Triarchic Model of Psychopathy: Origins, Operationalizations, and Observed Linkages with Personality and General Psychopathology

The multiple facets of psychopathy in attack and defense conflicts

With respect to De Dreu and Gross's article, we comment on the psychological functions for attack and defense, focusing on associations between individual differences in psychopathic personality traits and the behavioral patterns observed in attack-defense conflicts. We highlight the dimensional nature of psychopathy and formulate hypothetical associations between distinct traits, their different behavioral outcomes, and associated brain mechanisms.

Modeling the Structure of the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure: Conceptual, Empirical, and Analytic Considerations

This study sought to characterize the factor structure of the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) using data from a sample of 1,082 community-dwelling Italian adults. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) was used to compare the fit of a bifactor model for each TriPM scale, in which specific-content factors were specified along with a general factor, with the fit of a single, general-factor model. Robust weighted least square (WLSMV) ESEM supported a bifactor latent structure of the TriPM items for all individual scales. When we jointly factor analyzed the 58 TriPM items, a WLSMV ESEM three-factor structure showed adequate fit; the three ESEM factors were akin to TriPM Boldness, Meanness, and Disinhibition theoretical dimensions, respectively, and could be effectively replicated across gender subgroups. Our findings support the three-factor structure of TriPM items, at least in Italian community-dwelling adults, and provide further evidence for the construct validity of the TriPM.

Psychopathic Traits, Pubertal Timing, & Mental Health Functioning in Justice-Involved Adolescents

Although psychopathic traits and pubertal timing have garnered a great deal of attention as potent risk factors for antisocial trajectories, very little research has examined how these processes may be related. We investigated whether psychopathic traits were related to deviations in pubertal onset in a clinically-relevant sample of youth detained in juvenile detention facilities. One-hundred and thirty-seven adolescents (ages 12-17) completed surveys of pubertal timing, psychopathic traits, and mental health functioning. As predicted, psychopathic traits were found to be associated with pubertal timing, and the psychopathy facets evidenced differential associations with the onset of puberty. Trait disinhibition was associated with relatively earlier pubertal timing, whereas trait boldness appeared to confer protection against early pubertal onset in this sample. Symptoms of alcohol/ substance use and anger/ irritability were positively related to psychopathic traits, but only among youth who reported average-/late-pubertal development. These findings implicate psychopathic personality traits as individual difference variables that may influence the onset of pubertal timing and interact with pubertal timing to place justice-involved youth at risk for poor mental health.

Genetic and environmental influences on disinhibition, boldness, and meanness as assessed by the triarchic psychopathy measure in 19-20-year-old twins

BACKGROUND

The Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) provides Disinhibition, Boldness, and Meanness scales for assessing the three trait domains of the triarchic model. Here we examined the genetic and environmental etiology of these three domains, including evaluation of potential sex differences.

METHODS

A total of 1016 men and women ages 19-20 years were drawn from the University of Southern California Risk Factors for Antisocial Behavior twin study.

RESULTS

Scores for the three TriPM scales were correlated to differing degrees, with the strongest phenotypic correlation between Disinhibition and Meanness. No sex differences were found in the genetic and environmental influences underlying these three domains, suggesting that the same genes and life experiences contribute to these traits in young men and women. For TriPM Disinhibition and Boldness, genetic factors explained about half or less of the variance, with the rest of the variance being explained by non-shared environmental factors. For TriPM Meanness, on the other hand, genetic, shared environmental, and non-shared environmental factors accounted for the variance. The phenotypic correlation between Disinhibition and Meanness was explained in part by common genes (26%), with the remainder attributable about equally to common shared (39%), and non-shared environmental influences (35%).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings contribute to our understanding of psychopathic personality traits by demonstrating the importance of heritable factors for disinhibition and boldness facets of psychopathy, and the importance of shared environmental influences for the meanness facet.

Improving characterization of psychopathy within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), alternative model for personality disorders: Creation and validation of Personality Inventory for DSM-5 Triarchic scales

The latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) bridges a significant gap in psychiatric nosology by providing trait-based characterizations of psychopathy along with antisocial personality disorder within the Section III alternative model for personality disorders (AMPD). However, the representation of psychopathy in the AMPD has met with some criticisms (Crego & Widiger, 2014; Few, Lynam, Maples, MacKillop, & Miller, 2015). The current study was undertaken to establish an improved means for characterizing psychopathy in DSM-5 Section III terms, by creating scale measures of triarchic psychopathy dimensions using items from the best-established assessment instrument for the AMPD, the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Using data from a sample of community adults (N = 210), we employed a construct rating and psychometric refinement approach to develop item-based PID-5 Triarchic scales for measuring psychopathy dimensions of boldness, meanness, and disinhibition. The validity of the PID-5 Triarchic scales was then evaluated in relation to criteria including other scale measures of the triarchic constructs and psychopathy, self-reported antisocial behavior and substance use, empathy, internalizing and other clinical problems, and personality within the development sample and a separate independent sample of adults (N = 240) recruited to have elevated psychopathic traits. Results of this work provide a foundation for improved characterization of psychopathy in terms of the AMPD trait system and provide a mechanism for future research oriented toward clarifying the developmental interface between childhood conduct disorder and psychopathy, as well as identifying neurobiological correlates of dimensions of psychopathy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Abbreviated Psychopathy Measure-2: associations with normal-range and maladaptive personality traits

Background

The aim of the study was to validate an updated form of the Abbreviated Psychopathy Measure which is based on the triarchic model of psychopathy. Revisions were made to improve indexing of the triarchic scales. The study focused on examining the relationships between the APM-2 scales with lower-order personality traits associated with psychopathy, as well as with antiso-cial intent, a correlate of antisocial behavior.

