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Yazawa K, Kurokawa M, Obuchi M, Li Y, Yamada R, Sadanari H, Matsubara K, Watanabe K, Koketsu M, Tuchida Y, Murayama T. Anti-influenza virus activity of tricin, 4',5,7-trihydroxy-3',5'-dimethoxyflavone. Antivir Chem Chemother 2011; 22:1-11. [PMID: 21860068 DOI: 10.3851/imp1782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We examined the anti-influenza virus activity of tricin, 4',5,7-trihydroxy-3',5'-dimethoxyflavone, against five viruses: A/Solomon islands/3/2006 (H1N1), A/Hiroshima/52/2005 (H3N2), A/California/07/2009 (H1N1pdm), A/Narita/1/2009 (H1N1pdm) and B/Malaysia/2506/2004 strains in vitro and against A/PR/8/34 virus in vivo. METHODS The effect of tricin was studied by an infectious virus yield reduction assay. The anti-influenza virus mechanism of the tricin was examined by western blot analysis, real-time reverse transcriptase PCR analysis, haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay and neuraminidase (NA) inhibition assay. The anti-influenza virus efficacy of tricin was further examined in a murine influenza virus infection model. RESULTS Tricin of 3.3 to 30 μM significantly reduced seasonal A (H1N1), (H3N2) viruses, novel A (H1N1pdm) virus, as well as B virus in a dose-dependent manner. The 50% effective concentrations of tricin were 3.4 μM for seasonal A (H3N2) virus, 4.9 μM for B virus and 8.2 μM for A/Narita (H1N1pdm) virus. Tricin decreased the expression of haemagglutinin (HA) protein and matrix (M) protein, and messenger RNA expression of HA and M of influenza virus in the infected cells. Tricin exhibited little or no effects on influenza virus HI and NA activities. In the mouse infection model, tricin was significantly effective in reducing body weight loss, and also effective in prolonging survival times of infected mice. CONCLUSIONS Tricin was indicated to possess anti-influenza virus activity and to ameliorate body weight loss and survival rate of influenza-A-virus-infected mice. Tricin is a novel compound with potential anti-influenza virus activity in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurumi Yazawa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University, Kanazawa, Japan
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Zhirnov OP, Klenk HD, Wright PF. Aprotinin and similar protease inhibitors as drugs against influenza. Antiviral Res 2011; 92:27-36. [PMID: 21802447 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2011.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Revised: 06/24/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Efforts to develop new antiviral chemotherapeutic approaches are focusing on compounds that target either influenza virus replication itself or host factor(s) that are critical to influenza replication. Host protease mediated influenza hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage is critical for activation of virus infectivity and as such is a chemotherapeutic target. Influenza pathogenesis involves a "vicious cycle" in which host proteases activate progeny virus which in turn amplifies replication and stimulates further protease activities which may be detrimental to the infected host. Aprotinin, a 58 amino acid polypeptide purified from bovine lung that is one of a family of host-targeted antivirals that inhibit serine proteases responsible for influenza virus activation. This drug and similar agents, such as leupeptin and camostat, suppress virus HA cleavage and limit reproduction of human and avian influenza viruses with a single arginine in the HA cleavage site. Site-directed structural modifications of aprotinin are possible to increase its intracellular targeting of cleavage of highly virulent H5 and H7 hemagglutinins possessing multi-arginine/lysine cleavage site. An additional mechanism of action for serine protease inhibitors is to target a number of host mediators of inflammation and down regulate their levels in virus-infected hosts. Aprotinin is a generic drug approved for intravenous use in humans to treat pancreatitis and limit post-operative bleeding. As an antiinfluenzal compound, aprotinin might be delivered by two routes: (i) a small-particle aerosol has been approved in Russia for local respiratory application in mild-to-moderate influenza and (ii) a proposed intravenous administration for severe influenza to provide both an antiviral effect and a decrease in systemic pathology and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- O P Zhirnov
- D.I. Ivanovsky Institute of Virology, Moscow 123098, Russia.
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103
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Higgins SC, Mills KHG. TLR, NLR Agonists, and Other Immune Modulators as Infectious Disease Vaccine Adjuvants. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2011; 12:4-12. [PMID: 21308494 DOI: 10.1007/s11908-009-0080-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Vaccines based on attenuated or killed viruses and bacteria are highly effective in preventing infection with a range of pathogens, but can have safety issues. Therefore, a move is underway toward the development of subunit vaccines based on recombinant proteins or naked DNA. However, protein subunit vaccines are typically poorly immunogenic when administered alone and therefore require coadministration with adjuvants to boost the immune response. For many decades, very little progress was made in understanding the mechanism of action of adjuvants, but recently several significant breakthroughs have occurred in this area. The binding of pathogen-derived molecules to different immune sensors, including Toll-like receptors (TLR), nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors (NLR), and retinoic acid-inducible gene (RIG)-1-like receptors (RLR), activates important innate immune pathways and provides not only an understanding of how current vaccines and adjuvants work, but also potential targets for novel adjuvant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Higgins
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland
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104
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Kool M, Willart MAM, van Nimwegen M, Bergen I, Pouliot P, Virchow JC, Rogers N, Osorio F, Reis e Sousa C, Hammad H, Lambrecht BN. An unexpected role for uric acid as an inducer of T helper 2 cell immunity to inhaled antigens and inflammatory mediator of allergic asthma. Immunity 2011; 34:527-40. [PMID: 21474346 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 02/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Although deposition of uric acid (UA) crystals is known as the cause of gout, it is unclear whether UA plays a role in other inflammatory diseases. We here have shown that UA is released in the airways of allergen-challenged asthmatic patients and mice, where it was necessary for mounting T helper 2 (Th2) cell immunity, airway eosinophilia, and bronchial hyperreactivity to inhaled harmless proteins and clinically relevant house dust mite allergen. Conversely, administration of UA crystals together with protein antigen was sufficient to promote Th2 cell immunity and features of asthma. The adjuvant effects of UA did not require the inflammasome (Nlrp3, Pycard) or the interleukin-1 (Myd88, IL-1r) axis. UA crystals promoted Th2 cell immunity by activating dendritic cells through spleen tyrosine kinase and PI3-kinase δ signaling. These findings provide further molecular insight into Th2 cell development and identify UA as an essential initiator and amplifier of allergic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam Kool
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation and Mucosal Immunology, Department of Respiratory Diseases, University Ghent, Ghent 9000, Belgium
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105
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Uchide N, Toyoda H. Antioxidant therapy as a potential approach to severe influenza-associated complications. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2011; 16. [PMID: 21358592 PMCID: PMC6259602 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23100000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
With the appearance of the novel influenza A (H1N1) virus 2009 strain we have experienced a new influenza pandemic and many patients have died from severe complications associated with this pandemic despite receiving intensive care. This suggests that a definitive medical treatment for severe influenza-associated complications has not yet been established. Many studies have shown that superoxide anion produced by macrophages infiltrated into the virus-infected organs is implicated in the development of severe influenza-associated complications. Selected antioxidants, such as pyrrolidine dithiocabamate, N-acetyl-L-cysteine, glutathione, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, thujaplicin, resveratrol, (+)-vitisin A, ambroxol, ascorbic acid, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-8-methoxyflavone, catechins, quercetin 3-rhamnoside, iso- quercetin and oligonol, inhibit the proliferation of influenza virus and scavenge superoxide anion. The combination of antioxidants with antiviral drugs synergistically reduces the lethal effects of influenza virus infections. These results suggest that an agent with antiviral and antioxidant activities could be a drug of choice for the treatment of patients with severe influenza-associated complications. This review article updates knowledge of antioxidant therapy as a potential approach to severe influenza-associated complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noboru Uchide
- Department of Clinical Molecular Genetics, School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432-1 Horinouchi, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0392, Japan.
