sensitivity. Redox states in the auditory cortex of young and aged animals were similar, suggesting that the differences in GABAA ergic sensitivity are unlikely to be due to differences in slice health. To examine ageing-related changes in the earliest stages of auditory cortical processing, population auditory cortical responses to thalamic afferent stimulation were studied in brain slices obtained from young and aged CBA/CAj mice (up to 28 months of age). Cortical responses were measured using flavoprotein autofluorescence imaging, and ageing-related changes in inhibition were assessed by measuring the sensitivity of these responses to blockade of GABAA receptors using bath-applied SR95531. The maximum auditory cortical response to afferent stimulation was not different between young and aged animals under control conditions, but responses to afferent stimulation in aged animals showed a significantly lower sensitivity to GABA blockade with SR95531. Cortical thickness, but not hearing loss, improved the prediction of all imaging variables when combined with age, particularly sensitivity to GABA blockade for the maximum response. To determine if the observed differences between slices from young and aged animals were due to differences in slice health, the redox state in the auditory cortex was assessed by measuring the FAD+/NADH ratio using fluorescence imaging. We found that this ratio is highly sensitive to known redox stressors such as H2 O2 and NaCN; however, no difference was found between young and aged animals. By using a new approach to quantitatively assess pharmacological sensitivity of population-level cortical responses to afferent stimulation, these data demonstrate that auditory cortical inhibition diminishes with ageing. Furthermore, these data establish a significant relationship between cortical thickness and GABAergic sensitivity, which had not previously been observed in an animal model of ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Stebbings
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - H W Choi
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - A Ravindra
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - D M Caspary
- Department of Pharmacology, Southern Illinois University College of Medicine, IL, USA
| | - J G Turner
- Department of Pharmacology, Southern Illinois University College of Medicine, IL, USA.,Department of Psychology, Illinois College, IL, USA
| | - D A Llano
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA.,Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
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125
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Behavioral and central correlates of contextual fear learning and contextual modulation of cued fear in posttraumatic stress disorder. Int J Psychophysiol 2015; 98:584-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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126
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Spontaneous brain activity following fear reminder of fear conditioning by using resting-state functional MRI. Sci Rep 2015; 5:16701. [PMID: 26576733 PMCID: PMC4649361 DOI: 10.1038/srep16701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Although disrupting reconsolidation may be a promising approach to attenuate or erase the expression of fear memory, it is not clear how the neural state following fear reminder contribute to the following fear extinction. To address this question, we used resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) to measure spontaneous neuronal activity and functional connectivity (RSFC) following fear reminder. Some brain regions such as dorsal anterior cingulate (dACC) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) showed increased amplitude of LFF (ALFF) in the fear reminder group than the no reminder group following fear reminder. More importantly, there was much stronger functional connectivity between the amygdala and vmPFC in the fear reminder group than those in the no reminder group. These findings suggest that the strong functional connectivity between vmPFC and amygdala following a fear reminder could serve as a key role in the followed-up fear extinction stages, which may contribute to the erasing of fear memory.
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127
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Giustino TF, Maren S. The Role of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex in the Conditioning and Extinction of Fear. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:298. [PMID: 26617500 PMCID: PMC4637424 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 336] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Once acquired, a fearful memory can persist for a lifetime. Although learned fear can be extinguished, extinction memories are fragile. The resilience of fear memories to extinction may contribute to the maintenance of disorders of fear and anxiety, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). As such, considerable effort has been placed on understanding the neural circuitry underlying the acquisition, expression, and extinction of emotional memories in rodent models as well as in humans. A triad of brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala, form an essential brain circuit involved in fear conditioning and extinction. Within this circuit, the prefrontal cortex is thought to exert top-down control over subcortical structures to regulate appropriate behavioral responses. Importantly, a division of labor has been proposed in which the prelimbic (PL) and infralimbic (IL) subdivisions of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) regulate the expression and suppression of fear in rodents, respectively. Here, we critically review the anatomical and physiological evidence that has led to this proposed dichotomy of function within mPFC. We propose that under some conditions, the PL and IL act in concert, exhibiting similar patterns of neural activity in response to aversive conditioned stimuli and during the expression or inhibition of conditioned fear. This may stem from common synaptic inputs, parallel downstream outputs, or cortico-cortical interactions. Despite this functional covariation, these mPFC subdivisions may still be coding for largely opposing behavioral outcomes, with PL biased towards fear expression and IL towards suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F Giustino
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University College Station, TX, USA
| | - Stephen Maren
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, Texas A&M University College Station, TX, USA
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128
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Acheson DT, Eyler LT, Resovsky J, Tsan E, Risbrough VB. Fear extinction memory performance in a sample of stable, euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord 2015; 185:230-8. [PMID: 26247493 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Affective dysregulation is a core feature of bipolar disorder (BD). Abnormalities in neural circuits underlying affect regulation have been observed in BD, specifically in the structure and function of the amygdala and orbital frontal cortex (OFC). Fear extinction is an automatic affect regulatory process relying on neural circuits that are abnormal in BD. Thus, fear extinction might be useful in probing automatic affect regulation deficits in BD. We tested the hypothesis that BD is associated with reduced ability to extinguish fear responses. METHODS We examined fear conditioning, extinction, and extinction memory recall in a sample of stable, euthymic participants with BD (n=19) vs. healthy comparison participants (n=32). A limited number of subjects (BD: n=12; healthy comparison: n=11) underwent structural MRI scanning to examine cortical size associations with extinction recall. RESULTS Both healthy comparison and BD participants were successful in acquiring a fear response, but BD participants responded with greater startle to both threat and safety cues. Both groups showed significant extinction. The BD group showed superior extinction recall. Extinction recall was associated with right rostral middle frontal cortex thickness across groups, whereas right OFC surface area was associated with recall only in healthy comparisons. LIMITATIONS Limitations include use of a stable, highly screened sample and a relatively small number of participants available for MRI analysis. CONCLUSIONS Increased fear reactivity may be related to a "trait" disruption in BD patients similar to that previously described in anxiety disorders. This task may be useful for probing automatic affect regulatory processes in BD, and understanding treatment response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean T Acheson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, USA.
