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Koob GF, Kenneth Lloyd G, Mason BJ. Development of pharmacotherapies for drug addiction: a Rosetta stone approach. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2009; 8:500-15. [PMID: 19483710 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Current pharmacotherapies for addiction represent opportunities for facilitating treatment and are forming a foundation for evaluating new medications. Furthermore, validated animal models of addiction and a surge in understanding of neurocircuitry and neuropharmacological mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of addiction - such as the neuroadaptive changes that account for the transition to dependence and the vulnerability to relapse - have provided numerous potential therapeutic targets. Here, we emphasize a 'Rosetta Stone approach', whereby existing pharmacotherapies for addiction are used to validate and improve animal and human laboratory models to identify viable new treatment candidates. This approach will promote translational research and provide a heuristic framework for developing efficient and effective pharmacotherapies for addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, SP30-2400 La Jolla, California 92037, USA.
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102
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Marcinkiewcz CA, Prado MM, Isaac SK, Marshall A, Rylkova D, Bruijnzeel AW. Corticotropin-releasing factor within the central nucleus of the amygdala and the nucleus accumbens shell mediates the negative affective state of nicotine withdrawal in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009; 34:1743-52. [PMID: 19145226 PMCID: PMC2680924 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2008.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Tobacco addiction is a chronic disorder that is characterized by a negative affective state upon smoking cessation and relapse after periods of abstinence. Previous research has shown that an increased central release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) at least partly mediates the deficit in brain reward function associated with nicotine withdrawal in rats. The aim of these studies was to investigate the role of CRF in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), the lateral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), and the nucleus accumbens shell (Nacc shell) in the deficit in brain reward function associated with precipitated nicotine withdrawal. The intracranial self-stimulation procedure was used to assess the negative affective aspects of nicotine withdrawal. Elevations in brain reward thresholds are indicative of a deficit in brain reward function. In all experiments, the nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine (3 mg/kg) elevated the brain reward thresholds of the nicotine-dependent rats (9 mg/kg per day of nicotine salt) and did not affect the brain reward thresholds of the saline-treated control rats. The administration of the nonspecific CRF1/2 receptor antagonist D-Phe CRF((12-41)) into the CeA and the Nacc shell prevented the mecamylamine-induced elevations in brain reward thresholds in the nicotine-dependent rats. Blockade of CRF1/2 receptors in the lateral BNST did not prevent the mecamylamine-induced elevations in brain reward thresholds in the nicotine-dependent rats. These studies indicate that the negative emotional state associated with precipitated nicotine withdrawal is at least partly mediated by an increased release of CRF in the CeA and the Nacc shell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Marcinkiewcz
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610 , USA
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103
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Jelsing J, Galzin AM, Guillot E, Pruniaux MP, Larsen PJ, Vrang N. Localization and phenotypic characterization of brainstem neurons activated by rimonabant and WIN55,212-2. Brain Res Bull 2009; 78:202-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2008.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2008] [Revised: 10/21/2008] [Accepted: 10/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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104
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Ruiz-Veguilla M, Gurpegui M, Barrigón ML, Ferrín M, Marín E, Rubio JL, Gutiérrez B, Pintor A, Cervilla J. Fewer neurological soft signs among first episode psychosis patients with heavy cannabis use. Schizophr Res 2009; 107:158-64. [PMID: 18805673 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2008.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2008] [Revised: 07/18/2008] [Accepted: 08/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although neurological soft signs (NSS) have been consistently associated with schizophrenia and a variety of risk factors, few studies have focused on the association between NSS and environmental factors such as cannabis use, particularly in patients with first episode psychosis. METHODS We administered the Neurological Evaluation Scale (NES) to 92 patients during their first episode of functional psychosis. Psychopathology was assessed with the Positive And Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the family history of psychotic disorder was established on the basis of the Family Interview for Genetic Studies (FIGS). We also assessed lifetime cannabis and cocaine use utilizing that specific section of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. The outcome variable was the presence of high NSS, defined by a score above the median split of the NES score (>21). RESULTS Most patients (80/92, 87%) presented a non-affective psychosis. The presence of high NSS showed a significant independent association with not having been a heavy cannabis user (OR=8.3; 95% CI, 2.4-33.3), family history of psychosis (OR=4.3; 95% CI, 1.2-14.9), male sex (OR=4.0; 95% CI, 1.2-14.0), lower score in verbal fluency and higher score in negative symptoms (both p<0.01). CONCLUSION Our cross-sectional results support the hypothesis that potentially different pathways associated with the emergence of first episode psychosis may exist, including neurological premorbid alteration and environmental cannabis abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Ruiz-Veguilla
- Psychiatry and Neurosciences Research Group (CTS-549), Institute of Neurosciences, University of Granada, and Psychiatry Service, San Cecilio University Hospital, Granada, Spain
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105
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Abstract
Cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous ligands are located throughout the limbic, or "emotional," brain, where they modulate synaptic neurotransmission. Converging preclinical and clinical data suggest a role for endogenous cannabinoid signaling in the modulation of anxiety and depression. Augmentation of endocannabinoid signaling (ECS) has anxiolytic effects, whereas blockade or genetic deletion of CB₁ receptors has anxiogenic properties. Augmentation of ECS also appears to have anti-depressant actions, and in some assays blockade and genetic deletion of CB₁ receptors produces depressive phenotypes. These data provide evidence that ECS serves in an anxiolytic, and possibly anti-depressant, role. These data suggest novel approaches to treatment of affective disorders which could include enhancement of endogenous cannabinoid signaling, and warrant cautious use of CB₁ receptor antagonists in patients with pre-existing affective disorders.
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106
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Abstract
Many drugs of abuse, including cannabinoids, opioids, alcohol and nicotine, can alter the levels of endocannabinoids in the brain. Recent studies show that release of endocannabinoids in the ventral tegmental area can modulate the reward-related effects of dopamine and might therefore be an important neurobiological mechanism underlying drug addiction. There is strong evidence that the endocannabinoid system is involved in drug-seeking behavior (especially behavior that is reinforced by drug-related cues), as well as in the mechanisms that underlie relapse to drug use. The cannabinoid CB(1) antagonist/inverse agonist rimonabant has been shown to reduce the behavioral effects of stimuli associated with drugs of abuse, including nicotine, alcohol, cocaine, and marijuana. Thus, the endocannabinoid system represents a promising target for development of new treatments for drug addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Justinova
- Department of Health and Human Services, Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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107
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Abstract
Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in the world. Treatment admissions for cannabis use disorders have risen considerably in recent years, and the identification of medications that can be used to improve treatment outcomes among this population is a priority for researchers and clinicians. To date, several medications have been investigated for indications of clinically desirable effects among cannabis users (e.g. reduced withdrawal, attenuation of subjective or reinforcing effects, reduced relapse). Medications studied have included those: (i) known to be effective in the treatment of other drug use disorders; (ii) known to alleviate symptoms of cannabis withdrawal (e.g. dysphoric mood, irritability); or (iii) that directly affect endogenous cannabinoid receptor function. Results from controlled laboratory studies and small open-label clinical studies indicate that buspirone, dronabinol, fluoxetine, lithium and lofexidine may have therapeutic benefit for those seeking treatment for cannabis-related problems. However, controlled clinical trials have not been conducted and are needed to both confirm the potential clinical efficacy of these medications and to validate the laboratory models being used to study candidate medications. Although the recent increase in research towards the development of pharmacotherapy for cannabis use disorders has yielded promising leads, well controlled clinical trials are needed to support broad clinical use of these medications to treat cannabis use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Vandrey
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA.