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106
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Antioxidant Therapy as a Potential Approach to Severe Influenza-Associated Complications. Molecules 2011; 16:2032-52. [DOI: 10.3390/molecules16032032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Revised: 02/23/2011] [Accepted: 02/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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107
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Case AJ, McGill JL, Tygrett LT, Shirasawa T, Spitz DR, Waldschmidt TJ, Legge KL, Domann FE. Elevated mitochondrial superoxide disrupts normal T cell development, impairing adaptive immune responses to an influenza challenge. Free Radic Biol Med 2011; 50:448-58. [PMID: 21130157 PMCID: PMC3026081 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2010] [Revised: 11/12/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical in a broad spectrum of cellular processes including signaling, tumor progression, and innate immunity. The essential nature of ROS signaling in the immune systems of Drosophila and zebrafish has been demonstrated; however, the role of ROS, if any, in mammalian adaptive immune system development and function remains unknown. This work provides the first clear demonstration that thymus-specific elevation of mitochondrial superoxide (O(2)(•-)) disrupts normal T cell development and impairs the function of the mammalian adaptive immune system. To assess the effect of elevated mitochondrial superoxide in the developing thymus, we used a T-cell-specific knockout of manganese superoxide dismutase (i.e., SOD2) and have thus established a murine model to examine the role of mitochondrial superoxide in T cell development. Conditional loss of SOD2 led to increased superoxide, apoptosis, and developmental defects in the T cell population, resulting in immunodeficiency and susceptibility to the influenza A virus H1N1. This phenotype was rescued with mitochondrially targeted superoxide-scavenging drugs. These findings demonstrate that loss of regulated levels of mitochondrial superoxide lead to aberrant T cell development and function, and further suggest that manipulations of mitochondrial superoxide levels may significantly alter clinical outcomes resulting from viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J. Case
- Free Radical and Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Jodi L. McGill
- Department of Pathology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Lorraine T. Tygrett
- Department of Pathology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Takuji Shirasawa
- Juntendo University, Department of Aging Control Medicine, Hongo 3-3-10-201, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Douglas R. Spitz
- Free Radical and Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Thomas J. Waldschmidt
- Department of Pathology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Kevin L. Legge
- Department of Pathology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Frederick E. Domann
- Free Radical and Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
- Corresponding Author: Frederick E. Domann, PhD, B180 Medical Laboratories, Free Radical and Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52240, Phone: 319-335-8019, Fax: 319-335-8039,
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108
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Abstract
Reactive oxygen species and thiol antioxidants, including glutathione (GSH), regulate innate immunity at various levels. This review outlines the redox-sensitive steps of the cellular mechanisms implicated in inflammation and host defense against infection, and describes how GSH is not only important as an antioxidant but also as a signaling molecule. There is an extensive literature of the role of GSH in immunity. Most reviews are biased by an oversimplified picture where “bad” free radicals cause all sorts of diseases and “good” antioxidants protect from them and prevent oxidative stress. While this may be the case in certain fields (eg, toxicology), the role of thiols (the topic of this review) in immunity certainly requires wearing scientist’s goggles and being prepared to accept a more complex picture. This review aims at describing the role of GSH in the lung in the context of immunity and inflammation. The first part summarizes the history and basic concepts of this picture. The second part focuses on GSH metabolism/levels in pathology, the third on the role of GSH in innate immunity and inflammation, and the fourth gives 4 examples describing the importance of GSH in the response to infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Ghezzi
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Trafford Centre, Falmer, Brighton, UK.
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109
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Evaluation of antioxidant defense systems in H4IIE cells infected with a retroviral vector. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:1105-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2009] [Revised: 02/02/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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110
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Fang J, Seki T, Qin H, Bharate GY, Iyer AK, Maeda H. Tissue protective effect of xanthine oxidase inhibitor, polymer conjugate of (styrene–maleic acid copolymer) and (4-amino-6-hydroxypyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine), on hepatic ischemia–reperfusion injury. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2010; 235:487-96. [DOI: 10.1258/ebm.2009.009304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The detrimental role of superoxide anion (O2−) has been well documented in the pathogenesis of ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. Our and other studies suggested that one critical source of O2− generation may be xanthine oxidase (XO). We thus hypothesized that I/R injury could be protected by inhibiting XO activity, which would reduce the amount of O2− and hence reduce pathogenic consequences. Among various XO inhibitors, we previously found 4-amino-6-hydroxypyrazolo[3,4- d]pyrimidine (AHPP) exhibited potent XO inhibitory activity. Here, we report that the covalent conjugate of AHPP with amphipathic styrene–maleic acid copolymer (SMA-AHPP) showed protective effect against I/R-induced injury in a rat hepatic I/R model. Liver ischemia was induced by occluding both the portal vein and the hepatic artery for 30 min, and followed by reperfusion. SMA-AHPP was administered via the tail vein two hours before ischemia was initiated. A remarkable increase of liver enzymes in plasma (aspartate aminotransferase, AST; alanine aminotransferase, ALT and lactate dehydrogenase, LDH) was detected three hours after reperfusion, whereas prior injection of SMA-AHPP greatly suppressed this increase of AST, ALT and LDH. Moreover, induction of inflammatory cytokines, i.e. tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF- α), interleukin-12 (IL-12) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) by I/R were significantly inhibited by SMA-AHPP treatment. Accordingly, cytotoxic effect or apoptosis in the liver caused by I/R was clearly reduced by SMA-AHPP pretreatment. Furthermore, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance assay showed a significant decrease of lipid peroxidation in rat liver after the administration of SMA-AHPP, which is parallel with the decreased XO activity after SMA-AHPP treatment, indicating the involvement of reactive oxygen species generated by XO. In addition, SMA-AHPP was found to bind to albumin, thus to exhibit prolonged in vivo (plasma) half-life. These results suggest that SMA-AHPP exerted a potent cytoprotective effect against I/R injury in rat liver, by inhibiting XO activity and the subsequent generation of O2−.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Fang
- Laboratory of Microbiology & Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082
| | - Takahiro Seki
- Laboratory of Microbiology & Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082
- Regional Cooperative Research Center, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 861-2202, Japan
- Current address:Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Haibo Qin
- Laboratory of Microbiology & Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082
- Department of Applied Microbiology
| | - Gahininath Y Bharate
- Laboratory of Microbiology & Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan
| | - Arun K Iyer
- Laboratory of Microbiology & Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082
- Current address:Department of Radiology & Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hiroshi Maeda
- Laboratory of Microbiology & Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082
- Regional Cooperative Research Center, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 861-2202, Japan
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Sojo University, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan
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111
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Michel TM, Camara S, Tatschner T, Frangou S, Sheldrick AJ, Riederer P, Grünblatt E. Increased xanthine oxidase in the thalamus and putamen in depression. World J Biol Psychiatry 2010; 11:314-20. [PMID: 20218795 DOI: 10.3109/15622970802123695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of literature suggests persistent and selective structural changes in the cortico-limbic-thalamic-striatal system in patients with recurrent depressive disorder (DD). Oxidative stress is thought to play a key role in these processes. So far, the main scientific focus has been on antioxidant enzymes in this context. For the first time, this proof of concept study examines the activity of the free radicals producing the enzyme, xanthine oxidase (XO), directly in the cortico-limbic-thalamic-striatal system of patients with recurrent depression. The activity of XO was ascertained in the cortico-limbic-thalamic-striatal regions in post-mortem brain tissue of patients with recurrent depressive episodes and individuals without any neurological or psychiatric history (7/7). We measured the XO activity in following brain areas: hippocampus, regio entorhinalis, thalamus, putamen and caudate nucleus. In this study, we report a significant increase of XO activity in the thalamus and the putamen of patients with depression. Our findings contribute to the growing body of evidence suggesting that oxidative stress plays a pivotal role in certain brain areas in recurrent depressive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Maria Michel
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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112
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Yan Q. Systems biology of influenza: understanding multidimensional interactions for personalized prevention and treatment. Methods Mol Biol 2010; 662:285-302. [PMID: 20824477 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60761-800-3_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Influenza virus infection is a public health threat worldwide. It is urgent to develop effective methods and tools for the prevention and treatment of influenza. Influenza vaccines have significant immune response variability across the population. Most of the current circulating strains of influenza A virus are resistant to anti-influenza drugs. It is necessary to understand how genetic variants affect immune responses, especially responses to the HA and NA transmembrane glycoproteins. The elucidation of the underlying mechanisms can help identify patient subgroups for effective prevention and treatment. New personalized vaccines, adjuvants, and drugs may result from the understanding of interactions of host genetic, environmental, and other factors. The systems biology approach is to simulate and model large networks of the interacting components, which can be excellent targets for antiviral therapies. The elucidation of host-influenza interactions may provide an integrative view of virus infection and host responses. Understanding the host-influenza-drug interactions may contribute to optimal drug combination therapies. Insight of the host-influenza-vaccine interactions, especially the immunogenetics of vaccine response, may lead to the development of better vaccines. Systemic studies of host-virus-vaccine-drug-environment interactions will enable predictive models for therapeutic responses and the development of individualized therapeutic strategies. A database containing such information on personalized and systems medicine for influenza is available at http://flu.pharmtao.com.