| | - Lisa T Eyler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, USA; Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA San Diego Healthcare System, USA
| | | | - Elisa Tsan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, USA; Center for Excellence in Stress and Mental Health, USA
| | - Victoria B Risbrough
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, USA; Center for Excellence in Stress and Mental Health, USA
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129
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Åhs F, Kragel PA, Zielinski DJ, Brady R, LaBar KS. Medial prefrontal pathways for the contextual regulation of extinguished fear in humans. Neuroimage 2015. [PMID: 26220745 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.07.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The maintenance of anxiety disorders is thought to depend, in part, on deficits in extinction memory, possibly due to reduced contextual control of extinction that leads to fear renewal. Animal studies suggest that the neural circuitry responsible fear renewal includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and dorsomedial (dmPFC) and ventromedial (vmPFC) prefrontal cortex. However, the neural mechanisms of context-dependent fear renewal in humans remain poorly understood. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), combined with psychophysiology and immersive virtual reality, to elucidate how the hippocampus, amygdala, and dmPFC and vmPFC interact to drive the context-dependent renewal of extinguished fear. Healthy human participants encountered dynamic fear-relevant conditioned stimuli (CSs) while navigating through 3-D virtual reality environments in the MRI scanner. Conditioning and extinction were performed in two different virtual contexts. Twenty-four hours later, participants were exposed to the CSs without reinforcement while navigating through both contexts in the MRI scanner. Participants showed enhanced skin conductance responses (SCRs) to the previously-reinforced CS+ in the acquisition context on Day 2, consistent with fear renewal, and sustained responses in the dmPFC. In contrast, participants showed low SCRs to the CSs in the extinction context on Day 2, consistent with extinction recall, and enhanced vmPFC activation to the non-reinforced CS-. Structural equation modeling revealed that the dmPFC fully mediated the effect of the hippocampus on right amygdala activity during fear renewal, whereas the vmPFC partially mediated the effect of the hippocampus on right amygdala activity during extinction recall. These results indicate dissociable contextual influences of the hippocampus on prefrontal pathways, which, in turn, determine the level of reactivation of fear associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik Åhs
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Philip A Kragel
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Rachael Brady
- Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Kevin S LaBar
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.
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130
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Newman E, Thompson WK, Bartsch H, Hagler DJ, Chen CH, Brown TT, Kuperman JM, McCabe C, Chung Y, Libiger O, Akshoomoff N, Bloss CS, Casey BJ, Chang L, Ernst TM, Frazier JA, Gruen JR, Kennedy DN, Murray SS, Sowell ER, Schork N, Kenet T, Kaufmann WE, Mostofsky S, Amaral DG, Dale AM, Jernigan TL. Anxiety is related to indices of cortical maturation in typically developing children and adolescents. Brain Struct Funct 2015; 221:3013-25. [PMID: 26183468 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-015-1085-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety is a risk factor for many adverse neuropsychiatric and socioeconomic outcomes, and has been linked to functional and structural changes in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC). However, the nature of these differences, as well as how they develop in children and adolescents, remains poorly understood. More effective interventions to minimize the negative consequences of anxiety require better understanding of its neurobiology in children. Recent research suggests that structural imaging studies may benefit from clearly delineating between cortical surface area and thickness when examining these associations, as these distinct cortical phenotypes are influenced by different cellular mechanisms and genetic factors. The present study examined relationships between cortical surface area and thickness of the VMPFC and a self-report measure of anxiety (SCARED-R) in 287 youths aged 7-20 years from the Pediatric Imaging, Neurocognition, and Genetics (PING) study. Age and gender interactions were examined for significant associations in order to test for developmental differences. Cortical surface area and thickness were also examined simultaneously to determine whether they contribute independently to the prediction of anxiety. Anxiety was negatively associated with relative cortical surface area of the VMPFC as well as with global cortical thickness, but these associations diminished with age. The two cortical phenotypes contributed additively to the prediction of anxiety. These findings suggest that higher anxiety in children may be characterized by both delayed expansion of the VMPFC and an altered trajectory of global cortical thinning. Further longitudinal studies will be needed to confirm these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Newman
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0115, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - Wesley K Thompson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Stein Institute for Research on Aging, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Hauke Bartsch
- Multimodal Imaging Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Donald J Hagler
- Multimodal Imaging Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Chi-Hua Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Multimodal Imaging Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Timothy T Brown
- Multimodal Imaging Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Joshua M Kuperman
- Multimodal Imaging Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Connor McCabe
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0115, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Yoonho Chung
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0115, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.,Multimodal Imaging Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ondrej Libiger
- Scripps Genomic Medicine, Scripps Translational Science Institute and Scripps Health, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Natacha Akshoomoff
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0115, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Cinnamon S Bloss
- Scripps Genomic Medicine, Scripps Translational Science Institute and Scripps Health, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - B J Casey
- Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, Weil Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Linda Chang
- Department of Medicine, University of Hawaii and Queen's Medical Center, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Thomas M Ernst
