Advances in Occurrence, Importance, and Mycotoxin Control Strategies: Prevention and Detoxification in Foods

Nivalenol Mycotoxin Concerns in Foods: An Overview on Occurrence, Impact on Human and Animal Health and Its Detection and Management Strategies

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that infect a wide range of foods worldwide. Nivalenol (NIV), a type B trichothecene produced by numerous Fusarium species, has the ability to infect a variety of foods both in the field and during post-harvest handling and management. NIV is frequently found in cereal and cereal-based goods, and its strong cytotoxicity poses major concerns for both human and animal health. To address these issues, this review briefly overviews the sources, occurrence, chemistry and biosynthesis of NIV. Additionally, a brief overview of several sophisticated detection and management techniques is included, along with the implications of processing and environmental factors on the formation of NIV. This review’s main goal is to offer trustworthy and current information on NIV as a mycotoxin concern in foods, with potential mitigation measures to assure food safety and security.

Effects of probiotic supplementation on very low dose AFB1-induced neurotoxicity in adult male rats

AIMS

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most toxic and common form of AF found in food and feed. Although AFB1 exposure has toxic effects on many organs, studies on the brain are limited. Moreover, to the best of our knowledge, there is no study on the effect of probiotics on AFB1-induced neurotoxicity. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the possible effects of probiotics on AFB1-induced neurotoxicity in the brain.

MAIN METHODS

Thirty-two adult male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: Vehicle (VEH), Probiotic (PRO) (2.5 × 10¹⁰ CFU/day VSL#3, orally), Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (25 μg/kg/week AFB1, orally), and Aflatoxin B1 + Probiotic (AFB1 + PRO) (2.5 × 10¹⁰ CFU/day VSL#3 + 25 μg/kg/week AFB1, orally). At the end of eight weeks, rats were behaviorally evaluated by the open field test, novel object recognition test, and forced swim test. Then, oxidative stress and inflammatory markers in brain tissues were analyzed. Next, brain sections were processed for Hematoxylin&Eosin staining and NeuN and GFAP immunostaining.

KEY FINDINGS

Probiotic supplementation tended to decrease oxidative stress and inflammatory markers compared to the AFB1 group. Besides, brain tissues had more normal histological structures in VEH, PRO, and AFB1 + PRO groups than in the AFB1 group. Moreover, in probiotic groups, GFAP immunoreactivity intensity was decreased, while NeuN-positive cell number increased in brain tissues compared to the AFB1 group.

SIGNIFICANCE

Probiotics seem to be effective at reducing the neurotoxic effects of AFB1. Thus, our study suggested that especially Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species can improve AFB1-induced neurotoxicity with their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

In-House Validation of an Efficient and Rapid Procedure for the Simultaneous Determination and Monitoring of 23 Mycotoxins in Grains in Korea

A high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method is described for the simultaneous determination of mycotoxins, including Ergot alkaloids (EAs), in 3 types of grains. The extraction of 23 mycotoxins was evaluated and performed by using a modified QuEChERS-based sample preparation procedure. The proposed method was fully validated on spiked grain samples (barley, wheat and oat) to assess the linearity, limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantitation (LOQ), matrix effects, precision and recovery. After validation, this method was applied to 143 samples of various types of 3 grains from the Republic of Korea to survey the level of mycotoxin contamination in Republic of Korean grains. A total of 42 grain samples (29%) were contaminated with at least one of these mycotoxins at levels higher than the LOQ. The results demonstrated that the procedure was suitable for simultaneously determining these mycotoxins in cereals and could be performed for their routine analysis in mycotoxin laboratories.