| | - Margaret Haney
- New York State Psychiatric Institute and College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
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108
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Gaetani S, Dipasquale P, Romano A, Righetti L, Cassano T, Piomelli D, Cuomo V. The endocannabinoid system as a target for novel anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2009; 85:57-72. [PMID: 19607961 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(09)85005-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Observational studies in humans suggest that exposure to marijuana and other cannabis-derived drugs produces a wide range of subjective effects on mood tone and emotionality. These observations have their counterpart in animal studies, showing that cannabinoid agonists strongly affect emotional reactivity in directions that vary depending on dose and context. Based on these evidence, the activation of central CB(1) receptor has emerged as potential target for the development of antianxiety and antidepressant therapies. However, the variable effects of exogenous cannabinoid agonists have gradually shifted the interest to the alternative approach of amplifying the effects of endogenous cannabinoids (EC), namely anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), by preventing their deactivation. The enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) has been the target of intense research efforts aimed at developing potent and selective inhibitors that might prolong AEA actions in vivo. Among the inhibitors developed, the compound URB597 was found to potently inhibit FAAH activity in vivo and cause brain AEA levels to increase. Interestingly, the enhanced AEA tone produced by URB597 does not result in the behavioral effects typical of a direct-acting cannabinoid agonist. Though URB597 does not elicit a full-fledged cannabinoid profile of behavioral responses, it does elicit marked anxiolytic-like and antidepressant-like effects in rats and mice. Such effects involve the downstream activation of CB(1) receptors, since they are attenuated by the CB(1) antagonist SR141716 (rimonabant). Parallel to FAAH inhibition, similar results can also be observed by pharmacologically blocking the AEA transport system, which is responsible of the intracellular uptake of AEA from the synaptic cleft. The reason why FAAH inhibition approach produces a smaller set of cannabimimetic effects might depend on the mechanism of EC synthesis and release upon neuronal activation and on the target selectivity of the drug. The mechanism of EC release is commonly referred to as "on request", since they are not synthesized and stored in synaptic vesicles, such as classical neurotransmitters, but are synthesized from membrane precursors and immediately released in the synaptic cleft following neuronal activation. The neural stimulation in specific brain areas, for example, those involved in the regulation of mood tone and/or emotional reactivity, would result in an increased EC tone in these same areas, but not necessarily in others. Therefore, inhibition of AEA metabolism activity could amplify CB(1) activation mainly where AEA release is higher. Furthermore, the inhibition of FAAH causes an accumulation of AEA but not 2-AG, which, being 200-fold more abundant than AEA in the brain, might differently modulate CB(1)-mediated behavioral responses. The evidence outlined above supports the hypothesis that the EC system plays an important role in anxiety and mood disorders and suggests that modulation of FAAH activity might be a pharmacological target for novel anxiolytic and antidepressant therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvana Gaetani
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
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109
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Hyman SM, Sinha R. Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: implications for prevention and treatment. J Subst Abuse Treat 2008; 36:400-13. [PMID: 19004601 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsat.2008.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2008] [Revised: 07/24/2008] [Accepted: 08/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We examined the role of stress as a risk factor and motivation for cannabis use/misuse. A systematic review of studies gathered from PsychINFO and MEDLINE databases was conducted. Findings suggest that cannabis is commonly used as a stress-coping strategy. Negative life events, trauma, and maladaptive coping were all related to consumption. Cannabis use for stress-coping purposes was most evident when examining chronic as compared with experimental use. Although many individuals may be able to use cannabis without consequences, there appears to be a subset of individuals who experience greater life stress and who may be more likely to use for stress-coping purposes. These individuals may be at greatest risk for addiction. Chronic use may potentiate stress-related motivation to use/abuse cannabis and is associated with decision-making deficits and alterations in brain-stress pathways that may exacerbate compulsive drug seeking and sensitize individuals to stress-related drug use. Overall, stress-coping interventions and harm reduction focused on reducing the amount ingested may facilitate prevention and recovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Hyman
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, Substance Abuse Treatment Unit, 1 Long Wharf Drive, Box 18, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
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110
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Nogueiras R, Veyrat-Durebex C, Suchanek PM, Klein M, Tschöp J, Caldwell C, Woods SC, Wittmann G, Watanabe M, Liposits Z, Fekete C, Reizes O, Rohner-Jeanrenaud F, Tschöp MH. Peripheral, but not central, CB1 antagonism provides food intake-independent metabolic benefits in diet-induced obese rats. Diabetes 2008; 57:2977-91. [PMID: 18716045 PMCID: PMC2570394 DOI: 10.2337/db08-0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Blockade of the CB1 receptor is one of the promising strategies for the treatment of obesity. Although antagonists suppress food intake and reduce body weight, the role of central versus peripheral CB1 activation on weight loss and related metabolic parameters remains to be elucidated. We therefore specifically assessed and compared the respective potential relevance of central nervous system (CNS) versus peripheral CB1 receptors in the regulation of energy homeostasis and lipid and glucose metabolism in diet-induced obese (DIO) rats. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Both lean and DIO rats were used for our experiments. The expression of key enzymes involved in lipid metabolism was measured by real-time PCR, and euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamps were used for insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism studies. RESULTS Specific CNS-CB1 blockade decreased body weight and food intake but, independent of those effects, had no beneficial influence on peripheral lipid and glucose metabolism. Peripheral treatment with CB1 antagonist (Rimonabant) also reduced food intake and body weight but, in addition, independently triggered lipid mobilization pathways in white adipose tissue and cellular glucose uptake. Insulin sensitivity and skeletal muscle glucose uptake were enhanced, while hepatic glucose production was decreased during peripheral infusion of the CB1 antagonist. However, these effects depended on the antagonist-elicited reduction of food intake. CONCLUSIONS Several relevant metabolic processes appear to independently benefit from peripheral blockade of CB1, while CNS-CB1 blockade alone predominantly affects food intake and body weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Nogueiras
- Department of Psychiatry, Obesity Research Centre, Genome Research Institute, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
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111
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Espinosa VP, Liu Y, Ferrini M, Anghel A, Nie Y, Tripathi PV, Porche R, Jansen E, Stuart RC, Nillni EA, Lutfy K, Friedman TC. Differential regulation of prohormone convertase 1/3, prohormone convertase 2 and phosphorylated cyclic-AMP-response element binding protein by short-term and long-term morphine treatment: implications for understanding the "switch" to opiate addiction. Neuroscience 2008; 156:788-99. [PMID: 18771713 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.07.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2008] [Revised: 07/21/2008] [Accepted: 07/22/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a state of altered brain reward and self-regulation mediated by both neurotransmitter and hormonal systems. Although an organism's internal system attempts to maintain homeostasis when challenged by exogenous opiates and other drugs of abuse, it eventually fails, resulting in the transition from drug use to drug abuse. We propose that the attempted maintenance of hormonal homeostasis is achieved, in part, through alterations in levels of processing enzymes that control the ratio of active hormone to pro-hormone. Two pro-hormone convertases, PC1/3 and PC2 are believed to be responsible for the activation of many neurohormones and expression of these enzymes is dependent on the presence of a cyclic-AMP response element (CRE) in their promoters. Therefore, we studied the effects of short-term (24-h) and long-term (7-day) morphine treatment on the expression of hypothalamic PC1/3 and PC2 and levels of phosphorylated cyclic-AMP-response element binding protein (P-CREB). While short-term morphine exposure down-regulated, long-term morphine exposure up-regulated P-CREB, PC1/3 and PC2 protein levels in the rat hypothalamus as determined by Western blot analysis. Quantitative immunofluorescence studies confirmed these regulatory actions of morphine in the paraventricular and dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. Specific radioimmunoassays demonstrated that the increase in PC1/3 and PC2 levels following long-term morphine led to increased TRH biosynthesis as evidence by increased TRH/5.4 kDa C-terminal proTRH-derived peptide ratios in the median eminence. Promoter activity experiments in rat somatomammotrope GH3 cells containing the mu-opioid receptor demonstrated that the CRE(s) in the promoter of PC1/3 and PC2 is required for morphine-induced regulation of PC1/3 and PC2. Our data suggest that the regulation of the prohormone processing system by morphine may lead to alterations in the levels of multiple bioactive hormones and may be a compensatory mechanism whereby the organism tries to restore its homeostatic hormonal milieu. The down-regulation of PC1/3, PC2 and P-CREB by short-term morphine and up-regulation by long-term morphine treatment may be a signal mediating the switch from drug use to drug abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Paez Espinosa
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, The Charles Drew University of Medicine & Sciences-UCLA School of Medicine, 1731 East 120th Street, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA
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112
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Koob GF. Neurobiological substrates for the dark side of compulsivity in addiction. Neuropharmacology 2008; 56 Suppl 1:18-31. [PMID: 18725236 PMCID: PMC2637927 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.07.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 336] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2008] [Revised: 07/29/2008] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction can be defined by a compulsion to seek and take drug, loss of control in limiting intake, and the emergence of a negative emotional state when access to the drug is prevented. Drug addiction impacts multiple motivational mechanisms and can be conceptualized as a disorder that progresses from impulsivity (positive reinforcement) to compulsivity (negative reinforcement). The construct of negative reinforcement is defined as drug taking that alleviates a negative emotional state. The negative emotional state that drives such negative reinforcement is hypothesized to derive from dysregulation of key neurochemical elements involved in reward and stress within the basal forebrain structures involving the ventral striatum and extended amygdala. Specific neurochemical elements in these structures include not only decreases in reward neurotransmission, such as decreases in dopamine and opioid peptide function in the ventral striatum, but also recruitment of brain stress systems, such as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), in the extended amygdala. Acute withdrawal from all major drugs of abuse produces increases in reward thresholds, increases in anxiety-like responses, and increases in extracellular levels of CRF in the central nucleus of the amygdala. CRF receptor antagonists also block excessive drug intake produced by dependence. A brain stress response system is hypothesized to be activated by acute excessive drug intake, to be sensitized during repeated withdrawal, to persist into protracted abstinence, and to contribute to the compulsivity of addiction. Other components of brain stress systems in the extended amygdala that interact with CRF and may contribute to the negative motivational state of withdrawal include norepinephrine, dynorphin, and neuropeptide Y. The combination of loss of reward function and recruitment of brain stress systems provides a powerful neurochemical basis for a negative emotional state that is responsible for the negative reinforcement driving, at least in part, the compulsivity of addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, SP30-2400, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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113