- Department of Medicine, University of Hawaii and Queen's Medical Center, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Jean A Frazier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Gruen
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - David N Kennedy
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sarah S Murray
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Elizabeth R Sowell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Children's Hospital, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Nicholas Schork
- Scripps Genomic Medicine, Scripps Translational Science Institute and Scripps Health, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Tal Kenet
- Department of Neurology and Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Walter E Kaufmann
- Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Stewart Mostofsky
- Kennedy Krieger Institute and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David G Amaral
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Anders M Dale
- Multimodal Imaging Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Terry L Jernigan
- Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, MC 0115, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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131
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Hölzel BK, Lazar SW, Gard T, Schuman-Olivier Z, Vago DR, Ott U. How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 6:537-59. [PMID: 26168376 DOI: 10.1177/1745691611419671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1177] [Impact Index Per Article: 130.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cultivation of mindfulness, the nonjudgmental awareness of experiences in the present moment, produces beneficial effects on well-being and ameliorates psychiatric and stress-related symptoms. Mindfulness meditation has therefore increasingly been incorporated into psychotherapeutic interventions. Although the number of publications in the field has sharply increased over the last two decades, there is a paucity of theoretical reviews that integrate the existing literature into a comprehensive theoretical framework. In this article, we explore several components through which mindfulness meditation exerts its effects: (a) attention regulation, (b) body awareness, (c) emotion regulation (including reappraisal and exposure, extinction, and reconsolidation), and (d) change in perspective on the self. Recent empirical research, including practitioners' self-reports and experimental data, provides evidence supporting these mechanisms. Functional and structural neuroimaging studies have begun to explore the neuroscientific processes underlying these components. Evidence suggests that mindfulness practice is associated with neuroplastic changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, temporo-parietal junction, fronto-limbic network, and default mode network structures. The authors suggest that the mechanisms described here work synergistically, establishing a process of enhanced self-regulation. Differentiating between these components seems useful to guide future basic research and to specifically target areas of development in the treatment of psychological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britta K Hölzel
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Sara W Lazar
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Tim Gard
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | | | - David R Vago
- Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Ulrich Ott
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
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132
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Niles AN, Craske MG, Lieberman MD, Hur C. Affect labeling enhances exposure effectiveness for public speaking anxiety. Behav Res Ther 2015; 68:27-36. [PMID: 25795524 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Exposure is an effective treatment for anxiety but many patients do not respond fully. Affect labeling (labeling emotional experience) attenuates emotional responding. The current project examined whether affect labeling enhances exposure effectiveness in participants with public speaking anxiety. Participants were randomized to exposure with or without affect labeling. Physiological arousal and self-reported fear were assessed before and after exposure and compared between groups. Consistent with hypotheses, participants assigned to Affect Labeling, especially those who used more labels during exposure, showed greater reduction in physiological activation than Control participants. No effect was found for self-report measures. Also, greater emotion regulation deficits at baseline predicted more benefit in physiological arousal from exposure combined with affect labeling than exposure alone. The current research provides evidence that behavioral strategies that target prefrontal-amygdala circuitry can improve treatment effectiveness for anxiety and these effects are particularly pronounced for patients with the greatest deficits in emotion regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea N Niles
- University of California, Los Angeles, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, USA.
| | - Michelle G Craske
- University of California, Los Angeles, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, USA
| | - Matthew D Lieberman
- University of California, Los Angeles, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, USA
| | - Christopher Hur
- University of California, Los Angeles, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1563, USA
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133
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Brain morphology correlates of interindividual differences in conditioned fear acquisition and extinction learning. Brain Struct Funct 2015; 221:1927-37. [PMID: 25716297 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-015-1013-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The neural circuits underlying fear learning have been intensively investigated in pavlovian fear conditioning paradigms across species. These studies established a predominant role for the amygdala in fear acquisition, while the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has been shown to be important in the extinction of conditioned fear. However, studies on morphological correlates of fear learning could not consistently confirm an association with these structures. The objective of the present study was to investigate if interindividual differences in morphology of the amygdala and the vmPFC are related to differences in fear acquisition and extinction learning in humans. We performed structural magnetic resonance imaging in 68 healthy participants who underwent a differential cued fear conditioning paradigm. Volumes of subcortical structures as well as cortical thickness were computed by the semi-automated segmentation software Freesurfer. Stronger acquisition of fear as indexed by skin conductance responses was associated with larger right amygdala volume, while the degree of extinction learning was positively correlated with cortical thickness of the right vmPFC. Both findings could be conceptually replicated in an independent sample of 53 subjects. The data complement our understanding of the role of human brain morphology in the mechanisms of the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear.