Participants and procedure

A convenience sample of participants (N = 190) was recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Construct validity of the APM-2 scales was examined using Pearson’s r correlation and multiple regression analyses to determine the relationships between APM-2 scales and criterion measures.

Results

The APM-2 Total score was associated at moderate to high levels with core personality features associated with psychopathy. APM-2 Boldness was associated with both positive adjustment (social potency, emotional stability), and negative adjustment (both dangerous and calculated sensation seeking). APM-2 Meanness was associated with measures of callousness, hostile aggression, and manipulativeness, as well as with a measure of antisocial intent. APM-2 Disinhibition was associated with measures of impulsive, norm violating behavior, negative emotional disposition, and antisocial intent.

Conclusions

The associations between APM-2 scales and personality traits replicated certain key findings reported in the literature regarding psychopathy-relevant traits indexed by the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM). Thus, this study provides a preliminary indication, albeit with a limited range of personality and antisocial behavior variables, that the nomological networks of the APM-2 scales may parallel the nomological networks of the TriPM scales.

Towards understanding atypical social affiliation in psychopathy

One distinctive feature of individuals with psychopathy is their reduced motivation and capacity to develop authentic social relationships, which are founded on an enjoyment of prosocial interactions or concern for others. Surprisingly, potential neurocognitive vulnerabilities contributing to atypical social affiliation, and lack of prosocial behaviours in psychopathy, have yet to be systematically investigated. Research efforts have largely focused on how individuals with psychopathy process negative emotions, and how this might affect their capacity to feel guilt or empathise with others' distress. Here, we propose a framework for understanding the development of atypical social affiliation and attachment in psychopathy, and outline several key processes and neural systems speculated to underpin them. We then describe present neurocognitive findings that suggest that these processes and neural systems are compromised in individuals with, or at risk of developing, psychopathy. Finally, we consider several research directions that would help with the understanding of the origin and development of social affiliation in individuals with psychopathy. This work has the potential to inform and enhance prevention and treatment strategies.

Sex differences on the four-facet model of psychopathy predict physical, verbal, and indirect aggression

Psychopathy is a multifaceted construct that has been linked to aggression. Yet, few studies have explored the association between physical, verbal, and indirect aggression using the 4-facet model of psychopathy in community samples, and to date, no studies exist that test for male and female differences. The present study aimed to understand what facets of psychopathy predict aggressive behavior for men and women, while controlling for important risk factors, such as Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD). Drawing from a large Bulgarian community sample (N = 565), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the use of the 4-facet model of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV; Hart et al., ). Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that physical aggression was predicted by affective and antisocial psychopathic traits, and ASPD. Verbal aggression was predicted by the interpersonal facet, and indirect aggression was predicted by the antisocial psychopathy facet and ASPD. Sex significantly moderated the associations among facets of psychopathy and physical and indirect aggression. Specifically, the affective facet was positively associated with physical aggression only for women, whereas the antisocial facet was positively associated with indirect aggression only for men. Results suggest that the 4-facet model of psychopathy is sensitive to capture important similarities and differences between males and females when predicting forms of aggression in community samples. These findings underscore the importance of understanding how men and women differ in their risk-factors for aggressive behavior, which will better inform violence interventions based on sex-specific needs.

Testing the properties of the triarchic model of psychopathy in a community sample: Self-reported trait aggression and drug consumption associations

The triarchic model of psychopathy encompasses different conceptions of psychopathic personality characterized by three phenotypic components: boldness, disinhibition, and meanness. Psychopathy is a complex construct at both emotional and behavioral level. The aim of this study was to determine the core elements of psychopathic personality in a community sample and analyze the relation between these elements and other personality traits such as aggression, and certain specific behavioral manifestations such as substance use. The study sample comprised 1,159 participants aged between 17 and 74 years, who were administered the Triarchic Psychopathy Questionnaire, the Impulsive-Premeditated Aggression Scale, and the Aggression Questionnaire. The results show that the constructs of meanness and disinhibition are more highly associated with different forms of both impulsive and premeditated aggression. Furthermore, men scored higher on all three components of the triarchic model compared to women. Finally, higher substance use (tobacco and drugs) was associated with higher scores in meanness, boldness, and disinhibition. These findings demonstrate the importance of assessing psychopathy in a community sample, and the detection of possible risk factors for the disorder.