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113
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Abstract
Antiviral therapy and vaccination are important strategies for controlling pandemic 2009 influenza A(H1N1) but efficacy depends on the timing of administration and is often limited by supply shortage. Patients with dyspnea, tachypnea, evidence of hypoxemia, and pulmonary infiltrates on chest radiograph should be hospitalized. Patients with severe illness or underlying medical conditions that increase the risk of more severe disease should be treated with oseltamivir or zanamivir as soon as possible, without waiting for the results of laboratory tests. Lung-protective ventilation strategy with a low tidal volume and adequate pressure, in addition to a conservative fluid management approach, is recommended when treating adult patients with ARDS. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation has emerged as an important rescue therapy for critically ill patients. Use of systemic steroids was associated with delayed viral clearance in severe acute respiratory syndrome and H3N2 infection. Low-dose corticosteroids may be considered in the treatment of refractory septic shock. Passive immunotherapy in the form of convalescent plasma or hyperimmune globulin may be explored as rescue therapy. More data are needed to explore the potential role of IV gamma globulin and other drugs with immunomodulating properties, such as statins, gemfibrozil, and N-acetyl-cysteine. Health-care workers must apply strict standard and droplet precautions when dealing with suspected and confirmed case and upgrade to airborne precautions when performing aerosol-generating procedures. Nonpharmacologic measures, such as early case isolation, household quarantine, school/workplace closure, good community hygiene, and restrictions on travel are useful measures in controlling an influenza pandemic at its early phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Hui
- Division of Respiratory Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 9/F, Prince of Wales Hospital, 30-32 Ngan Shing St, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong.
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Geiler J, Michaelis M, Naczk P, Leutz A, Langer K, Doerr HW, Cinatl J. N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) inhibits virus replication and expression of pro-inflammatory molecules in A549 cells infected with highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza A virus. Biochem Pharmacol 2009; 79:413-20. [PMID: 19732754 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2009] [Revised: 08/26/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) had been shown to inhibit replication of seasonal human influenza A viruses. Here, the effects of NAC on virus replication, virus-induced pro-inflammatory responses and virus-induced apoptosis were investigated in H5N1-infected lung epithelial (A549) cells. NAC at concentrations ranging from 5 to 15 mM reduced H5N1-induced cytopathogenic effects (CPEs), virus-induced apoptosis and infectious viral yields 24 h post-infection. NAC also decreased the production of pro-inflammatory molecules (CXCL8, CXCL10, CCL5 and interleukin-6 (IL-6)) in H5N1-infected A549 cells and reduced monocyte migration towards supernatants of H5N1-infected A549 cells. The antiviral and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of NAC included inhibition of activation of oxidant sensitive pathways including transcription factor NF-kappaB and mitogen activated protein kinase p38. Pharmacological inhibitors of NF-kappaB (BAY 11-7085) or p38 (SB203580) exerted similar effects like those determined for NAC in H5N1-infected cells. The combination of BAY 11-7085 and SB203580 resulted in increased inhibitory effects on virus replication and production of pro-inflammatory molecules relative to either single treatment. NAC inhibits H5N1 replication and H5N1-induced production of pro-inflammatory molecules. Therefore, antioxidants like NAC represent a potential additional treatment option that could be considered in the case of an influenza A virus pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Geiler
- Institute of Medical Virology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Frankfurt, Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse 40, 60596 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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115
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Host genetic variation affects resistance to infection with a highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza A virus in mice. J Virol 2009; 83:10417-26. [PMID: 19706712 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00514-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the prevalence of H5N1 influenza viruses in global avian populations, comparatively few cases have been diagnosed in humans. Although viral factors almost certainly play a role in limiting human infection and disease, host genetics most likely contribute substantially. To model host factors in the context of influenza virus infection, we determined the lethal dose of a highly pathogenic H5N1 virus (A/Hong Kong/213/03) in C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice and identified genetic elements associated with survival after infection. The lethal dose in these hosts varied by 4 logs and was associated with differences in replication kinetics and increased production of proinflammatory cytokines CCL2 and tumor necrosis factor alpha in susceptible DBA/2J mice. Gene mapping with recombinant inbred BXD strains revealed five loci or Qivr (quantitative trait loci for influenza virus resistance) located on chromosomes 2, 7, 11, 15, and 17 associated with resistance to H5N1 virus. In conjunction with gene expression profiling, we identified a number of candidate susceptibility genes. One of the validated genes, the hemolytic complement gene, affected virus titer 7 days after infection. We conclude that H5N1 influenza virus-induced pathology is affected by a complex and multigenic host component.
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116
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Miyakawa H, Mason RP, Jiang J, Kadiiska MB. Lipid-derived free radical production in superantigen-induced interstitial pneumonia. Free Radic Biol Med 2009; 47:241-9. [PMID: 19376221 PMCID: PMC2700201 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2009.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Revised: 03/12/2009] [Accepted: 04/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We studied the free radical generation involved in the development of interstitial pneumonia (IP) in an animal model of autoimmune disease. We observed an electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrum of alpha-(4-pyridyl-1-oxide)-N-tert-butylnitrone (POBN) radical adducts detected in the lipid extract of lungs in autoimmune-prone mice after intratracheal instillation of staphylococcal enterotoxin B. The POBN adducts detected by ESR were paralleled by infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils into the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. To further investigate the mechanism of free radical generation, mice were pretreated with the macrophage toxicant gadolinium chloride, which significantly suppressed the radical generation. Free radical generation was also decreased by pretreatment with the xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitor allopurinol, the iron chelator Desferal, and the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor 1400W. Histopathologically, these drugs significantly reduced both the cell infiltration into the alveolar septal walls and the synthesis of pulmonary collagen fibers. Experiments with NADPH oxidase knockout mice showed that NADPH oxidase did not contribute to lipid radical generation. These results suggest that lipid-derived carbon-centered free radical production is important in the manifestation of IP and that a macrophage toxicant, an XO inhibitor, an iron chelator, and an iNOS inhibitor protect against both radical generation and the manifestation of IP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hisako Miyakawa
- Free Radical Metabolite Section, Laboratory of Pharmacology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Ishiyama F, Iijima K, Asanuma K, Ara N, Yoshitake J, Abe Y, Koike T, Imatani A, Ohara S, Shimosegawa T. Exogenous luminal nitric oxide exacerbates esophagus tissue damage in a reflux esophagitis model of rats. Scand J Gastroenterol 2009; 44:527-37. [PMID: 19172433 DOI: 10.1080/00365520802699260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cytotoxic concentrations of nitric oxide are generated luminally at the gastroesophageal junction through the entero-salivary recirculation of dietary nitrate in humans. The site of luminal nitric oxide generation shifts to the lower esophagus when gastric acid is refluxed into the esophagus. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of persistent administration of exogenous nitric oxide on esophageal damage. MATERIAL AND METHODS 0.1% sodium nitrite and/or 1% ascorbic acid was administered in an established rat acid-refluxed esophagitis model. Co-administration of both reactants in this model is thought to induce high concentrations of nitric oxide luminally in the esophagus by an acid-catalyzed chemical reaction when refluxed gastric acid is present. The tissue damage was evaluated by a macroscopic lesion index and myeloperoxidase activity. Nitrotyrosin was assessed immunohistochemically as a footprint of peroxynitrite formation. RESULTS Co-administration of sodium nitrite and ascorbic acid induced a 4- to 5-fold increase in the esophageal damage compared with baseline reflux esophagitis, while the damage was unchanged when either of the reagents alone was given. Nitrotyrosine was strongly stained in the tissue from the co-administration. Treatment of superoxide scavengers efficiently prevented the exacerbation of esophageal damage by exogenous nitric oxide exposure, suggesting an essential role of superoxide in esophageal damage. CONCLUSIONS Exogenous luminal nitric oxide greatly exacerbated the tissue damage of reflux esophagitis. Diffusion of the luminal nitric oxide into the adjacent superoxide-enriched inflamed tissue of the esophagus could lead to the production of the highly toxic agent peroxynitrite, thus causing exacerbation of the esophageal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumitake Ishiyama
- Division of Gastroenterology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
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McCarty MF, Barroso-Aranda J, Contreras F. Practical strategies for targeting NF-kappaB and NADPH oxidase may improve survival during lethal influenza epidemics. Med Hypotheses 2009; 74:18-20. [PMID: 19573997 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2009.04.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2009] [Revised: 04/28/2009] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The most foolproof way to promote survival in epidemics of potentially lethal influenza is to target, not highly mutable viral proteins, but rather intracellular signaling pathways which promote viral propagation or lung inflammation. NF-kappaB, activated in influenza-infected lung epithelial cells and macrophages, is one likely target in this regard, as it plays a role both in viral replication and in the excessive lung inflammation often evoked by influenza infection. Indeed, salicylates, which suppress NF-kappaB activation, have been shown to reduce the lethality of H5N1 avian-type influenza in mice. Another potential target is NADPH oxidase, as this may be a major source of influenza-evoked oxidant stress in lung epithelial cells as well as in phagocytes attracted to lung parenchyma. A number of studies demonstrate that oxidant stress contributes to overexuberant lung inflammation and lethality in influenza-infected mice. The documented utility of N-acetylcysteine, a glutathione precursor, for promoting survival in influenza-infected mice, and diminishing the severity of influenza-like infections in elderly humans, presumably reflects a key role for oxidative stress in influenza. The lethality of influenza is also reduced in mice pretreated with adenovirus carrying the gene for heme oxygenase-1; this benefit may be mediated, at least in part, by the ability of bilirubin to inhibit NADPH oxidase. It may be feasible to replicate this benefit clinically by administering biliverdin or its homolog phycocyanobilin, richly supplied by spirulina. If this latter speculation can be confirmed in rodent studies, a practical and inexpensive regimen consisting of high-dose salicylates, spirulina, and N-acetylcysteine, initiated at the earliest feasible time, may prove to have life-saving efficacy when the next killer influenza pandemic strikes.
