Empathy-related Responding: Associations with Prosocial Behavior, Aggression, and Intergroup Relations

Neural correlates of ingroup bias for prosociality in rats

Prosocial behavior, in particular helping others in need, occurs preferentially in response to distress of one’s own group members. In order to explore the neural mechanisms promoting mammalian helping behavior, a discovery-based approach was used here to identify brain-wide activity correlated with helping behavior in rats. Demonstrating social selectivity, rats helped others of their strain (‘ingroup’), but not rats of an unfamiliar strain (‘outgroup’), by releasing them from a restrainer. Analysis of brain-wide neural activity via quantification of the early-immediate gene c-Fos identified a shared network, including frontal and insular cortices, that was active in the helping test irrespective of group membership. In contrast, the striatum was selectively active for ingroup members, and activity in the nucleus accumbens, a central network hub, correlated with helping. In vivo calcium imaging showed accumbens activity when rats approached a trapped ingroup member, and retrograde tracing identified a subpopulation of accumbens-projecting cells that was correlated with helping. These findings demonstrate that motivation and reward networks are associated with helping an ingroup member and provide the first description of neural correlates of ingroup bias in rodents.

Teachers’ Burnout during COVID-19 Pandemic in Spain: Trait Emotional Intelligence and Socioemotional Competencies

The aim of this research is to recognize the burnout levels in a group of high school teachers that exercised their profession during the COVID-19 pandemic, looking forward to examining the correlation between burnout levels, trait emotional intelligence and socioemotional competencies (Autonomy, Regulation, Prosocial Behaviour and Empathy). The study counted with a sample of 430 high school teachers from multiple regions of Spain. The participants’ age was between 25 and 60, and the gender distribution was 53.72% for men and 46.28% for women. We used the Spanish version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24) and the Socioemotional Competences Scale (SCS). The main results indicated that teachers showed high levels of burnout dimensions, with women being the most affected, reaching higher levels in comparison to men. It was also observed that the older and more experienced professionals showed lower levels of burnout. Finally, statistically significant negative relations were found between emotional intelligence and burnout levels, as well as their association with the teacher’s socioemotional competencies. The analysis argues the possible consequences of stress during the pandemic and, correspondingly, the need for promoting protective approaches that embrace emotional intelligence and socioemotional competencies.

Exploring the Effect of Social Support and Empathy on User Engagement in Online Mental Health Communities

It is known that social support and empathy are beneficial for mental health. As a result of the widespread development of social media, online social support and empathy could also influence user behaviors during the development of online communities. However, few studies have examined these effects from the perspective of online mental health communities. These communities appear to be a crucial source for mental health related support, but the spread of online empathy in these communities is not well-understood. This study focused on 22 mental health related subreddits, and matched and compared users (1) who received social support with those who did not receive social support, and users (2) who received more empathic social support with those who received less empathic social support. The results showed that social support and empathy are "contagious". That is, users who received social support at their first post would be more likely to post again and provide support for others; in addition, users who received more empathic support would subsequently express a higher level of empathy to others in the future. Our findings indicate the potential chain reaction of social support and empathy in online mental health communities. Our study also provides insights into how online mental health communities might better assist people to deliver social support that can help others to deal with mental problems.

Increasing self-other bodily overlap increases sensorimotor resonance to others' pain

Empathy for another person’s pain and feeling pain oneself seem to be accompanied by similar or shared neural responses. Such shared responses could be achieved by mapping the bodily states of others onto our own bodily representations. We investigated whether sensorimotor neural responses to the pain of others are increased when experimentally reducing perceived bodily distinction between the self and the other. Healthy adult participants watched video clips of the hands of ethnic ingroup or outgroup members being painfully penetrated by a needle syringe or touched by a cotton swab. Manipulating the video presentation to create a visuospatial overlap between the observer’s and the target’s hand increased the perceived bodily self-attribution of the target’s hand. For both ingroup and outgroup targets, this resulted in increased neural responses to the painful injections (compared with nonpainful contacts), as indexed by desynchronizations of central mu and beta scalp rhythms recorded using electroencephalography. Furthermore, these empathy-related neural activations were stronger in participants who reported stronger bodily self-attribution of the other person’s hand. Our findings provide further evidence that empathy for pain engages sensorimotor resonance mechanisms. They also indicate that reducing bodily self-other distinction may increase such resonance for ingroup as well as outgroup targets.

The Association Between the 5Cs and Anxiety-Insights From Three Countries: Portugal, Slovenia, and Spain

Several of the most frequent psychological difficulties in childhood and adolescence are related to anxiety and lead to numerous short- and long-term negative outcomes in emotional, social, and academic domains. Empirical evidence consistently shows that the 5Cs (competence, caring, confidence, connection, and character) of Positive Youth Development (PYD) are positively related to adolescents’ contribution to self, family, and society as well as negatively related to risky behaviors and emotional difficulties, such as anxiety. Thus, the PYD can be one of the models that informs prevention programs. To provide contextualized, data-driven support for prevention efforts, we have analyzed the predictive value of the 5Cs for anxiety and anxiety dimensions using three different convenience youth samples from Portugal (N = 384, 46.6% female), Slovenia (N = 449, 69% females), and Spain (N = 768; 60.5% females). To assess the 5Cs, we used the same short form of the PYD scale in all samples (Geldhof et al., 2013) and different anxiety measures across samples: the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) in Portugal, the Lestvica anksioznosti za otroke in mladostnike anxiety scale (LAOM) in Slovenia and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) in Spain. The findings show significant associations of PYD and anxiety across all three contexts with all three different anxiety measures used. The associations vary across countries emphasizing the need to further research the role of contexts in anxiety prevention. Despite variations the results do indicate that connection is negatively associated with anxiety in all three contexts using the three anxiety measures, while confidence is a negative predictor and caring is a positive predictor of anxiety in Slovenia and Spain. Implications for practice within an educational framework for adolescents and youth are discussed, together with public policy recommendations.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Targeting the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Reduces Reactive Aggression and Modulates Electrophysiological Responses in a Forensic Population

BACKGROUND

Studies have shown that impairments in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex play a crucial role in violent behavior in forensic patients who also abuse cocaine and alcohol. Moreover, interventions that aimed to reduce violence risk in those patients are found not to be optimal. A promising intervention might be to modulate the ventromedial prefrontal cortex by high-definition (HD) transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). The current study aimed to examine HD-tDCS as an intervention to increase empathic abilities and reduce violent behavior in forensic substance dependent offenders. In addition, using electroencephalography, we examined the effects on the P3 and the late positive potential of the event-related potentials in reaction to situations that depict victims of aggression.