Psychopathy and Internalizing Psychopathology: A Triarchic Model Perspective

Methodological and conceptual differences across studies have impeded our understanding of the relationship between psychopathy and internalizing psychopathology. To shed further light on this question, we undertook correlational and structural-modeling analyses of data from two samples to characterize how facets of psychopathy relate to internalizing psychopathology when assessed using multidimensional measures of each construct (i.e., Triarchic Psychopathy Measure, Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms). Participants for Study 1 were 470 undergraduates and community-dwelling adults who completed these measures in self-report form; participants for Study 2 were 301 community-dwelling adults who completed informant-rating versions of these measures (as applied to a known-other). Across samples, analyses revealed sharply contrasting associations for the three triarchic-model facets with internalizing psychopathology and its subdomains, with boldness relating negatively in most cases, disinhibition relating positively in most cases, and meanness exhibiting mostly null associations. Results provide a nuanced picture of associations between psychopathic symptomatology and internalizing problems.

Not Just for Adults: Using the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy to Inform Developmental Models of Conduct Problems in Adolescence

The triarchic model of psychopathy was advanced to reconcile differing historic conceptions of this condition and alternative approaches for assessing it. The current study was undertaken to expand the empirical evidence base for the triarchic model by examining its correlates in adolescents, with measures of particular relevance to developmental theories of antisocial behavior. Self-report scales assessing the triarchic constructs were administered along with measures of conduct problems, callous-unemotional traits, attachment style dimensions, negative emotionality, and hyperactivity/inattention to 608 Italian adolescents (272 girls; M age = 16.70 years). The disinhibition dimension of the triarchic model was related most highly to general externalizing outcomes, such as conduct problems and hyperactivity-inattention, in this adolescent sample. The meanness dimension was selectively related to callous-unemotional traits and other measures of limited prosocial emotions and to affiliation motives that emphasize social gain. Triarchic boldness was associated with greater emotional stability and greater confidence in peer relationships. Of interest, an interaction between meanness and boldness was evident in predicting a lower need to understand one's own and others' emotions. These results provide a valuable illustration of the potential of the triarchic model to help advance developmental models of antisocial behavior in youth. Public Significance Statement This study examined how dimensions of psychopathy described by the triarchic model relate to measures of problem behaviors and affective-interpersonal style in an adolescent sample. Scores on the three triarchic dimensions-disinhibition, meanness, and boldness-showed meaningful contrasting relations with conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, callous-unemotional traits, emotional proclivities, and attachment style dimensions. This work illustrates how the triarchic model conceptualization can help advance developmental models of the emergence of antisocial behavior.

Psychopathy and impulsivity: The relationship of psychopathy to different aspects of UPPS-P impulsivity

Impulsivity is thought to be a major component of psychopathy. However, impulsivity is a multi-faceted concept, and different facets may have differential relationships to psychopathy. We measured impulsivity via the UPPS-P in a sample of prisoners and in patients in a personality disorder service resident in secure psychiatric care. Psychopathy in the prison sample was measured via the clinician-rated Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version and in the patients via the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. We found that the Lifestyle/Antisocial factor (Factor 2) was associated with acting rashly when emotional (Negative Urgency and Positive Urgency). However, the Interpersonal/Affective factor (Factor 1) was associated with reduced impulsivity in the domains of premeditation and perseverance, and its unique variance was also associated with less rash behaviour. The Interpersonal facet (Facet 1) was particularly associated with reduced impulsivity. The results show that individuals with high Interpersonal traits of psychopathy can plan carefully and are persistent in their goals. This may underpin instrumental violence and criminal behaviour. Thus, a simple unitary understanding of the relationship between psychopathy and impulsivity may not be valid and may distort the multifaceted relationship between the two concepts that could assist in the assessment and management of psychopathic offenders.

Examining the link between reward and response inhibition in individuals with substance abuse tendencies

BACKGROUND

Substance use problems are often characterized by dysregulation in reward sensitivity and inhibitory control. In line with this representation, the goal of this investigation was to determine how substance abuse tendencies among university students affect incentivized response inhibition. Additionally, this study examined whether striatal dopamine moderates the impact of substance use on response inhibition performance.

METHODS

The sample included ninety-eight university students. Participants completed this prospective experimental study at an on-campus laboratory. All participants completed substance abuse and disinhibition subscales of the Externalizing Spectrum Inventory-Brief Form. Using a within-subjects design, participants then performed the Stop Signal Task under both neutral (unrewarded) and reward conditions, in which correct response cancellations resulted in a monetary reward. Striatal tonic dopamine levels were operationalized using spontaneous eyeblink rate.

RESULTS

The outcome measures were Stop Signal Reaction Time (SSRT) performance in the unrewarded and rewarded phases of the task. A hierarchical linear regression analysis, controlling for trait disinhibition, age, gender, and cigarette smoking status, identified an interactive effect of substance use and striatal dopamine levels on incentivized SSRT. Substance abuse tendencies were associated with slower SSRT and thus poorer inhibitory control under reward conditions among individuals with low levels of striatal dopamine (F = 7.613, p = .007).