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134
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Rabinak CA, Phan KL. Cannabinoid modulation of fear extinction brain circuits: a novel target to advance anxiety treatment. Curr Pharm Des 2015; 20:2212-7. [PMID: 23829364 DOI: 10.2174/13816128113199990437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety disorders, such as post-traumatic stress (PTSD), panic, and phobic disorders, can be conceptualized as a failure to inhibit inappropriate fear responses. A common, effective treatment strategy involves repeated presentations to the feared cue without any danger (extinction). However, extinction learning has a number of important limitations, and enhancing its effects, generalizability and durability via cognitive enhancers may improve its therapeutic impact. In this review we focus specifically on the role of the cannabinoid system in fear extinction learning and its retention. We address the following questions: What are the neural circuits mediating fear extinction?; Can we make fear extinction more effective?; Can cannabinoids facilitate fear extinction in humans?; How might the cannabinoid system effect fear extinction? Collectively, translational evidence suggest that enhancing cannabinoid transmission may facilitate extinction learning and its recall, and that the cannabinoid system is a potential pharmacological target for improving the active learning that occurs during exposure-based behavioral treatments prompting future research in terms of mechanisms research, novel treatment approaches ('cognitive enhancers'), and pharmacotherapeutic drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - K Luan Phan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Rachel Upjohn Building, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2700.
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135
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Motzkin JC, Koenigs MR. Post-traumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2015; 128:633-648. [PMID: 25701911 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63521-1.00039-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Disentangling the effects of "organic" neurologic damage and psychological distress after a traumatic brain injury poses a significant challenge to researchers and clinicians. Establishing a link between traumatic brain injury (TBI) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been particularly contentious, reflecting difficulties in establishing a unique diagnosis for conditions with overlapping and sometimes contradictory symptom profiles. However, each disorder is linked to a variety of adverse health outcomes, underscoring the need to better understand how neurologic and psychiatric risk factors interact following trauma. Here, we present data showing that individuals with a TBI are more likely to develop PTSD, and that individuals with PTSD are more likely to develop persistent cognitive sequelae related to TBI. Further, we describe neurobiological models of PTSD, highlighting how patterns of neurologic damage typical in TBI may promote or protect against the development of PTSD in brain-injured populations. These data highlight the unique course of PTSD following a TBI and have important diagnostic, prognostic, and treatment implications for individuals with a dual diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian C Motzkin
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Michael R Koenigs
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
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136
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Hartley CA, Lee FS. Sensitive periods in affective development: nonlinear maturation of fear learning. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:50-60. [PMID: 25035083 PMCID: PMC4262897 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
At specific maturational stages, neural circuits enter sensitive periods of heightened plasticity, during which the development of both brain and behavior are highly receptive to particular experiential information. A relatively advanced understanding of the regulatory mechanisms governing the initiation, closure, and reinstatement of sensitive period plasticity has emerged from extensive research examining the development of the visual system. In this article, we discuss a large body of work characterizing the pronounced nonlinear changes in fear learning and extinction that occur from childhood through adulthood, and their underlying neural substrates. We draw upon the model of sensitive period regulation within the visual system, and present burgeoning evidence suggesting that parallel mechanisms may regulate the qualitative changes in fear learning across development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Hartley
- Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA,Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Ave, New York, NY 10065, USA, Tel: +212 746 3781, Fax: +212 746 5755, E-mail:
| | - Francis S Lee
- Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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137
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Rubio A, Van Oudenhove L, Pellissier S, Ly HG, Dupont P, Lafaye de Micheaux H, Tack J, Dantzer C, Delon-Martin C, Bonaz B. Uncertainty in anticipation of uncomfortable rectal distension is modulated by the autonomic nervous system--a fMRI study in healthy volunteers. Neuroimage 2014; 107:10-22. [PMID: 25479021 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The human brain responds both before and during the application of aversive stimuli. Anticipation allows the organism to prepare its nociceptive system to respond adequately to the subsequent stimulus. The context in which an uncomfortable stimulus is experienced may also influence neural processing. Uncertainty of occurrence, timing and intensity of an aversive event may lead to increased anticipatory anxiety, fear, physiological arousal and sensory perception. We aimed to identify, in healthy volunteers, the effects of uncertainty in the anticipation of uncomfortable rectal distension, and the impact of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity and anxiety-related psychological variables on neural mechanisms of anticipation of rectal distension using fMRI. Barostat-controlled uncomfortable rectal distensions were preceded by cued uncertain or certain anticipation in 15 healthy volunteers in a fMRI protocol at 3T. Electrocardiographic data were concurrently registered by MR scanner. The low frequency (LF)-component of the heart rate variability (HRV) time-series was extracted and inserted as a regressor in the fMRI model ('LF-HRV model'). The impact of ANS activity was analyzed by comparing the fMRI signal in the 'standard model' and in the 'LF-HRV model' across the different anticipation and distension conditions. The scores of the psychological questionnaires and the rating of perceived anticipatory anxiety were included as covariates in the fMRI data analysis. Our experiments led to the following key findings: 1) the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) is the only activation site that relates to uncertainty in healthy volunteers and is directly correlated to individual questionnaire score for pain-related anxiety; 2) uncertain anticipation of rectal distension involved several relevant brain regions, namely activation of sgACC and medial prefrontal cortex and deactivation of amygdala, insula, thalamus, secondary somatosensory cortex, supplementary motor area and cerebellum; 3) most of the brain activity during anticipation, but not distension, is associated with activity of the central autonomic network. This approach could be applied to study the ANS impact on brain activity in various pathological conditions, namely in patients with chronic digestive conditions characterized by visceral discomfort and ANS imbalance such as irritable bowel syndrome or inflammatory bowel diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Rubio
- INSERM, U836, F-38000 Grenoble, France; Univ. Grenoble Alpes, GIN, F-38000 Grenoble, France; CHU de Grenoble, Clinique Universitaire de Pédiatrie, F-38000 Grenoble, France.