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119
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Maeda H. Controlling oxidative stress: therapeutic and delivery strategies. Preface. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2009; 61:285-6. [PMID: 19236897 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2009.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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120
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Fang J, Seki T, Maeda H. Therapeutic strategies by modulating oxygen stress in cancer and inflammation. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2009; 61:290-302. [PMID: 19249331 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2009.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 400] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 02/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Oxygen is the essential molecule for all aerobic organisms, and plays predominant role in ATP generation, namely, oxidative phosphorylation. During this process, reactive oxygen species (ROS) including superoxide anion (O(2)(-)) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) are produced as by-products, while it seems indispensable for signal transduction pathways that regulate cell growth and reduction-oxidation (redox) status. However, during times of environmental stress ROS levels may increase dramatically, resulting in significant damage to cell structure and functions. This cumulated situation of ROS is known as oxidative stress, which may, however, be utilized for eradicating cancer cells. It is well known that oxidative stress, namely over-production of ROS, involves in the initiation and progression of many diseases and disorders, including cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, viral pathogenesis, drug-induced tissue injury, hypertension, formation of drug resistant mutant, etc. Thus, it is reasonable to counter balance of ROS and to treat such ROS-related diseases by inhibiting ROS production. Such therapeutic strategies are described in this article, that includes polymeric superoxide dismutase (SOD) (e.g., pyran copolymer-SOD), xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitor as we developed water soluble form of 4-amino-6-hydroxypyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine (AHPP), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inducers (e.g., hemin and its polymeric form), and other antioxidants or radical scavengers (e.g., canolol). On the contrary, because of its highly cytotoxic nature, ROS can also be used to kill cancer cells if one can modulate its generation selectively in cancer. To achieve this goal, a unique therapeutic strategy was developed named as "oxidation therapy", by delivering cytotoxic ROS directly to the solid tumor, or alternatively inhibiting the antioxidative enzyme system, such as HO-1 in tumor. This anticancer strategy was examined by use of O(2)(-) or H(2)O(2)-generating enzymes (i.e., XO and d-amino acid oxidase [DAO] respectively), and by discovering the inhibitor of HO-1 (i.e., zinc protoporphyrin [ZnPP] and its polymeric derivatives). Further for the objective of tumor targeting and thus reducing side effects, polymer conjugates or micellar drugs were prepared by use of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) or styrene maleic acid copolymer (SMA), which utilize EPR (enhanced permeability and retention) effect for tumor-selective delivery. These macromolecular drugs further showed superior pharmacokinetics including much longer in vivo half-life, particularly tumor targeted accumulation, and thus remarkable antitumor effects. The present review concerns primarily our own works, in the direction of "Controlling oxidative stress: Therapeutic and delivery strategy" of this volume.
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Kim Y, Kang K, Kim I, Lee YJ, Oh C, Ryoo J, Jeong E, Ahn K. Molecular mechanisms of MHC class I-antigen processing: redox considerations. Antioxid Redox Signal 2009; 11:907-36. [PMID: 19178136 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2008.2316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules present antigenic peptides to the cell surface for screening by CD8(+) T cells. A number of ER-resident chaperones assist the assembly of peptides onto MHC class I molecules, a process that can be divided into several steps. Early folding of the MHC class I heavy chain is followed by its association with beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)m). The MHC class I heavy chain-beta(2)m heterodimer is incorporated into the peptide-loading complex, leading to peptide loading, release of the peptide-filled MHC class I molecules from the peptide-loading complex, and exit of the complete MHC class I complex from the ER. Because proper antigen presentation is vital for normal immune responses, the assembly of MHC class I molecules requires tight regulation. Emerging evidence indicates that thiol-based redox regulation plays critical roles in MHC class I-restricted antigen processing and presentation, establishing an unexpected link between redox biology and antigen processing. We review the influences of redox regulation on antigen processing and presentation. Because redox signaling pathways are a rich source of validated drug targets, newly discovered redox biology-mediated mechanisms of antigen processing may facilitate the development of more selective and therapeutic drugs or vaccines against immune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngkyun Kim
- National Creative Research Center for Antigen Presentation, Department of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
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122
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Fang J, Iyer AK, Seki T, Nakamura H, Greish K, Maeda H. SMA-copolymer conjugate of AHPP: a polymeric inhibitor of xanthine oxidase with potential antihypertensive effect. J Control Release 2009; 135:211-7. [PMID: 19331863 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2008] [Revised: 01/14/2009] [Accepted: 01/14/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In vascular system, superoxide anion (O2(-)) generated by xanthine oxidase (XO) is known to regulate vascular tonus by reacting with, and thus consuming nitric oxide (NO), which determines vasorelaxation. We previously reported the remarkable antihypertensive effect of a potent XO inhibitor, 4-amino -6-hydroxypyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine (AHPP). However, AHPP is insoluble in water, which hamper its in vivo application. Therefore, in this study we prepared a water soluble polymeric conjugate of AHPP, by using a styrene maleic acid copolymer (SMA, SMA-AHPP). SMA-AHPP showed similar inhibitory activity against XO (K(i)=0.25 microM) comparable to native AHPP (K(i)=0.17 microM), while exhibiting good water-solubility, which now made it possible for systemic injection. In vivo experiments were carried out to examine the antihypertensive effect of SMA-AHPP using the spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) by i.v. injection (15, 30 mg/kg) or by oral administration (100 mg/kg) of SMA-AHPP. The results showed significantly reduced blood pressures (up to 30% reduction) of SHR rats; this antihypertensive effect continued for at least 24 h after SMA-AHPP administration. These findings strongly suggest the potential value of SMA-AHPP as an antihypertensive agent with sustained in vivo activity, which warrants further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Fang
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Ikeda 4-22-1, Kumamoto, Japan
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123
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Ichinohe T, Iwasaki A, Hasegawa H. Innate sensors of influenza virus: clues to developing better intranasal vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2008; 7:1435-45. [PMID: 18980544 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.7.9.1435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mucosal immunity acquired by natural infection with influenza viruses at the respiratory tract is more effective and cross-protective against subsequent variant virus infection than systemic immunity induced by parenteral immunization with inactivated vaccines. To develop an effective influenza vaccine, it is beneficial to mimic the process of natural infection that bridges innate and adaptive immune systems. The innate immune system that recognizes influenza virus infection consists of several classes of pattern-recognition receptors, including the Toll-like receptors, the retinoic acid-inducible gene-I-like receptors and the NOD-like receptors. Here, we review our current understanding of the mechanism of innate recognition of influenza and how the signals emanating from the innate sensors control adaptive immunity. Further, we discuss the potential roles of these receptors in developing intranasal influenza vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Ichinohe
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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124
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Westover A, Harrison CB, Selemidis S. Nox2-containing NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase are sources of superoxide in mouse trachea. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2008; 36:331-3. [PMID: 19076165 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2008.05126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
1. Superoxide anion plays an important role in host defence against invading pathogens and in the inflammation that arises in lungs. The aim of the present study was to elucidate whether the two key candidate superoxide-producing enzymes in mammalian cells, namely Nox2-containing NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase, are responsible for superoxide production in mouse trachea. 2. Superoxide production by isolated trachea, as measured by L-012-dependent chemiluminescence, was markedly reduced by superoxide dismutase (300 U/mL) and the xanthine oxidase inhibitor allopurinol (100 micromol/L). Tracheas from Nox2(-/-) mice had significantly lower levels (~60%) of superoxide than control mice. 3. These novel findings suggest that superoxide production by mouse trachea is attributed to both Nox2-containing NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alana Westover
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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125
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Lin J, Xu P, LaVallee P, Hoidal JR. Identification of proteins binding to E-Box/Ku86 sites and function of the tumor suppressor SAFB1 in transcriptional regulation of the human xanthine oxidoreductase gene. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:29681-9. [PMID: 18772145 PMCID: PMC2573066 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m802076200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2008] [Revised: 08/01/2008] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The xanthine oxidoreductase gene (XOR) encodes an important source of reactive oxygen species and uric acid, and its expression is associated with various human diseases including several forms of cancer. We previously reported that basal human XOR (hXOR) expression is restricted or repressed by E-box and TATA-like elements and a cluster of transcriptional proteins, including AREB6-like proteins and DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK). We now demonstrate that the cluster contains the tumor suppressors SAFB1, BRG1, and SAF-A. We further demonstrate that SAFB1 silencing increases hXOR expression and that SAFB1 directly binds to the E-box. Multiple studies in vitro and in vivo including pulldown, immunoprecipitation and chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses indicate that SAFB1, Ku86, and BRG1 associate with each other. The results suggest that the SAFB1 complex binds to the hXOR promoter in a chromatin environment and plays a critical role in restricting hXOR expression via its direct interaction with the E-box, DNA-PK, and tumor suppressors. Moreover, we demonstrate that the cytokine, oncostatin M (OSM), induces the phosphorylation of SAFB1 and that the OSM-induced hXOR mRNA expression is significantly inhibited by silencing the DNA-PK catalytic subunit or SAFB1 expression. The present studies for the first time demonstrate that hXOR is a tumor suppressor-targeted gene and that the phosphorylation of SAFB1 is regulated by OSM, providing a molecular basis for understanding the role of SAFB1-regulated hXOR transcription in cytokine stimulation and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junji Lin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Respiratory, Critical Care, and Occupational Medicine, University of Utah Health Sciences Center and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132, USA