Ozone in wineries and wine processing: A review of the benefits, application, and perspectives

Ozone (O₃ ) is an emerging eco-friendly technology that has been widely used in the beverage industry due to its broad spectrum of usages, such as fermentation, microbial inactivation, Clean-in-Place (CIP) systems, and postharvest treatment. Wine is among the most financially profitable sectors of the beverage industry. Ozone technology as an alternative approach to conventional methods to inhibit microbes in wine processing and wineries has attracted researchers' attention as this emerging technology will probably play important roles in wineries in the future. This review discusses the prospective applications of ozone in winemaking and wineries and elaborates on ozone's antimicrobial effects on the control of the broad spectrum of microorganisms during wine processing. Also, this paper provides discussions on its effects of O₃  on wine quality and the benefits this emerging technology can bring to wineries. Ozone treatments can improve yeast fermentation by impacting the yeast ecology of postharvested wine grapes, mainly by affecting apiculate yeasts and adjusting the population of undesirable yeasts, such as Brettanomyces spp., during the fermentation process. Furthermore, ozone treatment may enhance wine's anthocyanin concentration, physicochemical properties, color, pH, oxidative stability, and concentration of pleasant volatile compounds and esters. This article presents important information to have a better understanding of the impact of ozone treatment on different stages of wine preparation.

The control of Fusarium growth and decontamination of produced mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria

Global crop and food contamination with mycotoxins are one of the primary worldwide concerns, while there are several restrictions regarding approaching conventional physical and chemical mycotoxins decontamination methods due to nutrition loss, sensory attribute reduction in foods, chemical residual, inconvenient operation, high cost of equipment, and high energy consumption of some methods. In this regard, the overarching challenges of mycotoxin contamination in food and food crops require the development of biological decontamination strategies. Using certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as generally recognized safe (GRAS) compounds is one of the most effective alternatives due to their potential to release antifungal metabolites against various fungal factors species. This review highlights the potential applications of LAB as biodetoxificant agents and summarizes their decontamination activities against Fusarium growth and Fusarium mycotoxins released into food/feed. Firstly, the occurrence of Fusarium and the instrumental and bioanalytical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were in-depth discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthesis pathway of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium offers new insightful ideas clarifying the function of these secondary metabolites. Moreover, the characterization of LAB metabolites and their impact on the decontamination of the mycotoxin from Fusarium, besides the main mechanisms of mycotoxin decontamination, are covered. While the thematic growth inhibition of Fusarium and decontamination of their mycotoxin by LAB is very complex, approaching certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is worth deeper investigations.

Mycotoxin DON Accumulation in Wheat Grains Caused by Fusarium Head Blight Are Significantly Subjected to Inoculation Methods

The disease severity and mycotoxin DON content in grains caused by fusarium head blight (FHB) have been two prioritized economical traits in wheat. Reliable phenotyping is a prerequisite for genetically improving wheat resistances to these two traits. In this study, three inoculation methods: upper bilateral floret injection (UBFI), basal bilateral floret injection (BBFI), and basal rachis internode injection (BRII), were applied in a panel of 22 near-isogenic lines (NILs) contrasting in Fhb1 alleles. The results showed that inoculation methods had significant influence on both disease severity and mycotoxin accumulation in grains, and the relationship between them. UBFI method caused chronic FHB symptom characterized as slow progress of the pathogen downward from the inoculation site, which minimized the difference in disease severity of the NILs, but, unexpectedly, maximized the difference in DON content between them. The BBFI method usually caused an acute FHB symptom in susceptible lines characterized as premature spike death (PSD), which maximized the difference in disease severity, but minimized the difference in DON content in grains between resistant and susceptible lines. The BRII method occasionally caused acute FHB symptoms for susceptible lines and had relatively balanced characteristics of disease severity and DON content in grains. Therefore, two or more inoculation methods are recommended for precise and reliable evaluation of the overall resistance to FHB, including resistances to both disease spread within a spike and DON accumulation in grains.

Nutritional impact of mycotoxins in food animal production and strategies for mitigation

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that are commonly detected as natural contaminants in agricultural commodities worldwide. Mycotoxin exposure can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans when found in animal feeds and food products, and at lower concentrations can affect animal performance by disrupting nutrient digestion, absorption, metabolism, and animal physiology. Thus, mycotoxin contamination of animal feeds represents a significant issue to the livestock industry and is a health threat to food animals. Since prevention of mycotoxin formation is difficult to undertake to avoid contamination, mitigation strategies are needed. This review explores how the mycotoxins aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and ochratoxin A impose nutritional and metabolic effects on food animals and summarizes mitigation strategies to reduce the risk of mycotoxicity.