METHODS

Fifty male forensic patients with a substance dependence were tested in a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized study. The patients received HD-tDCS 2 times a day for 20 minutes for 5 consecutive days. Before and after the intervention, the patients completed self-reports and performed the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm, and electroencephalography was recorded while patients performed an empathy task.

RESULTS

Results showed a decrease in aggressive responses on the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm and in self-reported reactive aggression in the active tDCS group. Additionally, we found a general increase in late positive potential amplitude after active tDCS. No effects on trait empathy and the P3 were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Current findings are the first to find positive effects of HD-tDCS in reducing aggression and modulating electrophysiological responses in forensic patients, showing the potential of using tDCS as an intervention to reduce aggression in forensic mental health care.

Does Intercultural Contact Increase Anti-Racist Behavior on Social Network Sites?

Empirical attention on online intercultural contact and prejudice reduction are increasing. Nevertheless, still little is known on processes that could influence the contact–prejudice relation as well as the relation between online contact and anti-racist behavior. Based on literature on intergroup contact, the present study aims to fill these gaps, focusing on online intergroup relationships between people from different countries. Specifically, it examines whether and to what extent empathic feelings and online community commitment mediate the relationship between online intergroup contact and both perceived ethnic discrimination and anti-racist behavior on Facebook. We collected data from a predominantly Italian sample of 1018 Facebook users (Mage = 30.03, SDage = 11.09; females: 80.01%); participants filled in an online questionnaire. A semi-full Structural Equation Modeling was used to test hypotheses. The results confirmed that when intergroup contact was established, such contact was able to increase the sense of being committed to the online community, which increased the perception of online discrimination towards ethnic and racial minorities, which in turn was able to increase the anti-racist behavior. The ambivalent role of the empathy in online contexts will be discussed.

Pain evaluation and prosocial behaviour are affected by age and sex

BACKGROUND

Pain assessment and pain care are influenced by the characteristics of both the patient and the caregiver. Some studies suggest that the pain of older persons and of females may be underestimated to a greater extent than the pain of younger and male individuals.

AIMS

This study investigated the effect of age and sex on prosocial behavior and pain evaluation.

METHODS

40 young (18-30 y/o; 20 women) and 40 older adults (55-82 y/o; 20 women) acted as healthcare professionals rating the pain and offering help to patients of both age groups. Trait empathy and social desirability were measured with questionnaires.

RESULTS

Linear mixed models showed that older and male patients were offered more help and were perceived as being in more intense pain than younger and female patients.

CONCLUSION

The characteristics of the patients seem to have a greater impact on prosocial behavior and pain assessment compared to those of the observers, which bears significant implications for the treatment of pain in clinical contexts.

What factors underlie attitudes regarding protective mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic?

Two studies examine psychological and demographic factors that predict attitudes toward mask-wearing during the COVID-19 pandemic. These studies differentiate pro-mask from anti-mask attitudes. Political conservatism, younger age, and gender predicted anti-mask attitudes but were unrelated to pro-mask attitudes. Psychological reactance was associated with anti-mask attitudes, over and above demographic variables. Empathy, trust in healthcare professionals, and perceived normativity of mask wearing were associated with pro-mask attitudes, over and above demographic variables. These studies suggest that demographic variables such as political orientation and age are associated with anti-mask but not pro-mask attitudes, but also that psychological factors differentially predict anti- and pro-mask attitudes over and above demographic factors.

The Complex Nature of School Violence: Attitudes Toward Aggression, Empathy and Involvement Profiles in Violence

Background

Aggressive behavior in adolescents has become a concern in education, where adapting to and going through high school may generate important behavior problems in adolescents.

Purpose

Analyze the relationships between parental and adolescent attitudes toward aggression and empathy. Identify profiles of direct and indirect involvement in school violence and determine differences between groups with respect to the components of empathy and attitudes toward aggression.

Methods

The sample was comprised of 1287 high school students who were administered the Beliefs about Aggression and Alternatives questionnaire, the Parental Support for Fighting and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index.

Results

The results show that beliefs in favor of the use of aggression in adolescents correlate positively with the perception of strong support from parents for aggression in response to conflict. Similarly, higher levels of support for the use of nonviolent strategies are positively related to the perception of strong support from parents. The relationships established with the components of empathy analyzed, both cognitive and emotional, were negatively correlated with favorable attitudes toward aggression. Results concerning the groups directly involved indicated that there were significant differences in the components of empathy between the groups. Furthermore, the multivariate analysis applied to the direct involvement groups showed significant differences between the groups in taking perspective. Between-group differences in empathic concern were also statistically significant for the group of active observers.

Conclusion

Taking perspective and empathic concern are moderating variables both for observers and victims and their parents in situations of violence.

The influence of rs53576 polymorphism in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene on empathy in healthy adults by subtype and ethnicity: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Empathy is essential for navigating complex social environments. Prior work has shown associations between rs53576, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) located in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR), and generalized empathy. We undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the effects of rs53576 on subdomains of empathy, specifically cognitive empathy (CE) and affective empathy (AE), in healthy adults. Twenty cohorts of 8933 participants aged 18-98 were identified, including data from the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study, a cohort of older community adults. Meta-analyses found G homozygotes had greater generalized empathic abilities only in young to middle-aged adults. While meta-analyses of empathy subdomains yielded no significant overall effects, there were differential effects based on ethnicity. G homozygotes were associated with greater CE abilities in Asian cohorts (standardized mean difference; SMD: 0.09 [2.8·10^-3-0.18]), and greater AE performance in European cohorts [SMD: 0.12 (0.04-0.21)]. The current literature highlights a need for further work that distinguishes between genetic and ethnocultural effects and explores effects of advanced age on this relationship.