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126
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Wang BS, Yu HM, Chang LW, Yen WJ, Duh PD. Protective effects of pu-erh tea on LDL oxidation and nitric oxide generation in macrophage cells. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2007.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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127
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Miyamoto D, Hasegawa S, Sriwilaijaroen N, Yingsakmongkon S, Hiramatsu H, Takahashi T, Hidari K, Guo CT, Sakano Y, Suzuki T, Suzuki Y. Clarithromycin inhibits progeny virus production from human influenza virus-infected host cells. Biol Pharm Bull 2008; 31:217-22. [PMID: 18239276 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.31.217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In vitro effects of macrolide clarithromycin (CAM) on influenza A virus-infected cells were examined using plaque reduction assay by treating cells either before or after viral adsorption. The significant inhibitory effect on influenza virus infection was detected only when the cells were treated with CAM after viral adsorption. The predominant inhibitory effect was observed during 4-7th hour after viral adsorption using viral production assay. CAM did not exhibit inhibitory effects on influenza virus hemagglutination, membrane fusion and viral sialidase activities. These findings indicate that CAM acts on a middle to late stage of the viral replication cycle resulting in inhibition of progeny virus production from the infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisei Miyamoto
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Shizuoka School of Pharmaceutical Science, Shizuoka, Japan
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128
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Fang J, Nakamura H, Iyer AK. Tumor-targeted induction of oxystress for cancer therapy. J Drug Target 2007; 15:475-86. [PMID: 17671894 DOI: 10.1080/10611860701498286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide anion radicals (O.-2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are potentially harmful by-products of normal cellular metabolism that directly affect cellular functions. ROS is generated by all aerobic organisms and it seems to be indispensable for signal transduction pathways that regulate cell growth and reduction-oxidation (redox) status. However, overproduction of these highly reactive oxygen metabolites can initiate lethal chain reactions, which involve oxidation and damage to structures that are crucial for cellular integrity and survival. In fact, many antitumor agents, such as vinblastine, cisplatin, mitomycin C, doxorubicin, camptothecin, inostamycin, neocarzinostatin and many others exhibit antitumor activity via ROS-dependent activation of apoptotic cell death, suggesting potential use of ROS as an antitumor principle. Thus, a unique anticancer strategy named "oxidation therapy" has been developed by inducing cytotoxic oxystress for cancer treatment. This goal could be achieved mainly by two methods, namely, (i) inducing the generation of ROS directly to solid tumors and (ii) inhibiting the antioxidative enzyme (defense) system of tumor cells. Since 1950s, many strategies have been employed based on the first method, namely, administration of ROS per se (e.g. H2O2) or ROS generating enzyme to tumor bearing animals. However no successful and practical results were obtained probably because of the lack of tumor selective ROS delivery and hence resulting in subsequent induction of severe side effects. To overcome these obstacles, we developed polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated O.-2 or H2O2-generating enzymes, xanthine oxidase (XO) and D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) (PEG-DAO) respectively. More recently, a pegylated (PEG) zinc protoporphyrin (PEG-ZnPP) and a highly water soluble micellar formulation of ZnPP based on amphiphilic styrene maleic acid (SMA) copolymer, SMA-ZnPP, are prepared, which are potent inhibitors of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). HO-1 is a major antioxidative enzyme of tumors, that is different in mechanism of catalase or superoxide dismutase (SOD). Consequently, both PEG-enzymes and PEG-ZnPP exhibited superior in vivo pharmacokinetics than their parental molecules, particularly in tumor delivery by taking advantage of the EPR effect of macromolecular nature, and thus showed remarkable antitumor effects suggesting the potentials of this anticancer therapeutic for clinical application. Furthermore, it has been well known that many antioxidative enzymes such as catalase, SOD are down-regulated in most solid tumors in vivo. On the contrary, HO-1 is highly upregulated and it plays a very important role of antioxidation, because HO-1 generates biliverdin, which being converted to bilirubin exhibits a very potent antioxidative effect, and hence antiapoptosis in tumors. Thus this oxidation therapy, by inhibiting this HO-1 dependent antioxidant (bilirubin) formation by ZnPP, and by enhancing ROS generation, is expected to offer a powerful therapeutic modality for future anticancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Fang
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Oncology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sojo University, Kumamoto, Japan.
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129
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La Gruta NL, Kedzierska K, Stambas J, Doherty PC. A question of self-preservation: immunopathology in influenza virus infection. Immunol Cell Biol 2007; 85:85-92. [PMID: 17213831 DOI: 10.1038/sj.icb.7100026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A viruses that circulate normally in the human population cause a debilitating, though generally transient, illness that is sometimes fatal, particularly in the elderly. Severe complications arising from pandemic influenza or the highly pathogenic avian H5N1 viruses are often associated with rapid, massive inflammatory cell infiltration, acute respiratory distress, reactive hemophagocytosis and multiple organ involvement. Histological and pathological indicators strongly suggest a key role for an excessive host response in mediating at least some of this pathology. Here, we review the current literature on how various effector arms of the immune system can act deleteriously to initiate or exacerbate pathological damage in this viral pneumonia. Generally, the same immunological factors mediating tissue damage during the anti-influenza immune response are also critical for efficient elimination of virus, thereby posing a significant challenge in the design of harmless yet effective therapeutic strategies for tackling influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L La Gruta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
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130
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Castro SM, Guerrero-Plata A, Suarez-Real G, Adegboyega PA, Colasurdo GN, Khan AM, Garofalo RP, Casola A. Antioxidant treatment ameliorates respiratory syncytial virus-induced disease and lung inflammation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 174:1361-9. [PMID: 17008643 PMCID: PMC2648297 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200603-319oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of lower respiratory tract infection in children. No treatment has been shown to significantly improve the clinical outcome of patients with this infection. Recent evidence suggests that oxidative stress could play an important role in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic lung inflammatory diseases. We do not known whether RSV induces pulmonary oxidative stress and whether antioxidant treatment can modulate RSV-induced lung disease. OBJECTIVES To investigate the effect of antioxidant administration on RSV-induced lung inflammation, clinical disease, and airway hyperreactivity (AHR). METHODS BALB/c mice were infected with 10(7) plaque-forming units of RSV, in the presence or absence of orally administered butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), an antioxidant. Malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal were measured in bronchoalveoar lavage (BAL) by colorimetric assay. Cytokines and chemokines were measured in BAL by Bio-Plex and leukotrienes were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. AHR to methacholine challenge was measured by whole-body plethysmography. RESULTS BHA treatment significantly attenuated RSV-induced lung oxidative stress, as indicated by the decrease of malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal content in BAL of RSV-infected mice. RSV-induced clinical illness and body weight loss were also reduced by BHA treatment, which inhibited neutrophil recruitment to the lung and significantly reduced pulmonary cytokine and chemokine production after RSV infection. Similarly, antioxidant treatment attenuated RSV-induced AHR. CONCLUSION Modulation of oxidative stress represents a potential novel pharmacologic approach to ameliorate RSV-induced acute lung inflammation and potentially prevent long-term consequences associated with RSV infection, such as bronchial asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn Monique Castro
- Department of Pediatrics, Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0366, USA
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131
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Snelgrove RJ, Edwards L, Rae AJ, Hussell T. An absence of reactive oxygen species improves the resolution of lung influenza infection. Eur J Immunol 2006; 36:1364-73. [PMID: 16703568 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200635977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Three influenza virus pandemics occurred in the last century, in 1918 killing 40-50 million people. In the absence of strain-specific vaccines, with potential resistance to antivirals and the threat of an imminent pandemic, strategies that alleviate symptoms are a priority. Reactive oxygen species are potent antimicrobial agents but cause immunopathology when produced in excess. Mice lacking a functional phagocyte NADPH oxidase (Cybb tm1 mice) or treated with the metalloporphyrin antioxidant manganese (III) tetrakis (N-ethyl pyridinium-2-yl) porpyhrin (MnTE-2-PyP) show heightened inflammatory infiltrates in their airways in response to pulmonary influenza infection, with augmented macrophage populations and a Th1-skewed T cell infiltrate. Underlying this exuberant macrophage response was a significant reduction in apoptosis and down-regulation of the myeloid inhibitory molecule CD200. Both, Cybb tm1 and MnTE-2-PyP-treated mice exhibited a reduced influenza titer in the lung parenchyma. Inflammatory infiltrate into the lung parenchyma was markedly reduced and lung function significantly improved. Manipulation of the homeostatic control of myeloid cells by inflammatory mediators therefore represents a novel therapeutic strategy in the treatment of influenza virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Snelgrove
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Imperial College London, Hammersmith, UK
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Cervi J, Marotta F, Bater C, Masulair K, Minelli E, Harada M, Marandola P. A dietary supplement improves outcome in an experimental influenza model in old mice. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1067:414-9. [PMID: 16804020 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1354.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Twenty-month-old Swiss mice were allocated into three groups: (A) control; (B) infected group; and (C) infected but treated with 5 mg of the phytocompound MMT. Mice were infected intranasally with 30 microL of 75 HA viral units. MMT markedly blunted the nasal signs of virus infection and the febrile response. Formazan-positive cells, lung and plasma lipoperoxides, and TNF-alpha in lung tissue increased during viral infection, but improvement was seen in the MMT-treated group (P < 0.05). MMT also normalized SOD, catalase activities, and ascorbic acid and determined a significant decrease of lung but not nasal viral titer, although nasal inflammatory infiltrate dropped significantly. MMT has potential clinical applications with and has an excellent safety profile even in old animals.