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Smith RJ, Aston-Jones G. Noradrenergic transmission in the extended amygdala: role in increased drug-seeking and relapse during protracted drug abstinence. Brain Struct Funct 2008; 213:43-61. [PMID: 18651175 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-008-0191-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2007] [Accepted: 07/02/2008] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Studies reviewed here implicate the extended amygdala in the negative affective states and increased drug-seeking that occur during protracted abstinence from chronic drug exposure. Norepinephrine (NE) and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling in the extended amygdala, including the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, shell of the nucleus accumbens, and central nucleus of the amygdala, are generally involved in behavioral responses to environmental and internal stressors. Hyperactivity of stress response systems during addiction drives many negative components of drug abstinence. In particular, NE signaling from the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) to the extended amygdala, along with increased CRF transmission within the extended amygdala, are critical for the aversiveness of acute opiate withdrawal as well as stress-induced relapse of drug-seeking for opiates, cocaine, ethanol, and nicotine. NE and CRF transmission in the extended amygdala are also implicated in the increased anxiety that occurs during prolonged abstinence from chronic opiates, cocaine, ethanol, and cannabinoids. Many of these stress-associated behaviors are reversed by NE or CRF antagonists given systemically or locally within the extended amygdala. Finally, increased Fos activation in the extended amygdala and NTS is associated with the enhanced preference for drugs and decreased preference for natural rewards observed during protracted abstinence from opiates and cocaine, indicating that these areas are involved in the altered reward processing associated with addiction. Together, these findings suggest that involvement of the extended amygdala and its noradrenergic afferents in anxiety, stress-induced relapse, and altered reward processing reflects a common function for these circuits in stress modulation of drug-seeking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel J Smith
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Ave., Suite 403 BSB, MSC 510, Charleston, SC 29425-5100, USA
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114
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Lu L, Liu D, Ceng X, Ma L. Differential roles of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor subtypes 1 and 2 in opiate withdrawal and in relapse to opiate dependence. Eur J Neurosci 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2000.01310.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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115
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Koob GF. A role for brain stress systems in addiction. Neuron 2008; 59:11-34. [PMID: 18614026 PMCID: PMC2748830 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 730] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2008] [Revised: 05/27/2008] [Accepted: 06/20/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder characterized by compulsion to seek and take drugs and has been linked to dysregulation of brain regions that mediate reward and stress. Activation of brain stress systems is hypothesized to be key to the negative emotional state produced by dependence that drives drug seeking through negative reinforcement mechanisms. This review explores the role of brain stress systems (corticotropin-releasing factor, norepinephrine, orexin [hypocretin], vasopressin, dynorphin) and brain antistress systems (neuropeptide Y, nociceptin [orphanin FQ]) in drug dependence, with emphasis on the neuropharmacological function of extrahypothalamic systems in the extended amygdala. The brain stress and antistress systems may play a key role in the transition to and maintenance of drug dependence once initiated. Understanding the role of brain stress and antistress systems in addiction provides novel targets for treatment and prevention of addiction and insights into the organization and function of basic brain emotional circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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116
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Trezza V, Campolongo P, Cassano T, Macheda T, Dipasquale P, Carratù MR, Gaetani S, Cuomo V. Effects of perinatal exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the emotional reactivity of the offspring: a longitudinal behavioral study in Wistar rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 198:529-37. [PMID: 18452035 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1162-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2007] [Accepted: 04/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The endocannabinoid system plays a crucial role in the control of emotionality and recent clinical findings have shown that heavy prenatal exposure to cannabis is significantly associated with self-reported anxiety symptoms in exposed children. However, the long-term neurobehavioral consequences of in utero exposure to low-moderate doses of cannabinoid compounds have never been investigated. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to investigate whether perinatal exposure to moderate doses of the active constituent of cannabis, the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor agonist delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), influences the emotional reactivity of rat offspring. METHODS Primiparous Wistar rats were treated during pregnancy and lactation with doses of THC equivalent to the current estimates of moderate cannabis consumption in humans (2.5-5 mg kg(-1), per os, from gestational day 15 to postnatal day 9). The emotional reactivity of infant, adolescent, and adult offspring was investigated using the isolation-induced ultrasonic vocalization, social interaction, and elevated plus-maze tests, respectively. RESULTS Perinatal THC treatment did not affect parameters of reproduction; however, at the dose of 5 mg kg(-1), it increased the number of ultrasounds emitted by rat pups removed from the nest, inhibited social interaction and play behavior in the adolescent offspring, and induced an anxiogenic-like profile in the adult offspring tested in the elevated plus-maze test. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the endocannabinoid system is involved in the control of emotionality since early developmental stages. Thus, even moderate doses of cannabinoid compounds, when administered during the perinatal period, can have profound consequences for brain maturation, leading to long-lasting neurodevelopmental alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Trezza
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, P. le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
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117
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McGregor IS, Callaghan PD, Hunt GE. From ultrasocial to antisocial: a role for oxytocin in the acute reinforcing effects and long-term adverse consequences of drug use? Br J Pharmacol 2008; 154:358-68. [PMID: 18475254 DOI: 10.1038/bjp.2008.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Addictive drugs can profoundly affect social behaviour both acutely and in the long-term. Effects range from the artificial sociability imbued by various intoxicating agents to the depressed and socially withdrawn state frequently observed in chronic drug users. Understanding such effects is of great potential significance in addiction neurobiology. In this review we focus on the 'social neuropeptide' oxytocin and its possible role in acute and long-term effects of commonly used drugs. Oxytocin regulates social affiliation and social recognition in many species and modulates anxiety, mood and aggression. Recent evidence suggests that popular party drugs such as MDMA and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) may preferentially activate brain oxytocin systems to produce their characteristic prosocial and prosexual effects. Oxytocin interacts with the mesolimbic dopamine system to facilitate sexual and social behaviour, and this oxytocin-dopamine interaction may also influence the acquisition and expression of drug-seeking behaviour. An increasing body of evidence from animal models suggests that even brief exposure to drugs such as MDMA, cannabinoids, methamphetamine and phencyclidine can cause long lasting deficits in social behaviour. We discuss preliminary evidence that these adverse effects may reflect long-term neuroadaptations in brain oxytocin systems. Laboratory studies and preliminary clinical studies also indicate that raising brain oxytocin levels may ameliorate acute drug withdrawal symptoms. It is concluded that oxytocin may play an important, yet largely unexplored, role in drug addiction. Greater understanding of this role may ultimately lead to novel therapeutics for addiction that can improve mood and facilitate the recovery of persons with drug use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- I S McGregor
- School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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118
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Abstract
The identification of the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1 receptor) was the milestone discovery in the elucidation of the behavioural and emotional responses induced by the Cannabis sativa constituent Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol. The subsequent years have established the existence of the endocannabinoid system. The early view relating this system to emotional responses is reflected by the fact that N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine, the pioneer endocannabinoid, was named anandamide after the Sanskrit word 'ananda', meaning 'bliss'. However, the emotional responses to cannabinoids are not always pleasant and delightful. Rather, anxiety and panic may also occur after activation of CB1 receptors. The present review discusses three properties of the endocannabinoid system as an attempt to understand these diverse effects. First, this system typically functions 'on-demand', depending on environmental stimuli and on the emotional state of the organism. Second, it has a wide neuro-anatomical distribution, modulating brain regions with different functions in responses to aversive stimuli. Third, endocannabinoids regulate the release of other neurotransmitters that may have even opposing functions, such as GABA and glutamate. Further understanding of the temporal, spatial and functional characteristics of this system is necessary to clarify its role in emotional responses and will promote advances in its therapeutic exploitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrício A Moreira
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Duesbergweg 6, 55099 Mainz, Germany.
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119
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Abstract
A remarkable amount of literature has been generated demonstrating the functional similarities between the endogenous opioid and cannabinoid systems. Anatomical, biochemical and molecular data support the existence of reciprocal interactions between these two systems related to several pharmacological responses including reward, cognitive effects, and the development of tolerance and dependence. However, the assessment of the bidirectionality of these effects has been difficult due to their variety and complexity. Reciprocal interactions have been well established for the development of physical dependence. Cross-tolerance and cross-sensitization, although not always bidirectional, are also supported by a number of evidence, while less data have been gathered regarding the relationship of these systems in cognition and emotion. Nevertheless, the most recent advances in cannabinoid-opioid cross-modulation have been made in the area of drug craving and relapse processes. The present review is focused on the latest developments in the cannabinoid-opioid cross-modulation of their behavioural effects and the possible neurobiological substrates involved.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Brain/drug effects
- Brain/physiopathology
- Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators/physiology
- Cannabinoids/pharmacology
- Cognition/drug effects
- Cognition/physiology
- Drug Tolerance
- Emotions/drug effects
- Emotions/physiology
- Endorphins/physiology
- Humans
- Marijuana Abuse/physiopathology
- Motivation
- Narcotics/pharmacology
- Neurotransmitter Agents/metabolism
- Opioid-Related Disorders/physiopathology
- Receptor Cross-Talk/drug effects
- Receptor Cross-Talk/physiology
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/physiology
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/drug effects
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/physiology
- Receptors, Opioid/drug effects
- Receptors, Opioid/physiology
- Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/physiopathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Robledo
- Laboratori de Neurofarmacologia, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain
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120
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Abstract
During puberty, neuronal maturation of the brain, which began during perinatal development, is completed such that the behavioral potential of the adult organism can be fully achieved. These maturational events and processes of reorganization are needed for the occurrence of adult behavioral performance but simultaneously render the organism highly susceptible to perturbations, such as exposure to psychoactive drugs, during this critical developmental time span. Considering the variety of maturational processes occurring in the endocannabinoid system during this critical period, it is not surprising that the still-developing brain might by highly susceptible to cannabis exposure. Emerging evidence from human studies and animal research demonstrates that an early onset of cannabis consumption might have lasting consequences on cognition, might increase the risk for neuropsychiatric disorders, promote further illegal drug intake and increase the likelihood of cannabis dependence. These findings suggest that young people represent a highly vulnerable cannabis consumer group and that they run a higher risk than adult consumers of suffering from adverse consequences from cannabinoid exposure. The aim of the present review is to provide an overview over the possible deleterious residual cannabinoid effects during critical periods of postnatal maturation and to offer a more precise delineation of the vulnerable time window for cannabinoid exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Schneider
- Central Institute of Mental Health (ZI), Department of Psychopharmacology, Mannheim, Germany.