CONCLUSIONS

This work has implications for research examining advanced drug use trajectories. In situations in which rewards are at stake, drug users with low tonic dopamine may be more motivated to seek those rewards at the expense of regulating inhibitory control.

A Bayesian Account of Psychopathy: A Model of Lacks Remorse and Self-Aggrandizing

This article proposes a formal model that integrates cognitive and psychodynamic psychotherapeutic models of psychopathy to show how two major psychopathic traits called lacks remorse and self-aggrandizing can be understood as a form of abnormal Bayesian inference about the self. This model draws on the predictive coding (i.e., active inference) framework, a neurobiologically plausible explanatory framework for message passing in the brain that is formalized in terms of hierarchical Bayesian inference. In summary, this model proposes that these two cardinal psychopathic traits reflect entrenched maladaptive Bayesian inferences about the self, which defend against the experience of deep-seated, self-related negative emotions, specifically shame and worthlessness. Support for the model in extant research on the neurobiology of psychopathy and quantitative simulations are provided. Finally, we offer a preliminary overview of a novel treatment for psychopathy that rests on our Bayesian formulation.

Dissociable Effects of Psychopathic Traits on Executive Functioning: Insights From the Triarchic Model

The relationship between executive functioning and psychopathy lacks consistent findings. The heterogeneity of the psychopathic personality structure may contribute to the mixed data that emerged from clinical-categorical approaches. Considering the link between antisocial behavior and executive dysfunction from the perspective of the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy, it is suggested that executive impairments in psychopathy are specifically explained by meanness and disinhibition traits, reflecting externalizing vulnerability. In turn, boldness is conceptualized as an adaptive trait. The current study assessed updating (N-back), inhibition (Stroop), and shifting (Trail Making Test) in a forensic (n = 56) and non-forensic sample (n = 48) that completed the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure. A positive association between boldness and inhibition was found, while meanness accounted for the lack of inhibitory control. In addition, disinhibition explained updating dysfunction. These findings provide empirical evidence for dissociable effects of psychopathic traits on executive functioning, in light of the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy.

An Examination of Triarchic Psychopathy Constructs in Female Offenders

This study sought to expand scientific knowledge on psychopathic personality traits in female offenders by evaluating the relationship between MMPI-2-RF triarchic scales and self-reported external variables in a sample of 205 female offenders. Results indicated that boldness was inversely related to internalizing dysfunction, including suicidal behavior, psychosis, youth conduct problems, problems stemming from alcohol use, and a history of outpatient mental health treatment. Meanness was positively related to internalizing dysfunction as well as youth conduct problems, anger, prison disciplinary reports, and psychosis. Disinhibition was associated with a history of abuse in childhood, suicidal behavior, internalizing dysfunction, problems associated with alcohol and drug use, family history of mental illness, prison disciplinary reports for violence, number of previous criminal charges, and anger. Consistent with views of psychopathy as a configural condition, interactive effects of boldness with disinhibition and meanness were observed for multiple key external variables (e.g., conduct problems, substance use, nonsuicidal self-injurious behavior). This study provides further evidence for the triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy in female offenders and lends additional support for the validity of MMPI-2-RF triarchic psychopathy scales.

Psychopathic personality traits as a form of dispositional capability for suicide

The capability to enact lethal self-harm has recently been highlighted as a critical risk factor for suicidal behavior. Klonsky and May's (2015) three step theory of suicide (3ST) expanded upon the construct of the capability for suicide by dividing it into categories: dispositional, acquired, and practical. The current study examined constructs of Patrick and colleagues' (2009) triarchic model of psychopathy as indicators of dispositional capability in gun owners, a sample at heightened risk for death by suicide (Anestis and Houtsma, 2017). We anticipated that specific psychopathic traits would exhibit robust associations with other components of the capability for suicide. In a sample of 300 gun-owning adults, Boldness was uniquely related to all indicators of practical capability in both male and female gun owners, and a Boldness*Meanness interaction predicted the highest levels of some capability components. These results are consistent with theoretical conceptualizations of the triarchic model. Our findings indicate that, among US gun owners, dispositional factors may impact comfort with and aptitude with guns, which may enhance our understanding of which gun owners are at the greatest risk of gun suicide should they develop suicidal thoughts.

Psychopathy and Deviant Workplace Behavior: A Comparison of Two Psychopathy Models

Although psychopathy is an interpersonally harmful construct, few studies have compared different psycho athy models in predicting different types of workplace deviance. We examined how the Triarchic Psychopathy Model (TRI-PM) and the Self-Report Psychopathy-Short Form (SRP-SF) predicted deviant workplace behaviors in two forms: sexual harassment and deviant work behaviors. Using structural equations modeling, the latent factor of psychopathy was predictive for both types of deviant workplace behavior. Specifically, the SRP-SF signif cantly predicted both measures of deviant workplace behavior. With respect to the TRI-PM, meanness and disinhibition significantly predicted higher scores of workplace deviance and workplace sexual harassment measures. Future research needs to investigate the influence of psychopathy on deviant workplace behaviors, and consider the measures they use when they investigate these constructs.