| | - Lukas Van Oudenhove
- University Psychiatric Centre, Liaison Psychiatry, University Hospital Gasthuisberg, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Diseases, University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sonia Pellissier
- INSERM, U836, F-38000 Grenoble, France; Univ. Grenoble Alpes, GIN, F-38000 Grenoble, France; Univ. Savoie, F-73000 Chambery, France
| | - Huynh Giao Ly
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Diseases, University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrick Dupont
- University Psychiatric Centre, Liaison Psychiatry, University Hospital Gasthuisberg, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory for Cognitive Neurology, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; Medical Imaging Research Centre, KU Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Jan Tack
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Translational Research Center for Gastrointestinal Diseases, University of Leuven, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Chantal Delon-Martin
- INSERM, U836, F-38000 Grenoble, France; Univ. Grenoble Alpes, GIN, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Bruno Bonaz
- INSERM, U836, F-38000 Grenoble, France; Univ. Grenoble Alpes, GIN, F-38000 Grenoble, France; Clinique Universitaire d'Hépato-Gastroentérologie, CHU de Grenoble, Hôpital Albert Michallon, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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138
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Transcranial direct current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex: a means to modulate fear memories. Neuroreport 2014; 25:480-4. [PMID: 24384505 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Targeting memory processes by noninvasive interventions is a potential gateway to modulate fear memories as shown by animal and human studies in recent years. Modulation of fear memories by noninvasive brain stimulation techniques might be an attractive approach, which, however, has not been examined so far. We investigated the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) applied to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and left supraorbital region on fear memories in humans. Seventy-four young, healthy individuals were assigned randomly to two groups, which underwent fear conditioning with mild electric stimuli paired with a visual stimulus. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were shown a reminder of the conditioned fearful stimulus. Shortly thereafter, they received either tDCS (right prefrontal--anodal, left supraorbital--cathodal) for 20 min at 1 mA current intensity or sham stimulation. A day later, fear responses of both groups were compared by monitoring skin conductance. On day 3, during fear response assessment, the tDCS group had a significantly (P<0.05) higher mean skin conductance in comparison with the sham group. These results suggest that tDCS (right prefrontal--anodal, left supraorbital--cathodal) enhanced fear memories, possibly by influencing the prefrontal cortex-amygdala circuit underlying the memory for fear.
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139
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Graham BM, Callaghan BL, Richardson R. Bridging the gap: Lessons we have learnt from the merging of psychology and psychiatry for the optimisation of treatments for emotional disorders. Behav Res Ther 2014; 62:3-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2014.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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140
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Milad MR, Rosenbaum BL, Simon NM. Neuroscience of fear extinction: Implications for assessment and treatment of fear-based and anxiety related disorders. Behav Res Ther 2014; 62:17-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Revised: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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141
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Sierra M, Nestler S, Jay EL, Ecker C, Feng Y, David AS. A structural MRI study of cortical thickness in depersonalisation disorder. Psychiatry Res 2014; 224:1-7. [PMID: 25089021 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Depersonalisation disorder (DPD) is characterised by a sense of unreality about the self and the world. Research suggests altered autonomic responsivity and dysfunction in prefrontal and temporal lobe areas in this condition. We report the first structural magnetic resonance imaging study of 20 patients with DPD and 21 controls using the FreeSurfer analysis tool employing both region-of-interest and vertex-based methods. DPD patients showed significantly lower cortical thickness in the right middle temporal region according to both methods of analysis. The vertex-based method revealed additional differences in bilateral temporal lobes, inferior frontal regions, the right posterior cingulate, and increased thickness in the right gyrus rectus and left precuneus. Clinical severity scores were negatively correlated with cortical thickness in middle and right inferior frontal regions. In sum, grey matter changes in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes are associated with DPD. Further research is required to specify the functional significance of the findings and whether they are vulnerability or disease markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauricio Sierra
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Section of Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King׳s College London, 16 DeCrespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
| | - Steffen Nestler
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Section of Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King׳s College London, 16 DeCrespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom.