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Abstract
Acute respiratory tract infections cause approximately 4 million deaths globally each year. Current strategies to combat these infections include vaccines and antiviral drugs. However, a significant proportion of the pathology and illness induced by respiratory viral infection is attributed to an excessive host immune response, rather than the cytopathic nature of the pathogen. Distinct respiratory viruses elicit common immune mediators and cells, which are subsequently the cause of pathology. Therefore, strategies that seek to attenuate the potency of the host’s immune response may provide generic relief from multiple respiratory infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Snelgrove
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, 1 Aspenlea Road, London, W6 8LH, UK
| | - Emily Gwyer
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, 1 Aspenlea Road, London, W6 8LH, UK
| | - Tracy Hussell
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, 1 Aspenlea Road, London, W6 8LH, UK
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Komaki Y, Sugiura H, Koarai A, Tomaki M, Ogawa H, Akita T, Hattori T, Ichinose M. Cytokine-mediated xanthine oxidase upregulation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease's airways. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2006; 18:297-302. [PMID: 15777613 DOI: 10.1016/j.pupt.2005.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2004] [Revised: 12/10/2004] [Accepted: 01/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species have been reported to be involved in the airway inflammatory process of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The aim of this study was to quantify the activity of xanthine oxidase (XO), which generates a potent radical superoxide anion in COPD airways. Thirteen stable COPD patients and 10 healthy subjects participated in this study. We collected the epithelial lining fluid using a newly developed microsampling technique, and quantified of cytokines responsible for the XO gene upregulation. The XO activity was significantly increased in COPD patients compared with that in healthy subjects. A significant negative correlation was found between the XO activity and the %FEV1 values. The level of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta, and interferon-gamma in COPD patients was significantly higher than that in healthy subjects. Both the amount of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta were significantly correlated with the degree of XO activity. These results suggest that the XO activity is increased in COPD airways, possibly due to its gene upregulation by proinflammatory cytokines. Because the XO activity was significantly correlated with the degree of airway obstruction, these cytokine-XO production pathways may play a key role in the inflammation of COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Komaki
- Division of Respiratory and Infectious Diseases, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8574, Japan
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135
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Ohshima H, Sawa T, Akaike T. 8-nitroguanine, a product of nitrative DNA damage caused by reactive nitrogen species: formation, occurrence, and implications in inflammation and carcinogenesis. Antioxid Redox Signal 2006; 8:1033-45. [PMID: 16771693 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2006.8.1033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The authors review studies on 8-nitroguanine (8-NO(2)-G) formed by reactions of guanine, guanosine, and 2 - deoxyguanosine, either free or in DNA or RNAwith reactive nitrogen species (RNS) generated from peroxynitrite, the myeloperoxidase-H(2)O(2)-nitrite system, and others. Use of antibodies against 8-NO(2)-G has revealed increased formation of 8-NO(2)-G in various pathological conditions, including RNA virus-induced pneumonia in mice, intrahepatic bile ducts of hamsters infected with the liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini, and gastric mucosa of patients with Helicobacter pylori-induced gastritis. Immunoreactivity has been found in the cytosol as well as in the nucleus of inflammatory cells and epithelial cells in inflamed tissues, but not in normal tissues. 8- NO(2)-G in DNA is potentially mutagenic, yielding G:C to T:A transversion, possibly through its rapid depurination to form an apurinic site and/or miscoding with adenine. 8-NO(2)-G in RNA may interfere with RNA functions and metabolism. Nitrated guanine nucleosides and nucleotides in the nucleotide pool may contribute to oxidative stress via production of superoxide mediated by various reductases and may disturb or modulate directly various important enzymes such as GTP-binding proteins and cGMP-dependent enzymes. Further studies are warranted to establish the roles of 8-NO(2)-G in various pathophysiological conditions and inflammation-associated cancer.
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136
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Pacher P, Nivorozhkin A, Szabó C. Therapeutic effects of xanthine oxidase inhibitors: renaissance half a century after the discovery of allopurinol. Pharmacol Rev 2006; 58:87-114. [PMID: 16507884 PMCID: PMC2233605 DOI: 10.1124/pr.58.1.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 812] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The prototypical xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitor allopurinol, has been the cornerstone of the clinical management of gout and conditions associated with hyperuricemia for several decades. More recent data indicate that XO also plays an important role in various forms of ischemic and other types of tissue and vascular injuries, inflammatory diseases, and chronic heart failure. Allopurinol and its active metabolite oxypurinol showed considerable promise in the treatment of these conditions both in experimental animals and in small-scale human clinical trials. Although some of the beneficial effects of these compounds may be unrelated to the inhibition of the XO, the encouraging findings rekindled significant interest in the development of additional, novel series of XO inhibitors for various therapeutic indications. Here we present a critical overview of the effects of XO inhibitors in various pathophysiological conditions and also review the various emerging therapeutic strategies offered by this approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pál Pacher
- Laboratory of Physiological Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Aabuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, 5625 Fishers Lane MSC 9413, Room 2N-17, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-9413, USA.
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137
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Abstract
Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis and progression of COPD. Both reactive oxidant species from inhaled cigarette smoke and those endogenously formed by inflammatory cells constitute an increased intrapulmonary oxidant burden. Structural changes to essential components of the lung are caused by oxidative stress, contributing to irreversible damage of both parenchyma and airway walls. The antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a glutathione precursor, has been applied in these patients to reduce symptoms, exacerbations, and the accelerated lung function decline. This article reviews the available experimental and clinical data on the antioxidative effects of NAC in COPD, with emphasis on the role of exhaled biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- P N R Dekhuijzen
- Department of Pulmonary Diseases, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands.