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121
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Abstract
Awareness of cannabis dependence as a clinically relevant issue has grown in recent years. Clinical and laboratory studies demonstrate that chronic marijuana smokers can experience withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of marijuana smoking and have difficulty abstaining from marijuana use. This paper will review data implicating the cannabinoid CB1 receptor in regulating the behavioral effects of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannobinol (THC), the primary psychoactive component of cannabis, across a range of species. The behavioral effects that will be discussed include those that directly contribute to the maintenance of chronic marijuana smoking, such as reward, subjective effects, and the positive and negative reinforcing effects of marijuana, THC and synthetic cannabinoids. The role of the CB1 receptor in the development of marijuana dependence and expression of withdrawal will also be discussed. Lastly, treatment options that may alleviate withdrawal symptoms and promote marijuana abstinence will be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziva D Cooper
- Division on Substance Abuse, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Department of Psychiatry, College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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122
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de Fonseca FR, Schneider M. The endogenous cannabinoid system and drug addiction: 20 years after the discovery of the CB1 receptor. Addict Biol 2008; 13:143-6. [PMID: 18482429 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00116.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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123
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Cannabinoid modulation of amygdala reactivity to social signals of threat in humans. J Neurosci 2008; 28:2313-9. [PMID: 18322078 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5603-07.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The cannabinoid (CB) system is a key neurochemical mediator of anxiety and fear learning in both animals and humans. The anxiolytic effects of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, are believed to be mediated through direct and selective agonism of CB(1) receptors localized within the basolateral amygdala, a critical brain region for threat perception. However, little is known about the effects of THC on amygdala reactivity in humans. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging and a well validated task to probe amygdala responses to threat signals in 16 healthy, recreational cannabis users after a double-blind crossover administration of THC or placebo. We found that THC significantly reduced amygdala reactivity to social signals of threat but did not affect activity in primary visual and motor cortex. The current findings fit well with the notion that THC and other cannabinoids may have an anxiolytic role in central mechanisms of fear behaviors and provide a rationale for exploring novel therapeutic strategies that target the cannabinoid system for disorders of anxiety and social fear.
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124
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Naderi N, Haghparast A, Saber-Tehrani A, Rezaii N, Alizadeh AM, Khani A, Motamedi F. Interaction between cannabinoid compounds and diazepam on anxiety-like behaviour of mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008; 89:64-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2007] [Revised: 11/13/2007] [Accepted: 11/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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125
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Specio SE, Wee S, O’Dell LE, Boutrel B, Zorrilla EP, Koob GF. CRF(1) receptor antagonists attenuate escalated cocaine self-administration in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 196:473-82. [PMID: 17965976 PMCID: PMC2769571 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0983-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2007] [Accepted: 10/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Previous work suggests a role for stress-related corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) systems in cocaine dependence. However, the involvement of activation of CRF(1) receptors in rats self-administering cocaine with extended access is unknown. OBJECTIVE The current study examined whether CRF(1) receptor antagonist administration alters cocaine self-administration in animals given extended access. MATERIALS AND METHODS Wistar rats (n = 32) acquired cocaine self-administration (0.66 mg/kg per infusion) in 1 h sessions for up to 11 days. Rats then were assigned to receive either daily short (1 h, ShA) or long (6 h, LgA) access to cocaine self-administration (n = 7-9 per group). Following escalation of intake, animals received one of two selective CRF(1) antagonists: antalarmin (6.3-25 mg/kg, i.p.) or N,N-bis(2-methoxyethyl)-3-(4-methoxy-2-methylphenyl)-2,5-dimethyl-pyrazolo[1,5a]pyrimidin-7-amine (MPZP; 3.6-27.5 mg/kg, s.c.). RESULTS By day 11 of the escalation period, LgA rats increased their cocaine intake, reaching an intake level of 15.1 mg/kg, compared to 11.1 mg/kg in ShA rats, during the first hour of sessions. Antalarmin reduced cocaine self-administration at the highest dose selectively in the LgA group but not the ShA group. MPZP reduced cocaine intake both in LgA and ShA rats. However, MPZP did so at a lower dose in LgA rats than in ShA rats. Within the LgA group, MPZP decreased cocaine intake in the first 10 min (loading phase) as well as in the latter session intake (maintenance phase). CONCLUSION The data suggest that hypersensitivity of the CRF system occurs with extended access to cocaine self-administration and that this altered CRF system may contribute to the increased motivation to self-administer cocaine that develops during psychostimulant dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila E. Specio
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, SP30-2400, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Sunmee Wee
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, SP30-2400, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA, e-mail:
| | - Laura E. O’Dell
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Benjamin Boutrel
- Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University of Lausanne, Site de Cery, CH-1008 Prilly, Switzerland
| | - Eric P. Zorrilla
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, SP30-2400, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - George F. Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, SP30-2400, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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126
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Richardson HN, Zhao Y, Fekete ÉM, Funk CK, Wirsching P, Janda K, Zorrilla EP, Koob GF. MPZP: a novel small molecule corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor (CRF1) antagonist. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008; 88:497-510. [PMID: 18031798 PMCID: PMC3319109 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2007] [Revised: 10/13/2007] [Accepted: 10/17/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The extrahypothalamic stress peptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system is an important regulator of behavioral responses to stress. Dysregulation of CRF and the CRF type 1 receptor (CRF(1)) system is hypothesized to underlie many stress-related disorders. Modulation of the CRF(1) system by non-peptide antagonists currently is being explored as a therapeutic approach for anxiety disorders and alcohol dependence. Here, we describe a new, less hydrophilic (cLogP approximately 2.95), small molecule, non-peptide CRF(1) antagonist with high affinity (K(i)=4.9 nM) and specificity for CRF(1) receptors: N,N-bis(2-methoxyethyl)-3-(4-methoxy-2-methylphenyl)-2,5-dimethyl-pyrazolo[1,5-a] pyrimidin-7-amine (MPZP). The compound was systemically administered to adult male rats in two behavioral models dependent on the CRF(1) system: defensive burying (0, 5, 20 mg/kg, n=6-11 for each dose) and alcohol dependence (0, 5, 10, 20 mg/kg, n=8 for each self-administration group). Acute administration of MPZP reduced burying behavior in the defensive burying model of active anxiety-like behavior. MPZP also attenuated withdrawal-induced excessive drinking in the self-administration model of alcohol dependence without affecting nondependent alcohol drinking or water consumption. The present findings support the proposed significance of the CRF(1) system in anxiety and alcohol dependence and introduce a promising new compound for further development in the treatment of alcohol dependence and stress-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather N. Richardson
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
| | - Yu Zhao
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
| | - Éva M. Fekete
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
- Institute of Physiology, Pécs University Medical School, 7602 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Cindy K. Funk
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
- Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale, France
| | - Peter Wirsching
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
| | - Kim Janda
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
| | - Eric P. Zorrilla
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
- Harold L. Dorris Neurological Research Institute, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
| | - George F. Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, 92037 California, USA
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127
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Koob GF. Hedonic Homeostatic Dysregulation as a Driver of Drug-Seeking Behavior. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. DISEASE MODELS 2008; 5:207-215. [PMID: 20054425 PMCID: PMC2801885 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddmod.2009.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction can be defined by a compulsion to seek and take drug and loss of control in limiting intake, and the excessive drug taking derives from multiple motivational mechanisms. One such mechanism is the emergence of a negative emotional state when access to the drug is prevented, reflecting hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Excessive drug taking then results in part via the construct of negative reinforcement. The negative emotional state that drives such negative reinforcement is hypothesized to derive from dysregulation of key neurochemical elements involved in reward and stress within basal forebrain structures, including the ventral striatum and extended amygdala. Specific neurochemical elements in these structures include not only decreases in reward neurotransmission, such as decreases in dopamine and opioid peptide function in the ventral striatum, but also recruitment of brain stress systems, such as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), in the extended amygdala. Chronic exposure or extended access to self-administration of all major drugs of abuse produces during abstinence increases in reward thresholds, increases in aversive anxiety-like responses, increases in extracellular levels of CRF in the central nucleus of the amygdala, and increases in drug self-administration. CRF receptor antagonists block excessive drug intake produced by dependence. A combination of decreased reward system function and increased brain stress response system function is hypothesized to be responsible for hedonic homeostatic dysregulation that drives drug seeking behavior in dependence. Such hedonic dysregulation is hypothesized to extend into protracted abstinence to provide a residual negative emotional state that enhances the salience of cues eliciting drug seeking and relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla California, USA
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128
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Davis MP. Oral nabilone capsules in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and pain. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2007; 17:85-95. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.17.1.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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129