Extending the Construct Network of Trait Disinhibition to the Neuroimaging Domain: Validation of a Bridging Scale for Use in the European IMAGEN Project

Trait disinhibition, a clinical-liability construct, has well-established correlates in the diagnostic, self-rating, task-behavioral, and brain potential response domains. Recently, studies have begun to test for neuroimaging correlates of this liability factor, but more work of this type using larger data sets is needed to clarify its brain bases. The current study details the development and validation of a scale measure of trait disinhibition composed of questionnaire items available in the IMAGEN project, a large-scale longitudinal study of factors contributing to substance abuse that includes clinical interview, self-report personality, task-behavioral, neuroimaging, and genomic measures. Using a construct-rating and psychometric refinement approach, a scale was developed that evidenced: (a) positive relations with interview-assessed psychopathology in the IMAGEN sample, both concurrently and prospectively and (b) positive associations with scale measures of disinhibition and reported psychopathology, and a robust negative correlation with P3 brain response, in a separate adult sample ( M_age = 19.5). These findings demonstrate that a common scale measure can index this construct from adolescence through to early adulthood, and set the stage for systematic work directed at identifying neural and genetic biomarkers of this key liability construct using existing and future data from the IMAGEN project.

Callousness and affective face processing in adults: Behavioral and brain-potential indicators

The investigation of callous-unemotional (CU) traits has been central to contemporary research on child behavior problems, and served as the impetus for inclusion of a specifier for conduct disorder in the latest edition of the official psychiatric diagnostic system. Here, we report results from 2 studies that evaluated the construct validity of callousness as assessed in adults, by testing for affiliated deficits in behavioral and neural processing of fearful faces, as have been shown in youthful samples. We hypothesized that scores on an established measure of callousness would predict reduced recognition accuracy and diminished electocortical reactivity for fearful faces in adult participants. In Study 1, 66 undergraduate participants performed an emotion recognition task in which they viewed affective faces of different types and indicated the emotion expressed by each. In Study 2, electrocortical data were collected from 254 adult twins during viewing of fearful and neutral face stimuli, and scored for event-related response components. Analyses of Study 1 data revealed that higher callousness was associated with decreased recognition accuracy for fearful faces specifically. In Study 2, callousness was associated with reduced amplitude of both N170 and P200 responses to fearful faces. Current findings demonstrate for the first time that callousness in adults is associated with both behavioral and physiological deficits in the processing of fearful faces. These findings support the validity of the CU construct with adults and highlight the possibility of a multidomain measurement framework for continued study of this important clinical construct. (PsycINFO Database Record

Examining the Relationships Between the Triarchic Psychopathy Constructs and Behavioral Deviance in a Community Sample

Few studies have examined the extent to which psychopathic traits relate to the commission of mild to moderate acts of deviance, such as vandalism and minor traffic violations. Given that psychopathy is now studied in community populations, the relationship between psychopathic traits and less severe deviant behaviors, which are more normative among noninstitutionalized samples, warrants investigation. The current study examined the relationships between the triarchic model of psychopathy (Patrick, Fowles & Krueger, 2009) and seven forms of deviant behavior (drug use, alcohol use, theft, vandalism, school misconduct, assault, and general deviance) in a nationally representative sample. Triarchic disinhibition positively predicted each form of normative deviance. Boldness positively predicted drug and alcohol use as well as general deviance, while meanness negatively predicted school misconduct. Boldness and disinhibition also positively predicted overall lifetime engagement in deviant behavior. Implications are discussed, including support of the role of boldness within the psychopathy construct.

The Dark Triad and Workplace Behavior

Over the last 15 years, there has been growing fascination among scholars in studying “dark behaviors” and “dark traits,” especially as they are expressed in organizational contexts. One taxonomy of dark traits that has garnered special interest is the dark triad (DT), which is comprised of three toxic and malevolent traits: psychopathy, narcissism, and Machiavellianism. This chapter offers a review of DT research, with a particular focus on research relevant to the organizational sciences. We begin with a definition of personality in general and the traits of the DT in particular, including a discussion of the clinical and subclinical variants of these traits. We then review literature linking the DT traits to an array of organizational outcomes, discuss how the DT traits may be assessed, and conclude with recommendations for future work.