Girls exhibit greater empathy than boys following a minor accident

Hundreds of studies find that girls and women report feeling greater empathy than boys and men in response to adverse events befalling others. Despite this, few non-self-report measures demonstrate similar sex differences. This produces the oft-cited conclusion that to conform to societal expectations of appropriate sex-typed behavior females report higher levels of empathy. Several studies of sex differences in areas of brain activation and on infants' and young children's behavior however provide suggestive findings that self-reports reflect actual underlying sex differences in experiencing concern about others. We demonstrate using behavioral indices that females experience more empathy than males after witnessing an adverse event befall a same-sex classmate. In our study, one member of a pair experienced a minor accident on the way to constructing a tower while a bystander observed. We measured whether bystanders ceased their ongoing activity, looked at the victim, waited for the victim to recover from the accident, and actively intervened to help the victim. Female more than male bystanders engaged in these activities. These behavioral results suggest that an adverse event produces different subjective experiences in females than males that motivate objectively different behaviors, consistent with findings from self-report measures of empathy.

You May Have My Help but Not Necessarily My Care: The Effect of Social Class and Empathy on Prosociality

Previous research has focused on the relation between social class and prosocial behavior. However, this relation is yet unclear. In this work, we shed light on this issue by considering the effect of the level of empathy and the social class of the recipient of help on two types of prosociality, namely helping and caring. In one experimental study, we found that for high-class participants, empathy had a positive effect on helping, regardless of the recipient's social class. However, empathy had no effect for low-class participants. When it comes to caring, empathy had a positive effect for both high and low-class participants, but only when the recipient of help belonged to the same social class. This highlights that empathy by itself is not sufficient to promote cooperative relations and that the social class of the recipient of help should be taken into account to shed light on this issue.

Functional Polymorphisms in Oxytocin and Dopamine Pathway Genes and the Development of Dispositional Compassion Over Time: The Young Finns Study

Background: We define compassion as an enduring disposition that centers upon empathetic concern for another person's suffering and the motivation to act to alleviate it. The contribution of specific candidate genes to the development of dispositional compassion for others is currently unknown. We examine candidate genes in the oxytocin and dopamine signaling pathways.

Methods: In a 32-year follow-up of the Young Finns Study (N = 2,130, 44.0% men), we examined with multiple indicators latent growth curve modeling the molecular genetic underpinnings of dispositional compassion for others across the life span. We selected five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) whose functions are known in humans: rs2268498 (OXTR), rs3796863 (CD38) (related to lower oxytocin levels), rs1800497 (ANKK1/DRD2), rs4680 (COMT), and rs1611115 (DBH) (related to higher dopamine levels). Compassion was measured with Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory on three repeated observations spanning 15 years (1997–2012). Differences between gender were tested.

Results: We did not find an effect of the five SNPs in oxytocin and dopamine pathway genes on the initial levels of dispositional compassion for others. Individuals who carry one or two copies of the T-allele of DBH rs1611115, however, tend to increase faster in compassion over time than those homozygotes for the C-allele, b = 0.063 (SE = 0.027; p = 0.018). This effect was largely driven by male participants, 0.206 (SE = 0.046; p < 0.001), and was not significant in female participants when analyzed separately.

Conclusions: Men who are known to have, on average, lower compassion than women seem to reduce this difference over time if they carry the T-allele of DBH rs1611115. The direction of the association indicates that dopamine signaling activity rather than overall dopamine levels might drive the development of compassion.

Care Starts at Home: Emotional State and Appeals to Altruism may Reduce Demand for Overused Health Services in the UK

BACKGROUND

Overuse of unnecessary services, screening tests, and treatments is an ongoing problem for national health care systems. Overuse is at least partly driven by patient demand.

PURPOSE

This study examined whether altering patients' emotional state and appealing to patient altruism would reduce demand for three commonly overused UK health services.

METHODS

In an online experiment, 1,267 UK volunteers were randomized to anxiety, compassion, or neutral conditions before viewing three overuse vignettes. In each vignette, use of the health service was recommended against by the doctor and participants were further randomized to one of three altruism frames, emphasizing the impact of overuse on the self, the self and others locally, or the self and others nationally. Participants rated the likelihood that they would pursue the health service and, assuming that they did not, how long they would be willing-to-wait for it.

RESULTS

Altruism frame had a small effect on intentions to use the health service. Those in the local or national (vs. self) frame were 4.7 and 6.1 percentage points, respectively, less likely to ask for the service. Emotion induction had no direct effect on outcomes. However, self-reporting higher levels of anxiety or compassion post-induction was associated with a small, greater likelihood in intentions to ask for the health service or willingness-to-wait, respectively. No interactions between frame and emotion were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

As a low-cost initiative, emphasizing the benefits to the self and local or national communities could be embedded in appeals designed to appropriately reduce health care overuse in the UK.

Compassionate goals, prosocial emotions, and prosocial behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic

During the COVID-19 pandemic, it is important for people to engage in prosocial behaviours to support one another. The aim of this research is to answer a key question: in a social crisis, what motivates Americans to help others? Guided by research on appraisal theories and ecosystem theory, we examined the role of compassionate goals and prosocial emotions in promoting prosocial behaviours towards either out-group or in-group members. Study 1 (N = 943) was conducted in February 2020, before the widespread transmission of COVID-19 began in the United States. Results show that people with high compassionate goals are more likely to experience sympathy, which in turn makes them more willing to help people suffering from COVID-19 in China. Study 2 (N = 1,009) was conducted with a nationally representative sample after COVID-19 became more prevalent in the United States. Although people with high compassionate goals still experience more sympathy and solidarity, sympathy does not predict donation intention. Instead, solidarity mediates the relationship between compassionate goals and donation intention. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

Psychological Flexibility With Prejudices Increases Empathy and Decreases Distress Among Adolescents: A Spanish Validation of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-Stigma

Empathy is an emotional response that may facilitate prosocial behavior and inhibit aggression by increasing empathic concern for others. But the vicarious experience of other’s feelings may also turn into personal distress when the person has poor regulation skills and holds stigmatizing beliefs. In thinking about the processes that may trigger the experience of personal distress or empathic concern, research on the influence of psychological flexibility and inflexibility on stigma is showing promising results. Both processes are assessed with the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire–Stigma (AAQ-S). The current study sought to carry out a validity study of a Spanish version of the AAQ-S with a sample of adolescents aged 11–17 years. The study included an expanded test of its predictive validity with measures at three times to evaluate the role of psychological flexibility and inflexibility as risk or protective variables for the development of personal distress and/or empathic concern in the stigmatizer. Statistical analyses confirmed a two-correlated-factor solution, the adequate reliability of both factors, and their construct and predictive validity in the expected direction. The stigmatizer’s inflexible reaction to their stigmatizing thoughts predicted the occurrence of personal distress, whereas the stigmatizer’s flexible reaction to their stigmatizing thoughts predicted the occurrence of empathic concern for others. These findings confirm the importance of considering the role of regulatory skills in the experience of empathic concern or personal distress in the presence of stigmatizing thoughts, with possible implications for the promotion of prosocial behavior and the reduction of aggressive behavior among adolescents.