| | - Emma-Louise Jay
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Section of Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King׳s College London, 16 DeCrespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Ecker
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Science, Institute of Psychiatry, King׳s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yue Feng
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Science, Institute of Psychiatry, King׳s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anthony S David
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Section of Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, King׳s College London, 16 DeCrespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
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142
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Mosig C, Merz CJ, Mohr C, Adolph D, Wolf OT, Schneider S, Margraf J, Zlomuzica A. Enhanced discriminative fear learning of phobia-irrelevant stimuli in spider-fearful individuals. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:328. [PMID: 25324745 PMCID: PMC4181334 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Avoidance is considered as a central hallmark of all anxiety disorders. The acquisition and expression of avoidance, which leads to the maintenance and exacerbation of pathological fear is closely linked to Pavlovian and operant conditioning processes. Changes in conditionability might represent a key feature of all anxiety disorders but the exact nature of these alterations might vary across different disorders. To date, no information is available on specific changes in conditionability for disorder-irrelevant stimuli in specific phobia (SP). The first aim of this study was to investigate changes in fear acquisition and extinction in spider-fearful individuals as compared to non-fearful participants by using the de novo fear conditioning paradigm. Secondly, we aimed to determine whether differences in the magnitude of context-dependent fear retrieval exist between spider-fearful and non-fearful individuals. Our findings point to an enhanced fear discrimination in spider-fearful individuals as compared to non-fearful individuals at both the physiological and subjective level. The enhanced fear discrimination in spider-fearful individuals was neither mediated by increased state anxiety, depression, nor stress tension. Spider-fearful individuals displayed no changes in extinction learning and/or fear retrieval. Surprisingly, we found no evidence for context-dependent modulation of fear retrieval in either group. Here, we provide first evidence that spider-fearful individuals show an enhanced discriminative fear learning of phobia-irrelevant (de novo) stimuli. Our findings provide novel insights into the role of fear acquisition and expression for the development and maintenance of maladaptive responses in the course of SP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Mosig
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
| | - Christian J Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
| | - Cornelia Mohr
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
| | - Dirk Adolph
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
| | - Oliver T Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
| | - Silvia Schneider
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
| | - Jürgen Margraf
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
| | - Armin Zlomuzica
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Ruhr-University Bochum , Bochum , Germany
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143
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Pappens M, Schroijen M, Sütterlin S, Smets E, Van den Bergh O, Thayer JF, Van Diest I. Resting heart rate variability predicts safety learning and fear extinction in an interoceptive fear conditioning paradigm. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105054. [PMID: 25181542 PMCID: PMC4152223 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate whether interindividual differences in autonomic inhibitory control predict safety learning and fear extinction in an interoceptive fear conditioning paradigm. Data from a previously reported study (N = 40) were extended (N = 17) and re-analyzed to test whether healthy participants' resting heart rate variability (HRV) - a proxy of cardiac vagal tone - predicts learning performance. The conditioned stimulus (CS) was a slight sensation of breathlessness induced by a flow resistor, the unconditioned stimulus (US) was an aversive short-lasting suffocation experience induced by a complete occlusion of the breathing circuitry. During acquisition, the paired group received 6 paired CS-US presentations; the control group received 6 explicitly unpaired CS-US presentations. In the extinction phase, both groups were exposed to 6 CS-only presentations. Measures included startle blink EMG, skin conductance responses (SCR) and US-expectancy ratings. Resting HRV significantly predicted the startle blink EMG learning curves both during acquisition and extinction. In the unpaired group, higher levels of HRV at rest predicted safety learning to the CS during acquisition. In the paired group, higher levels of HRV were associated with better extinction. Our findings suggest that the strength or integrity of prefrontal inhibitory mechanisms involved in safety- and extinction learning can be indexed by HRV at rest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meike Pappens
- Research Group on Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Stefan Sütterlin
- Research Group on Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Section of Psychology, Lillehammer University College, Lillehammer, Norway
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, Division of Surgery and Clinical Neuroscience, Oslo University Hospital - Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elyn Smets
- Research Group on Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Julian F. Thayer
- Dept. of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbia, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Ilse Van Diest
- Research Group on Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- * E-mail:
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144
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Corbo V, Salat DH, Amick MM, Leritz EC, Milberg WP, McGlinchey RE. Reduced cortical thickness in veterans exposed to early life trauma. Psychiatry Res 2014; 223:53-60. [PMID: 24862391 PMCID: PMC4423392 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Studies have shown that early life trauma may influence neural development and increase the risk of developing psychological disorders in adulthood. We used magnetic resonance imaging to examine the impact of early life trauma on the relationship between current posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and cortical thickness/subcortical volumes in a sample of deployed personnel from Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom. A group of 108 service members enrolled in the Translational Research Center for Traumatic Brain Injury and Stress Disorders (TRACTS) were divided into those with interpersonal early life trauma (EL-Trauma+) and Control (without interpersonal early life trauma) groups based on the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. PTSD symptoms were assessed using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. Cortical thickness and subcortical volumes were analyzed using the FreeSurfer image analysis package. Thickness of the paracentral and posterior cingulate regions was positively associated with PTSD severity in the EL-Trauma+ group and negatively in the Control group. In the EL-Trauma+ group, both the right amygdala and the left hippocampus were positively associated with PTSD severity. This study illustrates a possible influence of early life trauma on the vulnerability of specific brain regions to stress. Changes in neural morphometry may provide information about the emergence and maintenance of symptoms in individuals with PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Corbo
- Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders (TRACTS)/Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Centers (GRECC), VA Boston Healthcare System, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA; Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA; Neuroimaging Research for Veterans (NeRVe) Center, VA Boston Healthcare, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA.