Concurrent and developmental correlates of psychopathic traits using a triarchic psychopathy model approach

Psychopathy refers to a heterogeneous set of harmful dark traits and behaviors, including superficial charm, callousness, irresponsibility, and antisocial behavior. The triarchic psychopathy model (TriPM) posits that psychopathy is the combination of 3 traits: boldness, disinhibition, and meanness. However, little research has examined the concurrent and developmental correlates of these traits. We developed TriPM scales from the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised using an empirical-derived approach in a high-risk sample of 561 young adults (ages 17-25; 70.2% male). Concurrent correlates and developmental precursors of each scale were examined longitudinally using cross-informant reports from 3 critical developmental periods (ages 3-5; 9-11; 15-17). Using this approach, we identified consistent developmental precursors and concurrent correlates of boldness, including lower reactive control, fewer internalizing traits, and greater resiliency. Additionally, starting in adolescence we found that disinhibition was related to lower reactive control, more externalizing problems, substance use, and internalizing traits. Finally, although meanness demonstrated some expected concurrent relationships with criterion variables in early adulthood (e.g., lower adaptive functioning), we identified few consistent developmental precursors of meanness. Thus, a NEO-based approach to measuring the TriPM was successful in delineating boldness, disinhibition, and, to a lesser extent, meanness cross-sectionally during early adulthood. However, only boldness showed relative stability from developmental precursors in early childhood to our TriPM scale in early adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record

Comparing the lexical similarity of the triarchic model of psychopathy to contemporary models of psychopathy

OBJECTIVE

The triarchic model of psychopathy (Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009) posits that psychopathic personality comprises three domains: boldness, meanness, and disinhibition. The present study aimed to clarify conceptual overlap between contemporary definitions of psychopathy, with particular emphasis given to the relevance of boldness (i.e., social dominance, venturesomeness, emotional resiliency)-a topic of recent debate.

METHOD

Undergraduate students (N = 439) compared the lexical similarity of triarchic domains with two contemporary models of psychopathy: the Comprehensive Assessment of Psychopathic Personality (CAPP; Cooke, Hart, Logan, & Michie, 2012) and the Five-Factor Model of psychopathy (FFM; Widiger & Lynam, 1998).

RESULTS

From a content validity perspective, meanness and disinhibition were lexically similar to both the CAPP and FFM psychopathy, whereas boldness was less strongly associated with these models. Meanness showed the strongest lexical similarity in comparison with past prototypicality ratings of the CAPP and FFM psychopathy.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings bear implications for defining and comparing conceptualizations of psychopathy that underpin its assessment.

Triarchic Psychopathy Dimensions in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Investigating Associations with Genetic Variation in the Vasopressin Receptor 1A Gene

Vasopressin is a neuropeptide known to be associated with the development and evolution of complex socio-emotional behaviors including those relevant to psychopathic personality. In both humans and chimpanzees, recent research suggests a strong genetic contribution to individual variation in psychopathic traits. To date, however, little is known concerning specific genes that might explain the observed heritability of psychopathy. In a relatively large sample of captive chimpanzees (N = 164), the current study thus sought to investigate gene-environment associations between triarchic psychopathy dimensions (i.e., disinhibition, meanness, and boldness) and (1) early social rearing experiences and (2) polymorphisms in the promoter region of the V1A receptor gene (AVPR1A). Among chimpanzees raised by their biological conspecific mothers, AVPR1A was found to uniquely explain variability in disinhibition and in sex-specific ways for boldness and a total psychopathy score; however, in contrast, no significant associations were found between AVPR1A and any of the triarchic psychopathy dimensions in chimpanzees raised the first 3 years of life in a human nursery. Thus, when considered in its entirety, results suggest an important contributory influence of V1A receptor genotype variation in the explanation of the development of psychopathy under some but not all early rearing conditions. Results of the current study provide additional support for the assertion that psychopathic tendencies are rooted in basic, evolutionarily-meaningful dispositions, and provide support for a primate-translational operationalization of key neurobehavioral constructs relevant both to psychopathy and to broader forms of psychopathology.

Taxometric analyses and predictive accuracy of callous-unemotional traits regarding quality of life and behavior problems in non-conduct disorder diagnoses

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits have mainly been studied in relation to conduct disorder (CD), but can also occur in other disorder groups. However, it is unclear whether there is a clinically relevant cut-off value of levels of CU traits in predicting reduced quality of life (QoL) and clinical symptoms, and whether CU traits better fit a categorical (taxonic) or dimensional model. Parents of 979 youths referred to a child and adolescent psychiatric clinic rated their child's CU traits on the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional traits (ICU), QoL on the Kidscreen-27, and clinical symptoms on the Child Behavior Checklist. Experienced clinicians conferred DSM-IV-TR diagnoses of ADHD, ASD, anxiety/mood disorders and DBD-NOS/ODD. The ICU was also used to score the DSM-5 specifier 'with limited prosocial emotions' (LPE) of Conduct Disorder. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses revealed that the predictive accuracy of the ICU and LPE regarding QoL and clinical symptoms was poor to fair, and similar across diagnoses. A clinical cut-off point could not be defined. Taxometric analyses suggested that callous-unemotional traits on the ICU best reflect a dimension rather than taxon. More research is needed on the impact of CU traits on the functional adaptation, course, and response to treatment of non-CD conditions.