Investigating Turkish university students’ attitudes towards refugees in a time of Civil War in neighboring Syria

Thousands of refugees have immigrated to Turkey because of the current Civil War in neighboring Syria. This is causing tensions between refugees and locals. These increasingly negative attitudes towards the incoming victims of conflict are of particular interest. The present study, therefore, aimed at determining the premises of the emergence of such negative attitudes. The research sample consisted of university students who all studied at various faculties at Cumhuriyet University in the Turkish province of Sivas. Data were collected by the Attitude Scale Towards Refugees, the Patriotism Attitude Scale, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and the Cirhinlioğlu Religiosity Scale. Data were analyzed by Independent Samplet-tests as well as using Stepwise Regression Analyses. Results showed that the feeling of empathy correlated negatively with negative attitudes towards refugees, while blind patriotism, religiosity, and having nationalist/conservative orientations, correlated positively. Men were found to be more negative than women. The feeling of empathy was the most prominent factor in predicting the nature of attitudes towards refugees. Religious doctrine and distancing oneself from conservative and patriotic perspectives appeared to be effective in potentially preventing the development of negative attitudes. In conclusion, research results are discussed in the light of relevant literature.

Effects of repeated menstrual pain on empathic neural responses in women with primary dysmenorrhea across the menstrual cycle

Primary dysmenorrhea (PDM) is cyclic menstrual pain in the absence of pelvic anomalies, and it is thought to be a sex-hormone related disorder. Existing study has focused on the effects of menstrual cramps on brain function and structure, ignoring the psychological changes associated with menstrual pain. Here we examined whether pain empathy in PDM differs from healthy controls (HC) using task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Fifty-seven PDM women and 53 matched HC were recruited, and data were collected at the luteal and menstruation phases, respectively. During fMRI scans, participants viewed pictures displaying exposure to painful situations and pictures without any pain cues and assessed the level of pain experienced by the person in the picture. Regarding the main effect of the pain pictures, our results showed that compared to viewing neutral pictures, viewing pain pictures caused significantly higher activation in the anterior insula (AI), anterior cingulate cortex, and the left inferior parietal lobule; and only the right AI exhibited a significant interaction effect (group × picture). Post-hoc analyses confirmed that, relative to neutral pictures, the right AI failed to be activated in PDM women viewing painsss pictures. Additionally, there was no significant interaction effect between the luteal and menstruation phases. It suggests that intermittent pain can lead to abnormal empathy in PDM women, which does not vary with the pain or pain-free phase. Our study may deepen the understanding of the relationship between recurrent spontaneous pain and empathy in a clinical disorder characterized by cyclic episodes of pain.

School Violence towards Peers and Teen Dating Violence: The Mediating Role of Personal Distress

School violence towards peers and teen dating violence are two of the most relevant behaviour problems in adolescents. Although the relationship between the two types of violence is well established in the literature, few studies have focused on mediators that could explain this empirical relationship. We departed from the evidence that relates anger, emotional distress and impaired empathy to teen dating violence and juvenile sexual offending, to explore the role of personal distress, i.e., a self-focused, aversive affective reaction to another's emotion associated with the desire to alleviate one's own, but not the other's distress; as a possible mechanism linking school violence towards peers and teen dating violence in a sample of Spanish adolescents. We also explored the prevalence of emotional and physical teen dating violence, both occasional and frequent, and the differences between boys and girls. A total of 1055 adolescents (49.2% boys and 50.8% girls) aged between 11 and 17 years (M = 14.06, SD = 1.34) who had had at least one romantic relationship within the last year, completed measures of school violence towards peers, teen dating violence, and personal distress. Statistical analyses revealed that occasional and frequent teen dating violence (both physical and emotional) was more frequent in girls than in boys, and that personal distress functioned as a partial mediator, with an overall model fit higher for boys than girls: in boys, partial mediation occurred for both physical and emotional teen dating violence; in girls, partial mediation occurred only for physical violence. The interpretation of the results is tentative given the novel nature of the study, and points to the evidence of the emotional costs of school violence and the importance of emotion and behavior regulation to undermine the social costs of personal distress.

Strategic Regulation of Empathy

Empathy is an integral part of socioemotional well-being, but recent research has highlighted some of its downsides. Here we examine literature that establishes when, how much, and what aspects of empathy promote specific outcomes. After reviewing a theoretical framework that characterizes empathy as a suite of separable components, we examine evidence showing how dissociations of these components affect important socioemotional outcomes and describe emerging evidence suggesting that these components can be independently and deliberately regulated. Finally, we advocate for an approach to a multicomponent view of empathy that accounts for the interrelations among components. This perspective advances scientific conceptualization of empathy and offers suggestions for tailoring empathy to help people realize their social, emotional, and occupational goals.

Prevention for oneself or others? Psychological and social factors that explain social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic

Identifying the underlying psychological and social factors of social distancing is crucial to foster preventive behavior during a pandemic effectively. We investigated the relative contribution of self-focused factors (fear of infection, fear of punishment) and other-focused factors (moral judgment, moral identity, empathy for unspecific others, empathy for loved ones) in an online study in Germany (N = 246) while COVID-19 was climaxing. Importantly, other-oriented factors were related to social distancing behavior beyond self-oriented factors. Moral judgment and empathy for loved ones remained the dominant factors while controlling for all aspects. These findings underline the relevance of interpersonal considerations when engaging in preventive behavior.