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Läck AK, Diaz MR, Chappell A, DuBois DW, McCool BA. Chronic ethanol and withdrawal differentially modulate pre- and postsynaptic function at glutamatergic synapses in rat basolateral amygdala. J Neurophysiol 2007; 98:3185-96. [PMID: 17898152 PMCID: PMC2269699 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00189.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Withdrawal anxiety is a significant factor contributing to continued alcohol abuse in alcoholics. This anxiety is long-lasting, can manifest well after the overt physical symptoms of withdrawal, and is frequently associated with relapse in recovering alcoholics. The neurobiological mechanisms governing these withdrawal-associated increases in anxiety are currently unknown. The basolateral amygdala (BLA) is a major emotional center in the brain and regulates the expression of both learned fear and anxiety. Neurotransmitter system alterations within this brain region may therefore contribute to withdrawal-associated anxiety. Because evidence suggests that glutamate-gated neurotransmitter receptors are sensitive to acute ethanol exposure, we examined the effect of chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) and withdrawal (WD) on glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the BLA. We found that slices prepared from CIE and WD animals had significantly increased contributions by synaptic NMDA receptors. In addition, CIE increased the amplitude of AMPA-receptor-mediated spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs), whereas only WD altered the amplitude and kinetics of tetrodotoxin-resistant spontaneous events (mEPSCs). Similarly, the frequency of sEPSCs was increased in both CIE and WD neurons, although only WD increased the frequency of mEPSCs. These data suggest that CIE and WD differentially alter both pre- and postsynaptic properties of BLA glutamatergic synapses. Finally, we show that microinjection of the AMPA-receptor antagonist, DNQX, can attenuate withdrawal-related anxiety-like behavior. Together, our results suggest that increased glutamatergic function may contribute to anxiety expressed during withdrawal from chronic ethanol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Läck
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
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130
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Knapska E, Radwanska K, Werka T, Kaczmarek L. Functional internal complexity of amygdala: focus on gene activity mapping after behavioral training and drugs of abuse. Physiol Rev 2007; 87:1113-73. [PMID: 17928582 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00037.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The amygdala is a heterogeneous brain structure implicated in processing of emotions and storing the emotional aspects of memories. Gene activity markers such as c-Fos have been shown to reflect both neuronal activation and neuronal plasticity. Herein, we analyze the expression patterns of gene activity markers in the amygdala in response to either behavioral training or treatment with drugs of abuse and then we confront the results with data on other approaches to internal complexity of the amygdala. c-Fos has been the most often studied in the amygdala, showing specific expression patterns in response to various treatments, most probably reflecting functional specializations among amygdala subdivisions. In the basolateral amygdala, c-Fos expression appears to be consistent with the proposed role of this nucleus in a plasticity of the current stimulus-value associations. Within the medial part of the central amygdala, c-Fos correlates with acquisition of alimentary/gustatory behaviors. On the other hand, in the lateral subdivision of the central amygdala, c-Fos expression relates to attention and vigilance. In the medial amygdala, c-Fos appears to be evoked by emotional novelty of the experimental situation. The data on the other major subdivisions of the amygdala are scarce. In conclusion, the studies on the gene activity markers, confronted with other approaches involving neuroanatomy, physiology, and the lesion method, have revealed novel aspects of the amygdala, especially pointing to functional heterogeneity of this brain region that does not fit very well into contemporarily active debate on serial versus parallel information processing within the amygdala.
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131
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González-Cuevas G, Aujla H, Martin-Fardon R, López-Moreno JA, Navarro M, Weiss F. Subchronic cannabinoid agonist (WIN 55,212-2) treatment during cocaine abstinence alters subsequent cocaine seeking behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:2260-6. [PMID: 17392740 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The co-abuse of marijuana with cocaine is widespread, but it has not been until recently that the relationship between the behavioral effects of cannabinoids and cocaine has begun to be unveiled in animal models. Male Wistar rats were trained to intravenously self-administer cocaine until a stable baseline was reached. Rats then were subjected to a 5-day cocaine deprivation period during which they were treated daily with the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 (R-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-(4-morpholinylmethyl)pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl]-1-naphthalenylmethanone mesylate) (0, 0.3, 1, and 3 mg/kg; i.p.). Following this subchronic treatment, rats were tested, in counterbalanced order, in a test of anxiety (elevated plus-maze), as well as extinction and cue-induced reinstatement tests, the latter conducted according to a between-within procedure. Subchronic administration of WIN 55,212-2 was found to produce dose-dependent alterations of performance in the extinction, reinstatement, and anxiety tests with the lowest dose of WIN 55,212-2 producing the highest resistance to extinction and reinstatement, and the highest dose of WIN 55,212-2 producing the highest anxiolytic activity. Subchronic treatment with WIN 55,212-2 in rats without a history of cocaine self-administration did not affect anxiety levels. The results suggest an important role of the cannabinoid system in neuronal processes underlying cocaine seeking behavior. However, further studies will be necessary to understand possible implications of these findings for a role of the cannabinoid system as a treatment target for human cocaine abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo González-Cuevas
- Laboratorio de Psicobiología, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Campus de Somosaguas S/N, E-28223, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid, Spain.
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132
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Tallett AJ, Blundell JE, Rodgers RJ. Grooming, scratching and feeding: role of response competition in acute anorectic response to rimonabant in male rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 195:27-39. [PMID: 17639351 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0880-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2007] [Accepted: 06/24/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Although the CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist rimonabant acutely suppresses food intake in rodents, the behavioural specificity of this effect remains unclear. OBJECTIVES To profile the behavioural effects of rimonabant in a free-feeding context. MATERIALS AND METHODS Videoanalysis was employed to characterise the effects of acute rimonabant (1.5 and 3.0 mg/kg, IP) on the behaviour of non-deprived male rats exposed to palatable mash. Data were also collected on post-treatment weight gain, and, as prolonged appetite suppression has been found after single dosing with compounds of this series, rats were reassessed (drug-free) for food intake 7 days after initial testing. RESULTS Both doses of rimonabant not only decreased mash consumption (44-55%) but also reduced 24-h weight gain. Although videoanalysis confirmed the inhibitory effects of rimonabant on feeding behaviour, it also revealed concurrent reductions in locomotion, rearing and sniffing as well as substantial (up to tenfold) and dose-dependent increases in grooming and scratching. Timecourse analyses further revealed that rimonabant dose-dependently induced frequent episodes of atypical scratching that waned over the test but which were succeeded by prolonged and behaviourally disruptive grooming. Finally, as groups did not differ in mash consumption on retest, any prolonged anorectic effect of acute rimonabant dissipates within 7 days of treatment. CONCLUSIONS The anorectic response to rimonabant in male rats would appear to be due largely to response competition. This parsimonious conclusion is supported by the less profound (although still significant) increases in scratching and grooming observed in rats treated with a sub-anorectic dose (0.5 mg/kg) of the compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Tallett
- Behavioural Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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133
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Tallett AJ, Blundell JE, Rodgers JR. Acute anorectic response to cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist/inverse agonist AM 251 in rats: indirect behavioural mediation. Behav Pharmacol 2007; 18:591-600. [PMID: 17912043 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e3282eff0a9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Despite a large and consistent literature on the suppressant effects of cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonists/inverse agonists (e.g. rimonabant, AM 251) on food intake and weight gain in rodents, surprisingly little is known about the behavioural selectivity of such effects. In this study, ethological scoring was used to characterize the acute behavioural effects of the rimonabant analogue AM 251 (1.5 and 3.0 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) in nondeprived male rats during a 1-h test with palatable mash. Data were also collected on daily weight gain and on retest food intake 7 days after dosing. Results showed that the higher dose of AM 251 significantly inhibited mash consumption (32% decrease relative to vehicle control), reduced time spent feeding during the test and suppressed body weight gain over the 48-h period that followed acute dosing. No effects on mash consumption were observed when the animals were retested drug-free 1 week after drug treatment. Detailed video analysis of the test sessions showed that, over the dose range tested, AM 251 did not significantly interfere with the vast majority of noningestive behaviours. Both doses of the compound, however, significantly increased the incidence of and the time spent on scratching, whereas the higher dose additionally increased both the number and duration of grooming episodes. The latter effect in particular disrupted the normal structure of behaviour (behavioural satiety sequence) with atypically high levels of grooming displacing feeding during the middle part of the test session. Overall, the behavioural profile of AM 251 in a free-feeding context is very similar to (but approximately two-fold less potent than) that recently reported for the parent molecule, rimonabant. Together, these data strongly suggest that the acute anorectic response to CB1 receptor antagonists/inverse agonists is indirectly mediated via major alterations to other components of the behavioural repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy J Tallett
- Behavioural Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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134