Personality risk for antisocial behavior: Testing the intersections between callous-unemotional traits, sensation seeking, and impulse control in adolescence

The current project seeks to integrate literatures on personality risk for antisocial behavior (ASB) by examining how callous-unemotional traits relate to (a) the development of disinhibited traits and (b) the association between disinhibited traits and ASB. In Study 1, using a nationally representative sample of youth (N > 7,000), we examined whether conduct problems and lack of guilt assessed during ages 4-10 years predicted levels of and changes in disinhibited traits over the course of adolescence, and moderated associations between these traits and ASB. High levels of childhood conduct problems were associated with higher levels of impulsivity, sensation seeking, and ASB in early adolescence, whereas lack of guilt was associated with lower levels of sensation seeking. Neither conduct problems nor lack of guilt significantly predicted changes in impulsivity or sensation seeking, and associations among changes in sensation seeking, impulsivity, and ASB were also consistent across levels of conduct problems and lack of guilt. In Study 2, using a cross-sectional sample of adolescents (N = 970), we tested whether callous-unemotional traits moderated associations between disinhibited traits and ASB. Consistent with the results of Study 1, associations between disinhibited personality and ASB were consistent across a continuous range of callous-unemotional traits.

Etiology of Triarchic Psychopathy Dimensions in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

The current study undertook analyses of genealogical data from a sample of 178 socially-housed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) with well-documented pedigrees, to clarify the etiologic bases of triarchic psychopathy dimensions and the influence of early social rearing experiences. Whereas biometric analyses for the full sample indicated significant heritability for the boldness dimension of psychopathy only, heritability estimates varied by early rearing, with all three triarchic dimensions showing significant heritabilities among mother-reared but not nursery-reared apes. For mother-reared apes, both genes and environment contributed to covariance between meanness and disinhibition, whereas environment contributed mainly to covariation between these dimensions and boldness. Results indicate contributions of both genes and environment to psychopathic tendencies, with an important role for early-rearing in their relative contributions to distinct phenotypic subdimensions. In conjunction with findings from human studies, results provide valuable insights into core biobehavioral processes relevant to psychological illness and health.

Integrating Alternative Conceptions of Psychopathic Personality: A Latent Variable Model of Triarchic Psychopathy Constructs

This study undertook confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) of data from 567 participants to quantify constructs specified by the triarchic model of psychopathy (Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009)-boldness, meanness, and disinhibition-as latent variables. Indicators for the CFAs consisted of subscales of the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure along with triarchic scales derived from items of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory, Youth Psychopathic Traits Inventory, and Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. A modified three-factor model provided good fit to the data and outperformed alternative two- and one-factor models. Multiple-group CFAs demonstrated gender differences (male > female) in factor means and covariances, but not in factor loadings or intercepts. These findings support the idea that the triarchic model dimensions are embedded in differing models and measures of psychopathy and comprise essential building blocks for this clinical condition. Implications for understanding the structure of psychopathy, gender differences in psychopathic traits, and applications of latent variable modeling in future research are discussed.

As Far as the Eye Can See: Relationship between Psychopathic Traits and Pupil Response to Affective Stimuli

Psychopathic individuals show a range of affective processing deficits, typically associated with the interpersonal/affective component of psychopathy. However, previous research has been inconsistent as to whether psychopathy, within both offender and community populations, is associated with deficient autonomic responses to the simple presentation of affective stimuli. Changes in pupil diameter occur in response to emotionally arousing stimuli and can be used as an objective indicator of physiological reactivity to emotion. This study used pupillometry to explore whether psychopathic traits within a community sample were associated with hypo-responsivity to the affective content of stimuli. Pupil activity was recorded for 102 adult (52 female) community participants in response to affective (both negative and positive affect) and affectively neutral stimuli, that included images of scenes, static facial expressions, dynamic facial expressions and sound-clips. Psychopathic traits were measured using the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure. Pupil diameter was larger in response to negative stimuli, but comparable pupil size was demonstrated across pleasant and neutral stimuli. A linear relationship between subjective arousal and pupil diameter was found in response to sound-clips, but was not evident in response to scenes. Contrary to predictions, psychopathy was unrelated to emotional modulation of pupil diameter across all stimuli. The findings were the same when participant gender was considered. This suggests that psychopathy within a community sample is not associated with autonomic hypo-responsivity to affective stimuli, and this effect is discussed in relation to later defensive/appetitive mobilisation deficits.

Methodological issues in the use of individual brain measures to index trait liabilities: The example of noise-probe P3

Recent research initiatives have called for an increased use of biological concepts and measures in defining and studying mental health problems, but important measurement-related challenges confront efforts in this direction. This article highlights some of these challenges with reference to an intriguing measure of neural reactivity: the probe P3 response, a mid-latency brain potential evoked by an intense, unexpected acoustic-probe stimulus. Using data for a large adult sample (N=418), we report evidence that amplitude of probe P3 response to unwarned noise bursts occurring in a picture-viewing task exhibits robust, independent associations with two distinct trait constructs: weak inhibitory control (or disinhibition; DIS) and threat sensitivity (THT). Additionally, we report a selective association for THT with attentional suppression of probe P3 response during viewing of aversive pictures compared to neutral. These results point to separable elements of variance underlying the probe P3 response, including one element reflecting DIS-related variations in cognitive-elaborative processing, and others reflecting THT-related variations in aversive foreground engagement and abrupt defensive reorientation. Key measurement issues are considered in relation to these specific findings, and methodological and statistical approaches for addressing these issues are discussed in relation to advancement of a quantitatively sound, biologically informed science of psychopathology.