"Who Are the Cyka Blyat?" How Empathy, Impulsivity, and Motivations to Play Predict Aggressive Behaviors in Multiplayer Online Games

Prior studies have mainly focused on the controversial issue of whether violent video games lead to aggressive behavior in real life. However, data regarding antisocial behavior while playing online are still scarce. In this study, we examined the relationship between toxicity (a form of verbal aggressive behavior directed against other players) in multiplayer online video games and several potential predictors such as personality traits, emotion reactivity, and motivations to play. A large-scale survey (n = 816) was conducted among French-speaking adult gamers, assessing video game habits, impulsivity, empathy, emotion reactivity, and motivations to play (i.e., socialization, achievement, immersion). Results showed that younger age, being male, spending a lot of time playing per week, and being highly achieving increased the likelihood of reporting toxicity and change of behavior in game. High emotional reactivity and being high in two dimensions of impulsivity (negative urgency and sensation seeking) increased the likelihood of toxic behavior. In contrast, individuals who are more empathic tended to report nontoxic behavior and individuals who play to socialize reported little change in behavior in game. Future research should address the complexity of behaviors displayed during online games-notably through experimental studies allowing direct observation of gamers while they play-and the functional connection between toxicity and several psychological, emotional, and motivational dimensions in further detail. Scientific research would also benefit from the creation and validation of a scale measuring in game, the social and antisocial behaviors.

The importance of familiarity with caregiving for public caregiver stigma: Evidence from a cross-sectional study in Germany

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate the association between familiarity with caregiving and public stigma towards informal caregivers of older individuals.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The sample for this Online-Survey was identified using a quota-system based on German micro census data (N=1037; aged 18 years and older, living in Germany). Familiarity with caregiving was assessed by asking whether the participant has experience in or has friends or relatives with experience in informal or professional caregiving for individuals aged 65 years or older. Public caregiver stigma was assessed by analyzing the emotional, behavioral and cognitive reactions towards caregivers as described in a vignette.

RESULTS

Adjusted regressions analyses indicated that experience in providing informal care was associated with increased appreciative feelings and statements, and decreased social distance. Experience in providing professional care was associated with increased devaluing statements. Having friends or relatives who have experience in informal caregiving was associated with decreased social distance. Having friends or relatives who have experience in professional caregiving was associated with decreased devaluing feelings, increased appreciative feelings and decreased social distance.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicate that familiarity with caregiving, through one's own informal care experience or through contact with informal or professional caregivers, reduced public stigma towards informal caregivers. Moreover, experience with informal care or contact with professional caregivers increased appreciation of informal caregivers. However, increased negative stigmatizing statements were indicated among participants with experience in professional caregiving. Fostering contact and cooperation between informal caregivers and non-caregivers, as well as with professional caregivers may help reduce stigmatizing reactions.

Emotion talk in Chinese American immigrant families and longitudinal links to children's socioemotional competence

Parent emotion talk (ET), a type of emotion-related socialization practice, is theorized to foster children's emotion-related regulation and socioemotional skills. Yet, there has been limited research linking parent ET to children's effortful control, a top-down regulatory process. Despite the observed cultural differences in ET between Chinese and European American families, few researchers tested whether the socioemotional benefits of ET are generalizable to Chinese American families, an immigrant group with contrasting values in their heritage and host cultures. The present study examined Chinese American parents' ET, its associations with sociocultural factors, and prospective relations to school-age children's effortful control, sympathy, and socially appropriate behaviors. In a two-wave (1.5 years apart) longitudinal study of first- and second-generation Chinese American children (N = 258, age = 6-9 years at Wave 1, 52% from low-income families), the content and quality of parent ET (e.g., the overall quality of emotion talk, frequency of emotion explanations, emotion questions, and number of emotion words) was coded from a video-recorded shared book reading task. Children's effortful control, sympathy, and social behaviors were rated by parents, teachers, and children. Results showed that the Chinese American parents from lower socioeconomic status families, families with lower English proficiency, or more recent immigrants displayed lower ET. Parent ET was prospectively related to children's higher effortful control after controlling for stability, and higher effortful control was concurrently associated with children's higher sympathy and more socially appropriate behaviors. The findings provide empirical support for the socioemotional benefits of ET for school-age children in Chinese American immigrant families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Atypical social reward anticipation as a transdiagnostic characteristic of psychopathology: A meta-analytic review and critical evaluation of current evidence

Several psychopathologies (e.g. schizophrenia spectrum conditions, autism spectrum disorders) are characterised by atypical interpersonal and social behaviour, and there is increasing evidence to suggest this atypical social behaviour is related to adjusted behavioural and neural anticipation of social rewards. This review brings together social reward anticipation research in psychopathology (k = 42) and examines the extent to which atypical social reward anticipation is a transdiagnostic characteristic. Meta-analyses of anticipatory reaction times revealed that, in comparison to healthy controls, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia spectrum conditions are associated with significantly reduced behavioural anticipation of social rewards. The pooled meta-analysis of anticipatory reaction times found that the full clinical sample demonstrated significant social reward hypoanticipation in comparison to the healthy control group with a medium effect size. A narrative synthesis of meta-analytically ineligible behavioural data, self-report data, and neuroimaging studies complemented the results of the meta-analysis, but also indicated that bipolar disorder, eating disorders, and sexual addiction disorders may be associated with social reward hyperanticipation. The evaluation of existing evidence suggests that future research should better account for factors that affect reward anticipation (e.g. gender, psychotropic medication) and highlights the importance of using stimuli other than happy faces as social rewards.

How to Get the Biggest Slice of the Cake. A Comparative View of Social Behaviour and Resource Access in Human Children and Nonhuman Primates

Social complexity results from engaging in different classes of social behaviour. The presence of different classes of social behaviour is reflected in multidimensional concepts of social asymmetry, found in both human and nonhuman primates. Based on an overview of such concepts, we propose that three classes of social behaviour are involved in having access to scarce and desired resources: next to aggressive and affiliative behaviour, also action indicating behaviour (i.e., inspire another individual to follow one's example or intentions) may lead to resource access. Studies with nonhuman primate and human children show that the contribution of aggression and affiliation to resource access has been widely documented and that there is initial support for action indicating behaviour. In addition, the studies show similarities and differences in conceptualization and approach that may inspire future research. Future research should address the (in)dependency of the behavioural dimensions, their relative importance, individual differences in combined expression and the type of resources accessed. Only a multi-dimensional view on behaviour leading to resource access will highlight the benefits of social complexity.

The effect of contest participation and contest outcome on subsequent prosocial behavior

Following previous research on various aspects of contests, we aim to explore how taking part in a contest affects subsequent behavior. We focus on whether the experience of having just competed in a contest, beyond its outcome, would have an impact on other-regarding decisions towards an individual who was not part of the preliminary contest. In addition, in light of inconclusive results in the existing literature regarding the effect of contest outcome on subsequent prosociality, we reexamine this effect. In line with our hypothesis, participation in a contest was found to reduce prosociality. Additionally, we found that winning a contest reduced prosociality only when decisions were framed as "giving" decisions and not as "dividing" decisions. This finding suggests that the effect of contest outcome may depend on specific elements of the presented situations.