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138
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Watanabe S, Kimura Y, Shindo K, Fukui T. Effect of Human Placenta Extract on Potassium Oxonate-Induced Elevation of Blood Uric Acid Concentration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1248/jhs.52.738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Watanabe
- Department of Health Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University
| | - Yumi Kimura
- Department of Health Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University
| | - Kaoru Shindo
- Department of Health Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University
| | - Tetsuya Fukui
- Department of Health Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hoshi University
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139
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Kumar P, Khanna M, Srivastava V, Tyagi YK, Raj HG, Ravi K. Effect of quercetin supplementation on lung antioxidants after experimental influenza virus infection. Exp Lung Res 2005; 31:449-59. [PMID: 16019982 DOI: 10.1080/019021490927088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the mice, instillation of influenza virus A/Udorn/317/72(H3N2) intranasally resulted in a significant decrease in the pulmonary concentrations of catalase, reduced glutathione, and superoxide dismutase. There was a decrease in vitamin E level also. These effects were observed on the 5th day after viral instillation. Oral supplementation with quercetin simultaneous with viral instillation produced significant increases in the pulmonary concentrations of catalase, reduced glutathione, and superoxide dismutase. However, quercetin did not reverse the fall in vitamin E level associated with the viral infection. It is concluded that during influenza virus infection, there is "oxidative stress." Because quercetin restored the concentrations of many antioxidants, it is proposed that it may be useful as a drug in protecting the lung from the deleterious effects of oxygen derived free radicals released during influenza virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pankaj Kumar
- Department of Respiratory Virology, VP Chest Institute, University of Delhi, Delhi 110-007, India
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140
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Suzuki A, Kudoh S, Mori K, Takahashi N, Suzuki T. Expression of nitric oxide and inducible nitric oxide synthase in acute renal allograft rejection in the rat. Int J Urol 2005; 11:837-44. [PMID: 15479287 DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-2042.2004.00910.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies have shown that nitric oxide (NO) synthases, particularly inducible nitric oxide synthase (i-NOS), are induced in acute rejection episodes following heart, liver, pancreas and kidney allotransplantation. Furthermore, tissue and cellular injury has been demonstrated to be mediated by peroxynitrite (ONOO-), a metabolite of NO as well as a potent oxidant. However, a detailed relationship between NO, i-NOS and graft injury in transplantation remains elusive. METHODS The present study used the following models of renal transplantation in rats: allografts (n = 5, Brown-Norway to Lewis [LEW] rats), isografts (n = 5, LEW to LEW) and allografts treated with aminoguanidine (AG), an i-NOS inhibitor (n = 5). Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (SCr) and urinary and serum nitrosocompounds (NOx) were measured on days 2, 4 and 7 post-transplant. Western blot analysis of i-NOS protein expression and measurement of i-NOS activity were carried out in grafts harvested on Day 7, along with immunohistochemical and histopathological examinations. RESULTS In the allograft group, both BUN and SCr levels increased markedly on Day 7, in parallel with a sharp increase in NOx. A band stained by anti-i-NOS antibody was detected at approximately 130 kDa, along with high levels of i-NOS activity and diffusely distributed i-NOS-positive cells (macrophages). Histologically, an acute rejection episode was confirmed (Grade 3 according to Banff classifications). In the AG group, reduced renal function and graft injury were significantly less severe than in the allograft group. CONCLUSIONS In rat renal allograft acute rejection, markedly increased levels of serum NOx were observed, along with enhanced tissue i-NOS activity, together resulting in graft injury. AG administration suppressed the increase of serum NOx levels, with concomitant mitigation of tissue injury and renal function impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akio Suzuki
- Department of Urology, Hirosaki University School of Medicine, 5 Zaifu-cho, Hirosaki, Aomori 036-8563, Japan
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141
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Nakamura T, Nakamura H, Hoshino T, Ueda S, Wada H, Yodoi J. Redox regulation of lung inflammation by thioredoxin. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:60-71. [PMID: 15650396 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2005.7.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The lungs are the richest in oxygen among the various organs of the body and are always subject to harmful reactive oxygen species. Regulation of the reduction/oxidation (redox) state is critical for cell viability, activation, proliferation, and organ functions. Although the protective importance of various antioxidants has been reported, few antioxidants have established their clinical usefulness. Thioredoxin (TRX), a key redox molecule, plays crucial roles as an antioxidant and a catalyst in protein disulfide/dithiol exchange. TRX also modulates intracellular signal transduction and exerts antiinflammatory effects in tissues. In addition to its beneficial effects in other organs, the protective effect of TRX in the lungs has been shown against ischemia/ reperfusion injury, influenza infection, bleomycin-induced injury, or lethal inflammation caused by interleukin- 2 and interleukin-18. Monitoring of TRX in the plasma, airway, or lung tissue may be useful for the diagnosis and follow-up of pulmonary inflammation. Promotion/modulation of the TRX system by the administration of recombinant TRX protein, induction of endogenous TRX, or gene therapies can be a therapeutic modality for oxidative stress-associated lung disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Nakamura
- Thioredoxin Project, Department of Experimental Therapeutics, Translational Research Center, Kyoto University Hospital, Kyoto, Japan
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142
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Zaki MH, Akuta T, Akaike T. Nitric Oxide-Induced Nitrative Stress Involved in Microbial Pathogenesis. J Pharmacol Sci 2005; 98:117-29. [PMID: 15937405 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.crj05004x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenic mechanism of infections is a complicated but important scientific theme that is now attracting great attention because of its association with host-derived as well as microbial factors. Recent advances in free radical research revealed that reactive oxygen and nitrogen oxide species such as superoxide (O(2)(-)) and nitric oxide (NO) play a leading role in the pathogenesis of infections caused by viral pathogens including influenza virus and other RNA viruses. Although NO and O(2)(-) have antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and parasites, in some viral infections they have an opposite effect. This exacerbation caused by NO and O(2)(-) is mediated by reactive nitrogen oxides, for example, peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)), generated by reaction of NO with O(2)(-). These nitrogen oxides have strong oxidation and nitration potential and can modify biological molecules, thereby creating oxidative and nitrative stress that contributes to pathogenic processes during viral infection. Nitrative stress-mediated 8-nitroguanosine formation during influenza or Sendai virus infection has been the focus of enormous interest because it involves unique biochemical and pharmacological properties such as redox activity and mutagenic potential. In this review, we discuss the nature and impact of nitrative stress in viral infection, with emphasis on nitrative stress-mediated viral pathogenesis, which we have recently been investigating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Hasan Zaki
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Japan
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143
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Yokozawa T, Sekiya M, Cho EJ, Kurokawa M, Shiraki K. Effect of Wen-Pi-Tang extract on lung damage by influenza virus infection. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2004; 11:625-632. [PMID: 15636176 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2003.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The effect of Wen-Pi-Tang extract on influenza virus infection in mice was investigated. The administration of Wen-Pi-Tang extract at a dose of 100mg/kg body wt. for 8 consecutive days to influenza virus-infected mice reversed the lack of body wt. gain and prevented the increase in lung weight caused by the infection in comparison with uninfected mice, while allopurinol, a xanthine oxidase (XOD) inhibitor, did not show these effects. The serum levels of uric acid and allantoin in influenza virus-infected mice were reduced by Wen-Pi-Tang extract administration. Moreover, Wen-Pi-Tang extract reduced the uric acid level more as the dose increased, although it exerted lower activity than allopurinol. The XOD activity of the lungs was elevated by influenza virus infection, but Wen-Pi-Tang extract administration inhibited this activity, indicating prevention of lung damage by oxygen free radicals generated by XOD. After the administration of Wen-Pi-Tang extract to influenza virus-infected mice, the lung superoxide dismutase activity was not significantly different from that of uninfected mice, whereas lung catalase activity was lower in the former than the latter, but slightly higher than that of influenza virus-infected mice, suggesting that Wen-Pi-Tang extract may prevent the generation of highly toxic hydroxyl radicals in the lung. In addition, the administration of both Wen-Pi-Tang extract and allopurinol reduced the degree of lung consolidation caused by influenza virus infection. In particular, Wen-Pi-Tang extract reduced the consolidation score in a dose-dependent manner and more markedly than allopurinol did. This study suggests that Wen-Pi-Tang extract could improve pathological conditions of the lungs induced by influenza virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Yokozawa
- Institute of Natural Medicine, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Toyama 930-0194, Japan.