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Torregrossa MM, Kalivas PW. Microdialysis and the neurochemistry of addiction. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007; 90:261-72. [PMID: 17928041 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2007.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2007] [Revised: 08/10/2007] [Accepted: 09/04/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a process beginning with the initial exposure to a drug of abuse, and leading, in some individuals, to chronic habitual use, and high rates of relapse. Microdialysis allows researchers to monitor the neurochemical changes that occur in the brain after the initial exposure to a drug, and the neurochemical changes that occur with repeated exposure. These changes in the brain are often referred to as drug-induced neuroplasticity, and the aim of this article is to review studies that have utilized microdialysis to increase our understanding of the neuroplasticity that occurs in the process of addiction. We will review how several neurotransmitter systems, including glutamate, GABA, the monoamines, and others, are altered after chronic drug exposure, and how microdialysis can be used to determine if putative treatments for addiction can reverse the drug-induced neuroplasticity in these systems. We will also briefly discuss our recent research using a known change in GABA neurotransmission that occurs during reinstatement of drug-seeking to screen for possible novel treatments to prevent relapse. Overall, microdialysis in combination with other behavioral and pharmacological techniques has greatly increased our understanding of addiction-related neuroplasticity, and provides a means for discovering new ways to prevent these changes and treat addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary M Torregrossa
- Medical University of South Carolina, Suite 403 Basic Science Building, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
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135
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Skelton KH, Oren D, Gutman DA, Easterling K, Holtzman SG, Nemeroff CB, Owens MJ. The CRF1 receptor antagonist, R121919, attenuates the severity of precipitated morphine withdrawal. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 571:17-24. [PMID: 17610870 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2006] [Revised: 05/17/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, coordinates the mammalian stress response, and acting primarily via the CRF(1) receptor, has been strongly implicated in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, the behavioral and autonomic activation that occurs following withdrawal in drug dependent animals resembles the mammalian stress response. Concordant with this view is evidence of enhanced CRF transcription, release and activity following withdrawal from several drugs of abuse. Conversely, CRF receptor antagonists have been demonstrated to reduce the severity of many drug withdrawal symptoms, implicating a specific role for activation of CRF neurons in mediating the anxiogenic and stress-like reactions observed during withdrawal. To extend these findings, we investigated whether pretreatment with a selective CRF(1) receptor antagonist, R121919, is capable of similarly decreasing the autonomic, behavioral and neuroendocrine activation observed following precipitation of morphine withdrawal in dependent rats. The results indicate that pretreatment with R121919 attenuates the global severity of the precipitated morphine withdrawal syndrome as measured by the Gellert-Holtzman scale. In addition, rats pretreated with R121919 prior to precipitation of morphine withdrawal demonstrated decreased hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation, as measured by plasma ACTH concentrations, and decreased early expression of the CRF gene in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, as measured by CRF heteronuclear RNA. These findings suggest that activation of CRF neuronal systems via the CRF(1) receptor may be one element of the neurobiological mechanisms activated during drug withdrawal and that CRF(1) receptor antagonists may have a potential therapeutic role in the treatment of human drug withdrawal syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly H Skelton
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322 , USA.
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136
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Touriño C, Maldonado R, Valverde O. MDMA attenuates THC withdrawal syndrome in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 193:75-84. [PMID: 17387458 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0772-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2006] [Accepted: 03/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION 3, 4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and cannabis are widely abused illicit drugs that are frequently consumed in combination. Interactions between these two drugs have been reported in several pharmacological responses observed in animals, such as body temperature, anxiety, cognition, and reward. However, the interaction between MDMA and cannabis in addictive processes such as physical dependence has not been elucidated yet. DISCUSSION In this study, the effects of acute and chronic MDMA were evaluated on the behavioral manifestations of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) abstinence in mice. THC withdrawal syndrome was precipitated by injecting the cannabinoid antagonist rimonabant (10 mg/kg, i.p.) in mice chronically treated with THC and receiving MDMA (2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg i.p.) or saline just before the withdrawal induction or chronically after the THC administration. RESULTS Both chronic and acute MDMA decreased in a dose-dependent manner the severity of THC withdrawal. In vivo microdialysis experiments showed that acute MDMA (5 mg/kg, i.p.) administration increased extracellular serotonin levels in the prefrontal cortex, but not dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. Our results also indicate that the attenuation of THC abstinence symptoms was not due to a direct interaction between rimonabant and MDMA nor to the result of the locomotor stimulating effects of MDMA. CONCLUSION The modulation of the cannabinoid withdrawal syndrome by acute or chronic MDMA suggests a possible mechanism to explain the associated consumption of these two drugs in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Touriño
- Grup de Recerca de Neurobiologia del Comportament, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, PRBB, C/ Dr. Aiguader 80, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
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137
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Skelton KH, Gutman DA, Thrivikraman KV, Nemeroff CB, Owens MJ. The CRF1 receptor antagonist R121919 attenuates the neuroendocrine and behavioral effects of precipitated lorazepam withdrawal. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 192:385-96. [PMID: 17297634 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0713-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2006] [Accepted: 01/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is the primary physiologic regulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and serves to globally coordinate the mammalian stress response. Hyperactivity of central nervous system CRF neurotransmission, acting primarily via the CRF(1) receptor, has been strongly implicated in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety. Furthermore, there is evidence of enhanced CRF transcription, release, and neuronal activity after the administration of and withdrawal from several drugs of abuse, including cannabis, cocaine, ethanol, and morphine. Treatment with CRF antagonists has been demonstrated to reduce the severity of certain drug withdrawal symptoms, implicating a specific role for activation of CRF neurons in mediating the anxiogenic and stress-like reactions observed after abrupt drug discontinuation. OBJECTIVES/METHODS To extend these findings, we investigated whether pretreatment with the selective CRF(1) receptor antagonist R121919 decreases the behavioral and neuroendocrine activation observed after the precipitation of benzodiazepine (BZ) withdrawal in BZ-dependent rats. RESULTS Pretreatment with R121919 attenuated the subsequent HPA axis activation, behavioral measures of anxiety, and expression of the CRF gene in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, as measured by CRF heteronuclear RNA, which occurs after flumazenil-precipitation of withdrawal from the BZ, lorazepam. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that the activation of CRF neuronal systems may be a common neurobiological mechanism in withdrawal from drugs of abuse and moreover, that the CRF(1) receptor subtype plays a major role in mediating the effects of CRF on neuroendocrine and behavioral responses during BZ withdrawal. Therefore, CRF(1) receptor antagonists may be of therapeutic utility in the treatment of drug withdrawal syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly H Skelton
- Laboratory of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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138
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Teegarden SL, Bale TL. Decreases in dietary preference produce increased emotionality and risk for dietary relapse. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 61:1021-9. [PMID: 17207778 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2006] [Revised: 09/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/19/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obesity is a modern health epidemic, with the overconsumption of highly palatable, calorically dense foods as a likely contributor. Despite the known consequences of obesity, behavioral noncompliance remains high, supporting the powerful rewarding properties of such foods. We hypothesized that exposure to preferred diets would result in an amelioration of stress responsivity via activation of reward pathways that would be reversed during dietary withdrawal, increasing the risk for relapse and treatment failure. METHODS Mice were exposed to preferred diets high in fat or carbohydrates for 4 weeks and then were withdrawn to house chow. Behavioral, physiologic, and biochemical assays were performed to examine changes in stress and reward pathways. RESULTS These studies revealed significant changes in arousal and anxiety-like behaviors, limbic corticotropin-releasing factor expression, and expression of reward-related signaling molecules in response to the highly preferred high-fat diet that was reversed by withdrawal. In a dietary-reinstatement model, mice withdrawn from the high-fat diet endured an aversive environment to gain access to the preferred food. CONCLUSIONS Exposure to a highly preferred diet high in fat reduces stress sensitivity, whereas acute withdrawal from such a diet elevates the stress state and reduces reward, contributing to the drive for dietary relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Teegarden
- Department of Animal Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6046, USA
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139
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Bruijnzeel AW, Zislis G, Wilson C, Gold MS. Antagonism of CRF receptors prevents the deficit in brain reward function associated with precipitated nicotine withdrawal in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:955-63. [PMID: 16943772 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine dependence is a chronic mental illness that is characterized by a negative affective state upon tobacco smoking cessation and relapse after periods of abstinence. It has been hypothesized that cessation of nicotine administration results in the activation of brain corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) systems that leads to the negative affective state of withdrawal. The aim of our experiments was to investigate the role of brain CRF systems in the deficit in brain reward function associated with the cessation of nicotine administration in rats. The intracranial self-stimulation procedure was used to assess to negative affective aspects of nicotine withdrawal as this procedure can provide a quantitative measure of emotional distress in rats. In the first experiment, mecamylamine induced a dose-dependent elevation in brain reward thresholds in nicotine-treated rats. In the follow-up experiment, it was shown that pretreatment with the corticotropin-receptor antagonist D-Phe CRF((12-41)) prevents the elevations in brain reward thresholds associated with precipitated nicotine withdrawal. In the third experiment, the effect of D-Phe CRF((12-41)) on the elevations in brain reward thresholds associated with spontaneous nicotine withdrawal was investigated. Administration of D-Phe CRF((12-41)) 6 h after the explantation of the nicotine pumps, did not result in a lowering of the brain reward thresholds. These findings indicate that antagonism of CRF receptors prevents, but not reverses, the deficit in brain associated with nicotine withdrawal. These data provide support for the hypothesis that a hyperactivity of brain CRF systems may at least partly mediate the initiation of the negative affective aspects of nicotine withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrie W Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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140