Distinct Empathy Profiles in Callous Unemotional and Autistic Traits: Investigating Unique and Interactive Associations with Affective and Cognitive Empathy

Empathy deficits are a hallmark of both callous-unemotional (CU) and autistic traits. However, it is unclear whether each trait is associated with deficits in distinct empathy subcomponents. The aim of the current study was to investigate the main and interactive effects of CU and autistic traits in predicting affective and cognitive empathy. We used data of 163 children (Mage = 7.30, SD = 1.42, 44.2% girls), selected from a large community sample (N = 1652). To ensure variability in empathy, we recruited participants with either low (1 standard-deviation below the mean; n = 78) or average to high (n = 85) levels of empathy. Partial correlation and regression analysis revealed that autistic traits were negatively associated with cognitive empathy, whereas CU traits were negatively related with both cognitive and affective empathy. Importantly, this is the first study testing the moderating effects of gender, revealing that CU traits negatively predicted affective empathy only among girls high on autistic traits. Findings can be used to understand the different empathy profiles of children with CU or autistic traits, and inform the development of effective interventions.

Ways of Knowing Compassion: How Do We Come to Know, Understand, and Measure Compassion When We See It?

Over the last decade, empirical research on compassion has burgeoned in the biomedical, clinical, translational, and foundational sciences. Increasingly sophisticated understandings and measures of compassion continue to emerge from the abundance of multidisciplinary and cross-disciplinary studies. Naturally, the diversity of research methods and theoretical frameworks employed presents a significant challenge to consensus and synthesis of this knowledge. To bring the empirical findings of separate and sometimes siloed disciplines into conversation with one another requires an examination of their disparate assumptions about what compassion is and how it can be known. Here, we present an integrated theoretical review of methodologies used in the empirical study of compassion. Our goal is to highlight the distinguishing features of each of these ways of knowing compassion, as well as the strengths and limitations of applying them to specific research questions. We hope this will provide useful tools for selecting methods that are tailored to explicit objectives (methods matching), taking advantage of methodological complementarity across disciplines (methods mixing), and incorporating the empirical study of compassion into fields in which it may be missing.

Selflessness, Depression, and Neuroticism: An Interactionist Perspective on the Effects of Self-Transcendence, Perspective-Taking, and Materialism

Dominant theories of depression position self-concept as a central determinant of psychological functioning, but the relationship between the structure of self-concept and depression has not been extensively explored. The present study investigates the relationship between the structure of the self and psychopathological outcomes (depressive symptoms and neuroticism) with two methodological approaches. Using an established framework that draws insight from Buddhist psychology, the structure of the self is conceptualized in terms of selflessness and self-centeredness. Specifically, selflessness is construed as a multidimensional concept characterized by interdependence, outsider phenomenology, and impermanence. The three dimensions of the self were assessed at age 26 with inventories of self-transcendence, perspective-taking, and materialism, respectively (N = 814). First, a variable-centered approach was used to investigate potential interactions between the dimensions of selflessness. Self-transcendence negatively predicted depressive symptoms and neuroticism, whereas perspective-taking and materialism were positively associated with the outcomes. Self-transcendence moderated the relationship between perspective-taking and depressive symptoms. Perspective-taking was not statistically related to depressive symptoms for participants who exhibited higher levels of self-transcendence. The results clarify ambiguous associations between perspective-taking and depression found in previous research. Second, person-centered analyses were used to identify five profiles of self-structure: (1) Selfless, (2) Selfless Materialist, (3) Interdependent Insider, (4) Self-centered Non-materialist, and (5) Self-centered. As hypothesized, the Selfless cluster was associated with low levels of depressive symptoms and neuroticism, whereas the Self-centered cluster was associated with high levels. The profiles demonstrate the manifestation of several combinations of features of the self, which contributes to overall understanding of selflessness by complicating the traditional dichotomy between selflessness and self-centeredness.

Socioemotional Mechanisms of Children's Differential Response to the Effects of Maternal Sensitivity on Child Adjustment

OBJECTIVE

Children differ in the extent to which they reap the benefits of maternal sensitive care or suffer the adverse consequences of insensitive care, and these differences can be accounted for by biological characteristics. However, how susceptible children adapt to maternal sensitivity in ways that either maximize positive development or lead to maladjustment has yet to be determined. Here, we propose a novel model of socioemotional mechanisms by which the joint influences of maternal sensitivity and child biological characteristics influence child adjustment.

DESIGN

We propose a theoretical model, in which children's vagal functioning and polymorphisms in serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) and dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) genes confer susceptibility to the effects of maternal sensitivity on internalizing, externalizing, prosocial and moral behavior via changes in interpersonal strategies for emotion regulation, the threat response system, and empathy.

RESULTS

Theoretical and empirical support for the proposed mechanisms are provided.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed mechanistic model of susceptibility to maternal sensitivity offers a novel framework of for whom and how children are affected by early maternal care, highlighting multiple reciprocal, interacting influences across genes, physiology, behavior, and the environment.

Dispositional empathy is associated with experimental pain reduction during provision of social support by romantic partners

Background and aims While social interactions like verbal support and physical touch have repeatedly been shown to reduce experimental pain, analgesic effects of passive social support, i.e. the sole physical presence of a supportive other, remain unclear. Moreover, little is known about individual factors influencing the extent of pain attenuation during social support. This study investigated analgesic effects of passive support by a romantic partner and the role of partner empathy therein. Methods In 48 heterosexual couples, sensitivity to pressure pain was assessed; each participant was tested alone and in the passive presence of his/her partner. Dispositional empathy was quantified by a questionnaire. Results In the presence, as compared to absence, of their partners men and women exhibited higher pain threshold and tolerance, as well as lower sensory and affective pain ratings on constant pressure stimuli. Partner empathy was positively associated with pain tolerance and inversely associated with sensory pain experience. Conclusions The results confirm the analgesic effects of social support, which may even occur without verbal or physical contact. Partner empathy may buffer affective distress during pain exposure, thereby reducing pain sensitivity and promoting pain coping. These processes may occur solely due to a partner's physical presence and do not necessarily require direct empathetic feedback.