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144
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Arimoto T, Kadiiska MB, Sato K, Corbett J, Mason RP. Synergistic production of lung free radicals by diesel exhaust particles and endotoxin. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 171:379-87. [PMID: 15477498 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200402-248oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study tested the hypothesis that free radicals were involved in the pathogenesis of lung injury caused by diesel exhaust particles (DEP) and bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Intratracheal coinstillation of DEP and LPS in rat lungs resulted in synergistic enhancement of free radical generation in the lungs. The radical metabolites were characterized as lipid-derived by electron spin resonance (ESR). The free radical generation was paralleled by a synergistic increase in total protein and by infiltration of neutrophils in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of the lungs. Experiments with NADP-reduced (NADPH) oxidase and iNOS knockout mice showed that NADPH oxidase and iNOS did not contribute to free radical generation. However, pretreatment with the macrophage toxicant GdCl(3), the xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitor allopurinol, and the Fe(III) chelator Desferal resulted in a marked decrease in free radical generation, lung inflammation, and lung injury. These effects were concomitant with the inhibition of XO activity in BAL, suggesting that the activated macrophages and the activity of XO contributed to the generation of free radicals caused by DEP and LPS. This is the first demonstration that DEP and LPS work synergistically to enhance free radical generation in lungs, mediated by the activation of local XO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toyoko Arimoto
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Chemistry, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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145
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Martin HM, Hancock JT, Salisbury V, Harrison R. Role of xanthine oxidoreductase as an antimicrobial agent. Infect Immun 2004; 72:4933-9. [PMID: 15321984 PMCID: PMC517476 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.9.4933-4939.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M Martin
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
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146
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Yoshitake J, Akaike T, Akuta T, Tamura F, Ogura T, Esumi H, Maeda H. Nitric oxide as an endogenous mutagen for Sendai virus without antiviral activity. J Virol 2004; 78:8709-19. [PMID: 15280479 PMCID: PMC479088 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.16.8709-8719.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) may affect the genomes of various pathogens, and this mutagenesis is of particular interest for viral pathogenesis and evolution. Here, we investigated the effect of NO on viral replication and mutation. Exogenous or endogenous NO had no apparent antiviral effect on influenza A virus and Sendai virus. The mutagenic potential of NO was analyzed with Sendai virus fused to a green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene (GFP-SeV). GFP-SeV was cultured in SW480 cells transfected with a vector expressing inducible NO synthase (iNOS). The mutation frequency of GFP-SeV was examined by measuring loss of GFP fluorescence of the viral plaques. GFP-SeV mutation frequency in iNOS-SW480 cells was much higher than that in parent SW480 cells and was reduced to the level of mutation frequency in the parent cells by treatment with an NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor. Immunocytochemistry showed generation of more 8-nitroguanosine in iNOS-SW480 cells than in SW480 cells without iNOS transfection. Authentic 8-nitroguanosine added exogenously to GFP-SeV-infected CV-1 cells increased the viral mutation frequency. Profiles of the GFP gene mutations induced by 8-nitroguanosine appeared to resemble those of mutations occurring in mouse lungs in vivo. A base substitution that was characteristic of both mutants (those induced by 8-nitroguanosine and those occurring in vivo) was a C-to-U transition. NO-dependent oxidative stress in iNOS-SW480 cells was also evident. Together, the results indicate unambiguously that NO has mutagenic potential for RNA viruses such as Sendai virus without affecting viral replication, possibly via 8-nitroguanosine formation and cellular oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yoshitake
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
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147
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Kahl S, Elsasser TH. Endotoxin challenge increases xanthine oxidase activity in cattle: effect of growth hormone and vitamin E treatment. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2004; 26:315-28. [PMID: 15063924 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2003.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2003] [Accepted: 12/08/2003] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In addition to its basic role in the metabolism of purine nucleotides, xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is involved in the generation of oxygen-derived free radicals and production and metabolic fate of nitric oxide (NO). Growth hormone (GH) and Vitamin E (E) have been shown previously to modify immune response to infection. Our objective was to determine in heifers the effect of endotoxin challenge (LPS; 3.0 microg/kg BW, i.v. bolus, Escherichia coli 055:B5) on xanthine oxidase (XO) activity in plasma and liver and the modification of this response by daily treatment with recombinant GH (0.1 mg/kg BW, i.m., for 12 days) or GH+E (E: mixed tocopherol, 1000 IU/heifer, i.m., for 5 days). In experiment 1, 16 heifers ( 348.7 +/- 6.1 kg) were assigned to control (C, daily placebo injections), GH, or GH+E treatments and were challenged with two consecutive LPS injections (LPS1 and LPS2, 48 h apart). After LPS1, plasma XO activity increased 290% (P < 0.001) at 3 h, reached peak (430%) at 24 h and returned to basal level by 48 h after LPS2. XO responses (area under the time x activity curve, AUC) were greater after LPS1 than LPS2 (P< 0.001). Total plasma XO responses to LPS (AUC, LPS1+LPS2) were augmented 55% (P < 0.05) over C with GH treatment but diminished to C responses in GH+E. There was a linear relationship (r2 = 0.605, P < 0.001) between total response in plasma XO activity and plasma nitrate + nitrate concentration. In experiment 2, 24 heifers ( 346 +/- 6 kg) were assigned to C or GH treatments and liver biopsy samples were obtained at 0, 3, 6, and 24h after a single LPS challenge. Hepatic XO activities increased 63.3% (P < 0.05) 6 h after single LPS challenge and remained elevated at 24 h (100.1%, P < 0.01) but were not affected by GH treatment. Results indicate that LPS-induced increases in plasma XO activity could be amplified by previous GH treatment but attenuated by E administration. The data also suggest that E may be effective in controlling some mediators of immune response associated with increased production of NO via the effect on XO activity and its production of superoxide anion as well as uric acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kahl
- Growth Biology Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Building 200, Room 211E, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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148
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Xu P, LaVallee PA, Lin JJ, Hoidal JR. Characterization of Proteins Binding to E-box/Ku86 Sites and Function of Ku86 in Transcriptional Regulation of the Human Xanthine Oxidoreductase Gene. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:16057-63. [PMID: 14761964 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m305856200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
We reported previously that E-box and TATA-like elements repress human xanthine oxidoreductase gene (hXOR) expression. In the present investigation, we determined the means by which the E-box site functions in this basal repression. DNA affinity purification demonstrated that at least five proteins are involved in the nuclear protein complex binding to the E-box and adjacent Ku86-binding sites. Amino acid sequence analysis demonstrated that three proteins, DNA-PK catalytic subunit, Ku86, and Ku70 are components of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK). By electrophoretic mobility shift assays, gel-shift, and site-directed mutagenesis, we confirmed Ku86 binding to the Ku86 site. Studies indicated that the other two proteins of the complex are AREB6-like proteins binding to the E-box. Pull-down and immunoprecipitation analyses demonstrated the binding of Ku86 to AREB6-like proteins. The functional loss of Ku86 increases hXOR promoter activity and transcript expression. Based on the findings, we propose that DNA-PK/AREB6-like proteins play a central role in repression of basal hXOR activity. AREB6-like proteins specifically bind to the E-box, whereas Ku86 binds an adjacent site and recruits DNA-PK catalytic subunit and Ku70 proteins. A working model is presented to account for the role of DNA-PK and AREB6-like proteins in regulating hXOR activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Xu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Respiratory, Critical Care and Occupational Medicine, University of Utah Health Sciences Center and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, Utah 84132, USA
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149
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Lin RJ, Liao CL, Lin YL. Replication-incompetent virions of Japanese encephalitis virus trigger neuronal cell death by oxidative stress in a culture system. J Gen Virol 2004; 85:521-533. [PMID: 14769909 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.19496-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been shown that replication of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) can trigger infected cells to undergo apoptosis. In the present study, it is further demonstrated that replication-incompetent virions of JEV, obtained by short-wavelength ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, could also induce host-cell death. It was found that UV-inactivated JEV (UV-JEV) caused cell death in neuronal cells such as mouse neuroblastoma N18 and human neuronal NT-2 cells, but not in non-neuronal baby hamster kidney BHK-21 fibroblast or human cervical HeLa cells. Only actively growing, but not growth-arrested, cells were susceptible to the cytotoxic effects of UV-JEV. Killing of UV-JEV-infected N18 cells could be antagonized by co-infection with live, infectious JEV, suggesting that virions of UV-JEV might engage an as-yet-unidentified receptor-mediated death-signalling pathway. Characteristically, mitochondrial alterations were evident in UV-JEV-infected N18 cells, as revealed by electron microscopy and a loss of membrane potential. N18 cells infected by UV-JEV induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB), and the addition of anti-oxidants or specific NF-kappaB inhibitors to the media greatly reduced the cytotoxicity of UV-JEV. Together, the results presented here suggest that replication-incompetent UV-JEV damages actively growing neuronal cells through a ROS-mediated pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ren-Jye Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Yen-Jiou-Yuan Rd, Taipei 11529, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ching-Len Liao
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yi-Ling Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, No. 128, Sec. 2, Yen-Jiou-Yuan Rd, Taipei 11529, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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150
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Sawa T, Akaike T, Ichimori K, Akuta T, Kaneko K, Nakayama H, Stuehr DJ, Maeda H. Superoxide generation mediated by 8-nitroguanosine, a highly redox-active nucleic acid derivative. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 311:300-6. [PMID: 14592413 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Formation of 8-nitroguanosine may be characterized as nucleic acid modification induced by nitric oxide (NO). We show here that 8-nitroguanosine is a highly redox-active nucleic acid derivative that strongly stimulated superoxide generation from various NADPH-dependent reductases, including cytochrome P450 reductase and all isoforms of NO synthase. This reaction involves these reductases in a redox cycling reaction via single-electron reduction of 8-nitroguanosine to form 8-nitroguanosine anion radical. One electron is then transferred from this radical to molecular oxygen. 8-Nitroguanosine formed in vivo may function as a potent redox cofactor that intensifies oxyradical generation by various NADPH/reductase-like enzymes and thus participates in diverse physiological and pathological events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Sawa
- Department of Microbiology, Graduate School of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
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