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Roohbakhsh A, Moghaddam AH, Massoudi R, Zarrindast MR. Role of dorsal hippocampal cannabinoid receptors and nitric oxide in anxiety like behaviours in rats using the elevated plus-maze test. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2007; 34:223-9. [PMID: 17250643 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2007.04576.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
1. The important role of the cannabinoid system in the modulation of anxiety like behaviours in clinical and experimental studies has been proposed. However, investigations into this effect of cannabinoids has produced contradictory results. It has been reported that different neurotransmitters, such as nitric oxide (NO), are involved in the behavioural effects of cannabinoids. The hippocampus is also an important brain region in the modulation of anxiety in which CB1 receptors are densely expressed. The present study was designed to evaluate the interactions between cannabinoid and NO systems in the CA1 brain region of the rats using the plus-maze test. 2. Rats were anaesthetized with ketamine and xylazine and special cannulas were inserted stereotaxically into the CA1 region of the dorsal hippocampus. After 1 week recovery, the effects of intra-CA1 administration of WIN55212-2 (1, 2.5 and 5 microg/rat), AM251 (2, 10 and 50 ng/rat), L-arginine (0.01, 0.1 and 1 microg/rat) and N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME; 1, 10 and 100 ng/rat) on percentage open arm time (%OAT) and percentage open arm entries (%OAE) were determined. Moreover, the effects of pretreatment with AM251 (2 ng/rat), L-arginine (0.01 microg/rat) and L-NAME (1 ng/rat) on the response induced by intra-CA1 administration of WIN55212-2 were also assessed. 3. The administration of either L-arginine or L-NAME into the CA1 region produced significant anxiogenic-like responses, whereas administration of AM251 induced anxiolytic effects. Intra-CA1 injection of WIN55212-2 produced a significant anxiogenic-like effect that was reversed by AM251 and was also altered by L-NAME, but not by L-arginine. 4. These data imply that cannabinoids may have anxiogenic-like effects in the CA1 region of the hippocampus in which CB1 receptors and NO may be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Roohbakhsh
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
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141
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Panlilio LV, Solinas M, Matthews SA, Goldberg SR. Previous exposure to THC alters the reinforcing efficacy and anxiety-related effects of cocaine in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2007; 32:646-57. [PMID: 16738542 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The hypothesis that prior cannabis exposure increases the likelihood of becoming addicted to other drugs can be evaluated by giving rats a history of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure, then allowing them to self-administer other drugs. In Experiment 1, THC pre-exposure did not alter the acquisition of cocaine self-administration or the amount of cocaine taken under a fixed-ratio 1 (FR1) schedule, with one response required for each injection. Under a progressive-ratio schedule, with the response requirement increasing exponentially with each injection, cocaine-seeking was significantly reduced in THC-exposed rats, suggesting that the regimen of THC exposure used in the present study caused cocaine to be devalued as a reinforcer. In contrast, in an earlier study that used the same regimen, a history of THC exposure did not alter the value of heroin as a reinforcer under the progressive-ratio schedule, but it increased heroin self-administration under the FR1 schedule. Experiment 2 examined how this regimen of THC pre-exposure alters the locomotor effects of cocaine and heroin. THC pre-exposure produced cross-tolerance to the motor-depressant effects of heroin; this may explain the shortened post-injection pauses exhibited by THC-exposed rats under FR1 heroin self-administration. When given cocaine, THC-exposed rats exhibited normal increases in locomotion, but they avoided the center of the open field, suggesting that this THC pre-exposure regimen enhances the anxiogenic effects of cocaine. This enhanced anxiogenic effect-which was verified in Experiment 3 using another model of anxiety, the light-dark test-may explain the reduced reinforcing value of cocaine observed in THC-exposed rats in Experiment 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh V Panlilio
- Department of Health and Human Services, Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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142
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Budney AJ, Vandrey RG, Hughes JR, Moore BA, Bahrenburg B. Oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol suppresses cannabis withdrawal symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 86:22-9. [PMID: 16769180 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2006] [Revised: 04/21/2006] [Accepted: 04/21/2006] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study assessed whether oral administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannbinol (THC) effectively suppressed cannabis withdrawal in an outpatient environment. The primary aims were to establish the pharmacological specificity of the withdrawal syndrome and to obtain information relevant to determining the potential use of THC to assist in the treatment of cannabis dependence. METHOD Eight adult, daily cannabis users who were not seeking treatment participated in a 40-day, within-subject ABACAD study. Participants administered daily doses of placebo, 30 mg (10 mg/tid), or 90 mg (30 mg/tid) oral THC during three, 5-day periods of abstinence from cannabis use separated by 7-9 periods of smoking cannabis as usual. RESULTS Comparison of withdrawal symptoms across conditions indicated that (1) the lower dose of THC reduced withdrawal discomfort, and (2) the higher dose produced additional suppression in withdrawal symptoms such that symptom ratings did not differ from the smoking-as-usual conditions. Minimal adverse effects were associated with either active dose of THC. CONCLUSIONS This demonstration of dose-responsivity replicates and extends prior findings of the pharmacological specificity of the cannabis withdrawal syndrome. The efficacy of these doses for suppressing cannabis withdrawal suggests oral THC might be used as an intervention to aid cannabis cessation attempts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan J Budney
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA.
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143
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Fattore L, Spano MS, Deiana S, Melis V, Cossu G, Fadda P, Fratta W. An endocannabinoid mechanism in relapse to drug seeking: A review of animal studies and clinical perspectives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 53:1-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2006] [Revised: 05/08/2006] [Accepted: 05/08/2006] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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144
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Dallman MF, Pecoraro NC, La Fleur SE, Warne JP, Ginsberg AB, Akana SF, Laugero KC, Houshyar H, Strack AM, Bhatnagar S, Bell ME. Glucocorticoids, chronic stress, and obesity. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2006; 153:75-105. [PMID: 16876569 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(06)53004-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids either inhibit or sensitize stress-induced activity in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, depending on time after their administration, the concentration of the steroids, and whether there is a concurrent stressor input. When there are high glucocorticoids together with a chronic stressor, the steroids act in brain in a feed-forward fashion to recruit a stress-response network that biases ongoing autonomic, neuroendocrine, and behavioral outflow as well as responses to novel stressors. We review evidence for the role of glucocorticoids in activating the central stress-response network, and for mediation of this network by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). We briefly review the effects of CRF and its receptor antagonists on motor outflows in rodents, and examine the effects of glucocorticoids and CRF on monoaminergic neurons in brain. Corticosteroids stimulate behaviors that are mediated by dopaminergic mesolimbic "reward" pathways, and increase palatable feeding in rats. Moreover, in the absence of corticosteroids, the typical deficits in adrenalectomized rats are normalized by providing sucrose solutions to drink, suggesting that there is, in addition to the feed-forward action of glucocorticoids on brain, also a feedback action that is based on metabolic well being. Finally, we briefly discuss the problems with this network that normally serves to aid in responses to chronic stress, in our current overindulged, and underexercised society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary F Dallman
- University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA.
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145
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Wade MR, Degroot A, Nomikos GG. Cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonism modulates plasma corticosterone in rodents. Eur J Pharmacol 2006; 551:162-7. [PMID: 17030030 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.08.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2006] [Revised: 08/28/2006] [Accepted: 08/31/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Although the involvement of cannabinoids and the endogenous cannabinoid system in the regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in rodents is well documented, the precise role played by the cannabinoid type one (CB(1)) receptor in this effect has not been fully elucidated. Consequently, we investigated the role of CB(1) receptor in modulating plasma corticosterone concentrations through use of the potent and selective CB(1) receptor antagonist SR141716A and CB(1) receptor knockout mice. Rats were administered SR141716A (0.1, 0.3, and 1 mg/kg, i.v.) and blood was sampled at 0, 15, 60, 90 and 120 min postinjection. SR141716A dose- and time-dependently increased plasma corticosterone levels and maximum effects were obtained with the 1 mg/kg dose 60 min postinjection. In mice, SR141716A (0.1, 0.3, 1, 3, and 10 mg/kg, i.p.) also induced a dose-dependent rise in corticosterone levels 60 min postinjection; this rise reached plateau levels with the 0.3-1 mg/kg doses. The stimulatory effect of SR141716A (1 mg/kg, i.p.) on plasma corticosterone 60 min postinjection was abolished in the CB(1) receptor knockout mice, which did not show any difference in basal corticosterone levels as compared to their wild-type controls. Finally, the stimulatory effects of SR141716A (10 mg/kg, i.p.) on plasma corticosterone 60 min postinjection were retained after subchronic dosing (5 days, once daily) in mice. The present results indicate that SR141716A increases plasma corticosterone in rats and mice possibly through blockade of CB(1) receptors, an effect that is retained after subchronic dosing in mice. These data provide support for the notion that changes in plasma corticosterone concentrations may be used in the laboratory and the clinic to assess the effects of CB(1) receptor antagonism.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Biomarkers/blood
- Corticosterone/blood
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Drug Evaluation, Preclinical/methods
- Drug Monitoring/methods
- Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/drug effects
- Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Piperidines/pharmacology
- Pituitary-Adrenal System/drug effects
- Pituitary-Adrenal System/metabolism
- Pyrazoles/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/metabolism
- Reproducibility of Results
- Rimonabant
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Wade
- Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Research Laboratories, Neuroscience Discovery Research, Indianapolis, IN 46285-0510, USA.