Spectator Sports as Context for Examining Observers' Agreeableness, Social Identification, and Empathy in a High-Stakes Conflict Situation

In a high-stakes conflict or dilemma situation, observers often feel empathy for one side versus the other. Using a high-profile conflict situation in a world-renowned spectator sport (the US Open) as context, the authors of this study examined the roles of personality and social-cognitive factors, specifically agreeableness and social identification, on empathic concern towards three individuals (a focal actor or instigator, a target, and an "innocent" bystander) involved in an emotionally charged conflict situation. Results showed direct and indirect effects of agreeableness on identification with the focal actor and empathic concern towards the individuals involved in the conflict situation. Participants' social-cognitive processes of identification with the focal actor or instigator fully mediated the effect of personality trait of agreeableness on empathic concern towards the focal actor, whereas agreeableness was directly related to empathic concern towards the target and the bystander without (full) mediation by social identification. Gender differences were found with women reporting higher empathic concern and identification towards the female focal actor and lower empathic concern towards the male target in the conflict situation, suggesting potential automatic or implicit in-group bias. Study results highlight the complex integration of personality and social-cognitive processes, including intersectionality of social identities, in the dynamics of empathic reactions during high-stakes and emotionally charged conflict situations.

The relations of White parents' implicit racial attitudes to their children's differential empathic concern toward White and Black victims

The goal of this study was to investigate the relations between White parents' implicit racial attitudes and their children's racially based bias in empathic concern toward White and Black victims of injustice as well as the moderating role of children's age in this relation. Children aged 5-9 years (N = 190) reported how sorry (i.e., sympathy) and nervous (i.e., personal distress) they felt after watching sympathy-inducing videos in which either a White (non-Hispanic) child or a Black child was teased by peers. Participants' primary caregivers (mostly mothers) completed a computerized Implicit Association Test to assess their implicit racial attitudes. Parents' implicit race bias was associated with their children's reported sympathy toward Black victims and their sympathetic bias (i.e., relative sympathy toward White vs. Black victims); however, results were moderated by children's age. Specifically, parents with higher implicit race bias tended to have children with lower levels of sympathy toward Black victims for younger children and higher levels of sympathetic bias for younger and average-aged children but not for older children. Older children tended to report relatively high levels of sympathy toward Black victims and low levels of sympathetic bias regardless of their parents' implicit attitudes. The importance of parents' implicit attitudes in understanding young children's race-based moral emotional responses and the implications for intervention work are discussed.

Longitudinal Relations among Maternal Self-Efficacy, Maternal Warmth, and Early Adolescents' Prosocial Behavior

OBJECTIVE

This article examined two-wave longitudinal paths among maternal self-efficacy, maternal warmth, and early adolescents' prosocial behavior.

DESIGN

Participants were 194 Italian mother/child dyads from 9-13 years at the first assessment and 12-15 years at the second assessment. Using a two-wave longitudinal design, the present study tested cross-lagged paths among maternal self-efficacy, warmth, and early adolescents' prosocial behavior controlling for the stability of these variables and their concurrent associations.

RESULTS

Maternal warmth mediated the link between maternal self-efficacy and adolescents' prosocial behavior, and bi-directional effects between maternal self-efficacy and maternal warmth were found.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support a parent-driven model in the promotion of prosocial behaviors across early adolescence and a general need to consider simultaneously parental cognitions (maternal self-efficacy) and actions (maternal warmth) in explaining adolescents' prosocial behaviors. Implications for parenting program interventions are discussed.

The association between in-class cultural diversity with empathy and bullying in adolescence: A multilevel mediation analysis

Little is known about the associations between cultural class composition, teacher support for diversity (TSD), cognitive and affective empathy, and bullying and victimisation. Research shows that empathy is negatively associated with bullying and victimisation; and support for diversity and classroom cultural diversity are positively linked to social skills. The present study examines whether cultural diversity and perceived TSD are protective factors against bullying and victimisation, either directly or mediated by empathy. Participants were 897 students from Grades 7 to 10 (M_age  = 13.45, SD_age  = 1.07, 51.3% girls, 46.7% boys) in 36 classes. Multilevel mediation analyses were conducted. Age and gender were controlled for. More perceived TSD and affective empathy were associated with less bullying. Moreover, the effect of perceived TSD on bullying was partly indirect through affective empathy. Victimisation was not predicted by the study variables. The class level showed no effects. Bullying and victimisation are complex phenomena, which seem to be linked more to individual than to class characteristics. The result that higher perceived TSD was linked to empathy and bullying provides a promising starting point for measures of competence enhancement and bullying prevention.

Bidirectional associations between affective empathy and proactive and reactive aggression

Preliminary evidence indicates that affective empathy is differentially related to proactive and reactive functions of aggression. However, additional longitudinal research is needed to understand the potential reciprocal nature of these links. The current study examined the bidirectional associations between affective empathy and proactive and reactive aggression over a 6-month period during middle childhood, with attention to potential gender differences. Data were collected from 294 elementary school children (52% girls; M = 9.25 years; SD = 0.944 years) and their homeroom teachers. Affective empathy was assessed using self-reports, and teachers provided ratings of children's functions of aggression. Data were collected during the fall and spring of one academic year. Overall, results suggest some evidence that affective empathy and functions of aggression are reciprocally linked over time. As predicted, Time 1 empathy was inversely associated with Time 2 proactive aggression and Time 1 reactive aggression was inversely associated with Time 2 empathy. Contrary to expectations, Time 1 proactive aggression was marginally positively associated with Time 2 empathy, and Time 1 empathy was not significantly associated with Time 2 reactive aggression. These prospective links did not differ according to gender. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Children's recognition of happy, sad, and angry facial expressions across emotive intensities

Sharing emotional experiences is a key task that requires accurate recognition of peers' emotions during middle childhood. Existing research suggests that children are proficient at discerning emotion from facial expressions during middle childhood, but this research has focused on recognition of adults' intense emotional expressions. In this study, facial emotion recognition for children's happy, sad, and angry expressions across low, medium, and high intensities was measured in a sample of 7- to 10-year-old children (N = 80; 53% female) to quantify overall accurate recognition as well as inaccuracies, including identifying an emotion as present when it is not (false alarms) and failing to identify an emotion when present (miss rate). Children's recognition accuracy for low-threshold happiness, sadness, and anger was quite poor but improved in a cubic fashion as expression intensity increased, with dramatic improvements across medium-intensity expressions, and little further improvement across high-intensity expressions. A positivity bias was evident; children were more accurate at recognizing happiness than at recognizing sadness and anger, rarely failed to identify happiness when present, and tended to mislabel expressions as happy rather than as angry or sad. Children were generally better at recognizing anger compared with sadness but were more accurate at recognizing subtle sadness compared with anger, which appeared to be due to children missing subtle anger when present. The findings are discussed with regard to the functionality of others' happiness for signaling positive socializing opportunities, anger for signaling threatening interactions, and sadness for prompting prosocial action and with regard to how children's facial emotion recognition may affect general socioemotional development.