| | - David H Salat
- Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders (TRACTS)/Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Centers (GRECC), VA Boston Healthcare System, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA; Neuroimaging Research for Veterans (NeRVe) Center, VA Boston Healthcare, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Melissa M Amick
- Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders (TRACTS)/Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Centers (GRECC), VA Boston Healthcare System, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA; Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Elizabeth C Leritz
- Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders (TRACTS)/Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Centers (GRECC), VA Boston Healthcare System, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA; Division of Aging, Brigham & Women׳s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - William P Milberg
- Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders (TRACTS)/Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Centers (GRECC), VA Boston Healthcare System, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Regina E McGlinchey
- Translational Research Center for TBI and Stress Disorders (TRACTS)/Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Centers (GRECC), VA Boston Healthcare System, Jamaica Plain, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
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145
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Johnson PL, Federici LM, Shekhar A. Etiology, triggers and neurochemical circuits associated with unexpected, expected, and laboratory-induced panic attacks. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 46 Pt 3:429-54. [PMID: 25130976 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Panic disorder (PD) is a severe anxiety disorder that is characterized by recurrent panic attacks (PA), which can be unexpected (uPA, i.e., no clear identifiable trigger) or expected (ePA). Panic typically involves an abrupt feeling of catastrophic fear or distress accompanied by physiological symptoms such as palpitations, racing heart, thermal sensations, and sweating. Recurrent uPA and ePA can also lead to agoraphobia, where subjects with PD avoid situations that were associated with PA. Here we will review recent developments in our understanding of PD, which includes discussions on: symptoms and signs associated with uPA and ePAs; Diagnosis of PD and the new DSM-V; biological etiology such as heritability and gene×environment and gene×hormonal development interactions; comparisons between laboratory and naturally occurring uPAs and ePAs; neurochemical systems that are associated with clinical PAs (e.g. gene associations; targets for triggering or treating PAs), adaptive fear and panic response concepts in the context of new NIH RDoc approach; and finally strengths and weaknesses of translational animal models of adaptive and pathological panic states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip L Johnson
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
| | - Lauren M Federici
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Anantha Shekhar
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Stark Neuroscience Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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146
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Johnson DC, Casey BJ. Easy to remember, difficult to forget: the development of fear regulation. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2014; 11:42-55. [PMID: 25238998 PMCID: PMC4497537 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2014.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Revised: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescent humans and rodents show diminished cued-fear extinction. Early-life stress in humans and rodents persistently alters fear regulation. BDNF Val66Met genotype diminishes cued-fear extinction learning. Age and BDNF genotype may impact the efficacy of exposure-based therapies.
Fear extinction learning is a highly adaptive process that involves the integrity of frontolimbic circuitry. Its disruption has been associated with emotional dysregulation in stress and anxiety disorders. In this article we consider how age, genetics and experiences shape our capacity to regulate fear in cross-species studies. Evidence for adolescent-specific diminished fear extinction learning is presented in the context of immature frontolimbic circuitry. We also present evidence for less neural plasticity in fear regulation as a function of early-life stress and by genotype, focusing on the common brain derived neurotrophin factor (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphism. Finally, we discuss this work in the context of exposure-based behavioral therapies for the treatment of anxiety and stress disorders that are based on principles of fear extinction. We conclude by speculating on how such therapies may be optimized for the individual based on the patient's age, genetic profile and personal history to move from standard treatment of care to personalized and precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- D C Johnson
- Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - B J Casey
- Weill Medical College of Cornell University, Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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147
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Olatunji BO, Ferreira-Garcia R, Caseras X, Fullana MA, Wooderson S, Speckens A, Lawrence N, Giampietro V, Brammer MJ, Phillips ML, Fontenelle LF, Mataix-Cols D. Predicting response to cognitive behavioral therapy in contamination-based obsessive-compulsive disorder from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Psychol Med 2014; 44:2125-2137. [PMID: 24229474 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291713002766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an effective treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), few reliable predictors of treatment outcome have been identified. The present study examined the neural correlates of symptom improvement with CBT among OCD patients with predominantly contamination obsessions and washing compulsions, the most common OCD symptom dimension. METHOD Participants consisted of 12 OCD patients who underwent symptom provocation with contamination-related images during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning prior to 12 weeks of CBT. RESULTS Patterns of brain activity during symptom provocation were correlated with a decrease on the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (YBOCS) after treatment, even when controlling for baseline scores on the YBOCS and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and improvement on the BDI during treatment. Specifically, activation in brain regions involved in emotional processing, such as the anterior temporal pole and amygdala, was most strongly associated with better treatment response. By contrast, activity in areas involved in emotion regulation, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, correlated negatively with treatment response mainly in the later stages within each block of exposure during symptom provocation. CONCLUSIONS Successful recruitment of limbic regions during exposure to threat cues in patients with contamination-based OCD may facilitate a better response to CBT, whereas excessive activation of dorsolateral prefrontal regions involved in cognitive control may hinder response to treatment. The theoretical implications of the findings and their potential relevance to personalized care approaches are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- B O Olatunji