Psychopathy and Personality: Advances and Debates

Nine original articles comprise this special issue of the Journal of Personality addressing personality-based perspectives of psychopathy. In this introduction to the special issue, we review five advances and areas of agreement that are highlighted across the articles, including the utility of trait perspectives to psychopathy, the emergence of a prototypical trait profile of psychopathy, the importance of recognizing earlier developmental manifestations of psychopathy, the ongoing study and revelation of the basic neural underpinnings of psychopathy, and the important theoretical and empirical association between psychopathy and antisocial behavior. At the same time, several important debates remain, which are also highlighted in the special issue's articles. These debates center around the necessity and sufficiency of certain psychopathy traits, the role of traits alternatively labeled stable Extraversion, fearless dominance, or boldness, and the validity and utility of separating psychopathy from Machiavellianism as is done in research on the Dark Triad.

Striatal Dopamine, Externalizing Proneness, and Substance Abuse: Effects on Wanting and Learning during Reward-Based Decision Making

We examined whether striatal dopamine moderates the impact of externalizing proneness (disinhibition) on reward-based decision-making. Participants completed disinhibition and substance abuse subscales of the brief form Externalizing Spectrum Inventory, and then performed a delay discounting task to assess preference for immediate rewards along with a dynamic decision-making task that assessed long-term reward learning (i.e., inclination to choose larger delayed versus smaller immediate rewards). Striatal tonic dopamine levels were operationalized using spontaneous eyeblink rate. Regression analyses revealed that high disinhibition predicted greater delay discounting among participants with lower levels of striatal dopamine only, while substance abuse was associated with poorer long-term learning among individuals with lower levels of striatal dopamine, but better long-term learning in those with higher levels of striatal dopamine. These results suggest that disinhibition is more strongly associated with the wanting component of reward-based decision-making, whereas substance abuse behavior is associated more with learning of long-term action-reward contingencies.

Further Evidence for Reliability and Validity of the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure in a Forensic Sample and a Community Sample

Psychopathy is often described as a constellation of personality characteristics encompassing features such as impulsivity and antisociality, and a lack of empathy and guilt. Although the use of self-reports to assess psychopathy is still debated, there are distinct advantages to such measures and recent research suggests that they may not be as problematic as previously thought. This study further examined the reliability and validity of the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) in a community sample (N = 496) and forensic psychiatric patient sample (N = 217). Results indicated excellent internal consistencies. Additionally, the TriPM total and subscale scores related as expected to different subscales of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory -Revised (PPI-R) and to the Reactive and Proactive Aggression Questionnaire, reflecting good construct validity. Most importantly, ROC curve analyses showed that the TriPM evidenced better discrimination between the community sample and forensic psychiatric patients than the PPI-R. The current study extends the existent evidence demonstrating that the TriPM can be used as an efficient self-report instrument.

Development and Validation of the Chinese Triarchic Psychopathy Measure

The nature of psychopathy is not well understood in East Asian cultures, partially due to a lack of an established measurement of this important construct. This study developed and validated a Chinese-language version of the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (TriPM) based on Patrick et al.'s (2009) triarchic model of psychopathy. Study 1 described the translation of the Chinese TriPM and demonstrated that the Chinese version of the TriPM is equivalent to the original English version in linguistic meaning. Study 2 examined the construct validity of the Chinese TriPM in a Chinese student sample. The TriPM evinced acceptable reliability and promising validity. Moreover, cross-cultural equivalence was examined by relative associations for the TriPM with the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale across the Chinese sample and a comparable United States student sample. Results revealed that the test bias in the strength of associations, regression intercepts, and slopes was mostly absent across the two samples.

Development and Validation of MMPI-2-RF Scales for Indexing Triarchic Psychopathy Constructs

The triarchic model characterizes psychopathy in terms of three distinct dispositional constructs of boldness, meanness, and disinhibition. The model can be operationalized through scales designed specifically to index these domains or by using items from other inventories that provide coverage of related constructs. The present study sought to develop and validate scales for assessing the triarchic model domains using items from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2–Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF). A consensus rating approach was used to identify items relevant to each triarchic domain, and following psychometric refinement, the resulting MMPI-2-RF-based triarchic scales were evaluated for convergent and discriminant validity in relation to multiple psychopathy-relevant criterion variables in offender and nonoffender samples. Expected convergent and discriminant associations were evident very clearly for the Boldness and Disinhibition scales and somewhat less clearly for the Meanness scale. Moreover, hierarchical regression analyses indicated that all MMPI-2-RF triarchic scales incremented standard MMPI-2-RF scale scores in predicting extant triarchic model scale scores. The widespread use of MMPI-2-RF in clinical and forensic settings provides avenues for both clinical and research applications in contexts where traditional psychopathy measures are less likely to be administered.