Parental Socialization and Its Impact across the Lifespan

Classical studies have found that parental warmth combined with parental strictness is the best parental strategy to promote children's psychosocial development. Nevertheless, a growing set of emergent studies has questioned the benefits of parental strictness. The present study examined parental socialization and its short- and long-term impact on the psychosocial development of adolescents and adult children. The sample consisted of 2150 Spanish participants, 623 adolescents (12-18 years), 619 young adults (19-35 years), 502 middle-aged adults (35-59 years), and 406 older adults (60 years or older). Families were classified into one of four typologies (indulgent, authoritative, authoritarian, and neglectful). Psychosocial development was examined with five indicators (physical and family self-concept, nervousness, empathy, and internalization of social values of benevolence). The results show a common short- and long-term pattern between parenting styles and psychosocial development: the indulgent style equaled or even surpassed the authoritative style, whereas the neglectful and authoritarian styles were associated with low scores. The present findings were discussed by considering the importance of the cultural context in family socialization. Additionally, the long-term impact of parental socialization seems to be crucial, even in adulthood.

The influence of attachment styles on autonomic correlates of perspective-taking

This study examined the effects of attachment styles on physiological responses during a perspective-taking task. Sixty-eight participants were selected according to attachment styles. Physiological responses were assessed using skin conductance responses (SCRs) in the three attachment groups (secure, insecure-anxious and insecure-avoidant) during the presentation of attachment-based pictures (distress, comfort or neutral) in two different perspective-taking conditions: self perspective-taking (i.e. imagine how you would feel in the given situation) or other perspective-taking (i.e. imagine how that person could feel in this situation). In the self perspective-taking condition, insecure-anxious individuals displayed higher SCRs than secure individuals for distress pictures. In the other perspective-taking condition, insecure-anxious individuals showed higher SCRs than secure individuals for comfort pictures. The results also showed a strong negative association between self-reported perspective-taking tendencies and SCRs in secure individuals. The findings suggest that perspective-taking plays an important role in the modulation of physiological responses in reaction to attachment-related pictures, which varies according to attachment styles.

Does Empathy Have a Cost? Older Adults and Social Partners Experiencing Problems

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Empathy underlies older adults' awareness and responses to their social partners' needs, but it is unclear whether such awareness is beneficial or harmful to older adults' well-being. We examined whether older adults' empathy was associated with having encounters with social partners incurring problems and their own well-being throughout the day.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Participants were adults aged more than 65 years from the Daily Experiences and Well-being Study. These older adults (n = 313) rated empathy and indicated social partners' problems (e.g., health, emotional, and financial problems) in a baseline interview. They also reported encounters with social partners and their mood every 3 hr over 5-6 days.

RESULTS

Multiple regressions showed that more empathic older adults reported a greater proportion of social partners with major life problems than less empathic older adults. Older adults' empathy was not associated with their contact or negative encounters with social partners experiencing problems. Multilevel models revealed that encounters with these social partners had negative consequences for older adults' mood throughout the day; however, these consequences were reduced in more empathic older adults.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

This study emphasizes the importance of empathy in late life and refines our understanding of older adults' social lives and well-being. Findings carry implications for interventions that aim to protect older adults' well-being when their close others incur crises.

Connecting perceived economic threat and prosocial tendencies: The explanatory role of empathic concern

Recent research suggests that perceived economic threat constitutes a valid predictor of people’s attitudes and behaviors. While accumulated empirical evidence has mostly underlined the deleterious psychological effects (e.g., reduced psychological well-being) of perceived economic threat in times of economic strain, we postulate that individuals experiencing higher economic threat linked to the Spanish economic crisis are more prone to engage in other-beneficial prosocial behavior. Across two independently collected community samples, we tested this theoretical formulation and examined the potential mediating roles of empathic concern (Studies 1 & 2) and identification (Study 2). Study 1 (N = 306) revealed that participants who descended in the social scale due to the negative national economic context were engaged in a larger number of helping behaviors over the last three months compared to participants who did not descend the social ladder—independently of several sociodemographic and ideological factors. Moreover, our data indicated these effects were driven by increased empathic concern. Study 2 (N = 588), in which two hypothetical helping-behavior scenarios were randomly administered (crisis-related vs. control), showed that participants under high perceived financial threat exhibited an undifferentiated pattern of prosociality. However, moderated-mediation analyses indicated that empathic concern explained the perceived financial threat-helping behavior link in the hypothetical crisis-related scenario but not in the hypothetical control scenario. Together, these findings extend prior literature on the psychosocial effects of perceived economic threat and the determinants of other-oriented behavior. Implications of these findings and suggestions for further research are discussed.

Infant emotional responses to challenge predict empathic behavior in toddlerhood

Although emotional responses are theorized to be important in the development of empathy, findings regarding the prediction of early empathic behavior by infant behavioral and physiological responses are mixed. This study examined whether behavioral and physiological responses to mild emotional challenge (still face paradigm and car seat task) in 118 infants at age 6 months predicted empathic distress and empathic concern in response to an empathy-evoking task (i.e, experimenter's distress simulation) at age 20 months. Correlation analyses, corrected for sex and baseline levels of physiological arousal, showed that stronger physiological and behavioral responses to emotional challenge at age 6 months were positively related to observed empathic distress, but not empathic concern, at age 20 months. Linear regression analyses indicated that physiological and behavioral responses to challenge at 6 months independently predicted empathic distress at 20 months, which suggests an important role for both physiological and behavioral emotional responses in empathy development. In addition, curvilinear regression analyses showed quadratic associations between behavioral responses at 6 months, and empathic distress and empathic concern at 20 months, which indicates that moderate levels of behavioral responsivity predict the highest levels of empathic distress and empathic concern.