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146
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Pacher P, Bátkai S, Kunos G. The endocannabinoid system as an emerging target of pharmacotherapy. Pharmacol Rev 2006; 58:389-462. [PMID: 16968947 PMCID: PMC2241751 DOI: 10.1124/pr.58.3.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1458] [Impact Index Per Article: 81.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent identification of cannabinoid receptors and their endogenous lipid ligands has triggered an exponential growth of studies exploring the endocannabinoid system and its regulatory functions in health and disease. Such studies have been greatly facilitated by the introduction of selective cannabinoid receptor antagonists and inhibitors of endocannabinoid metabolism and transport, as well as mice deficient in cannabinoid receptors or the endocannabinoid-degrading enzyme fatty acid amidohydrolase. In the past decade, the endocannabinoid system has been implicated in a growing number of physiological functions, both in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in peripheral organs. More importantly, modulating the activity of the endocannabinoid system turned out to hold therapeutic promise in a wide range of disparate diseases and pathological conditions, ranging from mood and anxiety disorders, movement disorders such as Parkinson's and Huntington's disease, neuropathic pain, multiple sclerosis and spinal cord injury, to cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, stroke, hypertension, glaucoma, obesity/metabolic syndrome, and osteoporosis, to name just a few. An impediment to the development of cannabinoid medications has been the socially unacceptable psychoactive properties of plant-derived or synthetic agonists, mediated by CB(1) receptors. However, this problem does not arise when the therapeutic aim is achieved by treatment with a CB(1) receptor antagonist, such as in obesity, and may also be absent when the action of endocannabinoids is enhanced indirectly through blocking their metabolism or transport. The use of selective CB(2) receptor agonists, which lack psychoactive properties, could represent another promising avenue for certain conditions. The abuse potential of plant-derived cannabinoids may also be limited through the use of preparations with controlled composition and the careful selection of dose and route of administration. The growing number of preclinical studies and clinical trials with compounds that modulate the endocannabinoid system will probably result in novel therapeutic approaches in a number of diseases for which current treatments do not fully address the patients' need. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview on the current state of knowledge of the endocannabinoid system as a target of pharmacotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pál Pacher
- Laboratory of Physiological Studies, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, 5625 Fishers Lane, Room 2S-24, Bethesda, MD 20892-9413, USA
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147
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Vinod KY, Hungund BL. Role of the endocannabinoid system in depression and suicide. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2006; 27:539-45. [PMID: 16919786 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2006.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2006] [Revised: 07/18/2006] [Accepted: 08/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Depression is one of the most prevalent forms of neuropsychiatric disorder and is a major cause of suicide worldwide. The prefrontal cortex is a crucial brain region that is thought to be involved in the regulation of mood, aggression and/or impulsivity and decision making, which are altered in suicidality. Evidence of the role of the endocannabinoid (EC) system in the neurobiology of neuropsychiatric disorders is beginning to emerge. The behavioral effects of ECs are believed to be mediated through the central cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Alterations in the levels of ECs, and in the density and coupling efficacy of CB1 receptors, have been reported in the prefrontal cortex of depressed and alcoholic suicide victims. These findings support our hypothesis that altered EC function contributes to the pathophysiological aspects of suicidal behavior. Here, we provide a brief overview of the role of the EC system in alcoholism, depression and suicide, and discuss possible therapeutic interventions and directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Yaragudri Vinod
- Division of Analytical Psychopharmacology, New York State Psychiatric Institute, NY 10032, USA
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Pavon FJ, Bilbao A, Hernández-Folgado L, Cippitelli A, Jagerovic N, Abellán G, Rodríguez-Franco MAI, Serrano A, Macias M, Gómez R, Navarro M, Goya P, Rodríguez de Fonseca F. Antiobesity effects of the novel in vivo neutral cannabinoid receptor antagonist 5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-3-hexyl-1H-1,2,4-triazole – LH 21. Neuropharmacology 2006; 51:358-66. [PMID: 16750544 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Revised: 03/24/2006] [Accepted: 03/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The present study evaluates the pharmacological profile of the new neutral cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist 5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-3-hexyl-1H-1,2,4-triazole -LH-21- on feeding behavior and alcohol self-administration in rats, two behaviors inhibited by cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonists. Administration of LH-21 (0.03, 0.3 and 3 mg/kg) to food-deprived rats resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of feeding. Subchronic administration of LH-21 reduced food intake and body weight gain in obese Zucker rats. Acute effects on feeding were not associated with anxiety-like behaviors, or induction of complex motor behaviors such as grooming or scratching sequences, usually observed after central administration of cannabinoid receptor blockers with inverse agonist properties. LH-21 did not markedly reduce alcohol self-administration (30% reduction observed only at a high dose of 10 mg/kg). This pharmacological pattern partially overlaps that of the reference cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist N-piperidino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methylpyrazole-3-carboxamide, SR141716A, (0.3, 1 and 3 mg/kg) that reduced feeding and alcohol self-administration with similar efficacy. In vitro analysis of blood-brain barrier permeability using a parallel artificial membrane permeation assay demonstrated that LH-21 has lower permeation through membranes than SR141716A. That was confirmed in vivo by studies showing lower potency of peripherally injected LH-21 when compared to SR141716A to antagonize motor depression induced by intracerebroventricular administration of the CB1 agonist CP55,940. The neutral antagonist profile and the lower penetration into the brain of LH-21 favour this class of antagonists with respect to reference inverse agonists for the treatment of obesity because they potentially will display reduced side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Javier Pavon
- Fundación IMABIS, Neuropharmacology, Hospital Carlos Haya, Avenida Carlos Haya 82, 7(a) Planta, Pabellón A, Málaga 29010, Spain
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149
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Jackson VR, Lin SH, Wang Z, Nothacker HP, Civelli O. A study of the rat neuropeptide B/neuropeptide W system using in situ techniques. J Comp Neurol 2006; 497:367-83. [PMID: 16736466 DOI: 10.1002/cne.20989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In the rat, the neuropeptide B/neuropeptide W (NPB/NPW) system is composed of two ligands, neuropeptide B (NPB) and neuropeptide W (NPW), and one receptor, GPR7. Although preliminary analyses show roles in feeding, hormone secretion, and analgesia, the lack of a detailed anatomical map impairs our understanding of the NPB/NPW system. We demonstrate in this report the expression patterns of GPR7, NPB, and NPW precursor messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) in the rat brain by using in situ hybridization and in situ binding experiments. The amygdala expresses the highest levels of GPR7 mRNA and binding signals. Other nuclei with high levels of expression and binding are the suprachiasmatic and the ventral tuberomamillary nuclei. Moderate levels are seen in the dorsal endopiriform, dorsal tenia tecta, bed nucleus, and the red nucleus. Low levels are in the olfactory bulb, parastrial nucleus, hypothalamus, laterodorsal tegmentum, superior colliculus, locus coeruleus, and the nucleus of the solitary tract. Although the NPB precursor is mostly expressed at low levels in the brain, moderate expression is seen in anterior olfactory nucleus, piriform cortex, median preoptic nucleus, basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, medial tuberal nucleus, substantia nigra, dorsal raphe nucleus, Edinger-Westphal nucleus, and the locus coeruleus. To our surprise, the expression of NPW precursor was not detected. Our study greatly expands the preliminary in situ data previously reported. With this map of the NPB/NPW system in the rat brain, a better understanding of the functional implications of the system in various behavioral paradigms is now possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie R Jackson
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-4625, USA
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150
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Johnson BA, Koob GF, Schuckit MA, Mason BJ, Ait-Daoud N. Understanding and treating alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30:567-84. [PMID: 16499499 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2005.00066.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This article represents the proceedings of a symposium presented at the 158th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association held in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 24, 2005. The organizer/chairman was Bankole A. Johnson, DSc, MD, PhD. The presentations included the following: (1) Neuropharmacological Basis of Alcohol Dependence, by George F. Koob, PhD; (2) Recent Developments in the Genetics of Alcohol Dependence, by Marc A. Schuckit, MD; (3) New Pharmacological Strategies for Treating Alcohol Dependence, by Barbara J. Mason, PhD; (4) New Medications: The Use of Anticonvulsants, Both Alone and in Combination, with Various Forms of Psychotherapy, by Bankole A. Johnson, DSc, MD, PhD; and (5) Differential Effects of Pharmacological Agents on Craving, by Nassima Ait-Daoud, MD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bankole A Johnson
- Department of Psychiatric Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908-0623, USA.
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