- Department of Psychology and Psychiatry,Vanderbilt University,Nashville, TN,USA
| | | | - X Caseras
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences,Cardiff University,UK
| | - M A Fullana
- Departments of Psychology and Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - S Wooderson
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - A Speckens
- Department of Primary and Community Care,Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre,Nijmegen,The Netherlands
| | - N Lawrence
- School of Psychology,University of Exeter,UK
| | - V Giampietro
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - M J Brammer
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - M L Phillips
- Department of Psychiatry,University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine,Pittsburgh, PA,USA
| | - L F Fontenelle
- Institute of Psychiatry,Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,Brazil
| | - D Mataix-Cols
- Departments of Psychology and Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
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148
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The downside of strong emotional memories: How human memory-related genes influence the risk for posttraumatic stress disorder – A selective review. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2014; 112:75-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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149
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Dissociable roles for hippocampal and amygdalar volume in human fear conditioning. Brain Struct Funct 2014; 220:2575-86. [PMID: 24903827 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-014-0807-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Fear conditioning is a basic learning process which involves the association of a formerly neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) with a biologically relevant aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). Previous studies conducted in brain-lesioned patients have shown that while the acquisition of autonomic fear responses requires an intact amygdala, a spared hippocampus is necessary for the development of the CS-US contingency awareness. Although these data have been supported by studies using functional neuroimaging techniques in healthy people, attempts to extend these findings to the morphological aspects of amygdala and hippocampus are missing. Here we tested the hypothesis that amygdalar and hippocampal volumes play dissociable roles in determining autonomic responses and contingency awareness during fear conditioning. Fifty-two healthy individuals (mean age 21.83) underwent high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. We used a differential delay fear conditioning paradigm while assessing skin conductance responses (SCRs), subjective ratings of CS-US contingency, as well as emotional valence and perceived arousal. Left amygdalar volume significantly predicted the magnitude of differential SCRs during fear acquisition, but had no impact on contingency learning. Conversely, bilateral hippocampal volumes were significantly related to contingency ratings, but not to SCRs. Moreover, left amygdalar volume predicted SCRs to the reinforced CS alone, but not those elicited by the US. Our findings bridge the gap between previous lesion and functional imaging studies, by showing that amygdalar and hippocampal volumes differentially modulate the acquisition of conditioned fear. Further, our results reveal that the morphology of these limbic structures moderate learning and memory already in healthy persons.
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150
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Ewald H, Glotzbach-Schoon E, Gerdes ABM, Andreatta M, Müller M, Mühlberger A, Pauli P. Delay and trace fear conditioning in a complex virtual learning environment-neural substrates of extinction. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:323. [PMID: 24904363 PMCID: PMC4034409 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extinction is an important mechanism to inhibit initially acquired fear responses. There is growing evidence that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) inhibits the amygdala and therefore plays an important role in the extinction of delay fear conditioning. To our knowledge, there is no evidence on the role of the prefrontal cortex in the extinction of trace conditioning up to now. Thus, we compared brain structures involved in the extinction of human delay and trace fear conditioning in a between-subjects-design in an fMRI study. Participants were passively guided through a virtual environment during learning and extinction of conditioned fear. Two different lights served as conditioned stimuli (CS); as unconditioned stimulus (US) a mildly painful electric stimulus was delivered. In the delay conditioning group (DCG) the US was administered with offset of one light (CS+), whereas in the trace conditioning group (TCG) the US was presented 4 s after CS+ offset. Both groups showed insular and striatal activation during early extinction, but differed in their prefrontal activation. The vmPFC was mainly activated in the DCG, whereas the TCG showed activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) during extinction. These results point to different extinction processes in delay and trace conditioning. VmPFC activation during extinction of delay conditioning might reflect the inhibition of the fear response. In contrast, dlPFC activation during extinction of trace conditioning may reflect modulation of working memory processes which are involved in bridging the trace interval and hold information in short term memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Ewald
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
| | - Evelyn Glotzbach-Schoon
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
| | - Antje B. M. Gerdes
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Biological Psychology, School of Social Sciences, University of MannheimMannheim, Germany
| | - Marta Andreatta
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
| | - Mathias Müller
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Mühlberger
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of RegensburgRegensburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of WürzburgWürzburg, Germany
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