Deoxynivalenol: An Overview on Occurrence, Chemistry, Biosynthesis, Health Effects and Its Detection, Management, and Control Strategies in Food and Feed

Mycotoxins are fungi-produced secondary metabolites that can contaminate many foods eaten by humans and animals. Deoxynivalenol (DON), which is formed by Fusarium, is one of the most common occurring predominantly in cereal grains and thus poses a significant health risk. When DON is ingested, it can cause both acute and chronic toxicity. Acute signs include abdominal pain, anorexia, diarrhea, increased salivation, vomiting, and malaise. The most common effects of chronic DON exposure include changes in dietary efficacy, weight loss, and anorexia. This review provides a succinct overview of various sources, biosynthetic mechanisms, and genes governing DON production, along with its consequences on human and animal health. It also covers the effect of environmental factors on its production with potential detection, management, and control strategies.

Inhibition of Aspergillus Parasiticus Growth and Aflatoxins Production by Natural Essential Oils and Phenolic Acids

Aflatoxins represent a significant risk to food safety, and strategies are being implemented to reduce their entry into the food chain. The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro effect of four essential oils (EOs) (lavandins Grosso and Abrial, Origanum virens, and Rosmarinus officinalis) and four natural phenolic acids (PAs) (caffeic, chlorogenic, ferulic, and p-coumaric) on the growth and aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) production by Aspergillus parasiticus. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal fungicide concentration (MFC) were determined by the broth macrodilution method. Additionally, the mycelia weight was determined at concentration levels lower than MIC. The antiaflatoxigenic activity was evaluated in the two concentrations of the EOs right before MIC and at concentrations below the MIC value for the PAs. To this end, in-house validated methodology based on high-performance liquid chromatography with post-column photochemical derivatization and fluorescence detection (HPLC-PHRED-FLD) was used. EOs of O. virens and lavandins (Grosso and Abrial) completely inhibited mold growth. In addition, a significant reduction in mycelial mass (p < 0.05) was observed for all EOs and PAs at different concentrations. In all cases except for lavandin Abrial, EO concentrations just before the MIC value strongly reduced (p < 0.05) aflatoxins synthesis. Aflatoxins production was completely inhibited by all PAs at a concentration of 20 mM; although at low concentrations, mycotoxin production was stimulated in some cases. The present study provides a scientific basis for further study of the inhibiting mechanisms.

Zearalenone Degradation by Dielectric Barrier Discharge Cold Plasma: The Kinetics and Mechanism

In this study, dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) cold plasma was used to degrade zearalenone and the efficiency of degradation were evaluated. In addition, the degradation kinetics and possible pathway of degradation were investigated. The results showed that zearalenone degradation percentage increased with increasing voltage and time. When it was treated at 50 KV for 120 s, the degradation percentage could reach 98.28%. Kinetics analysis showed that the degradation process followed a first-order reaction, which fitted the exponential function model best (R² = 0.987). Meanwhile, liquid chromatographywith quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOF LC/MS) was used to analyze the degradation products, one major compound was identified. In this study, the reactive species generated in cold plasma was analyzed by Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) and the free radicals were detected by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR). This study could provide a theoretical basis for the degradation of zearalenone to a certain extent.

Comprehensive Review on the Interactions of Clay Minerals With Animal Physiology and Production

Clay minerals are naturally occurring rock and soil materials primarily composed of fine-grained aluminosilicate minerals, characterized by high hygroscopicity. In animal production, clays are often mixed with feed and, due to their high binding capacity towards organic molecules, used to limit animal absorption of feed contaminants, such as mycotoxins and other toxicants. Binding capacity of clays is not specific and these minerals can form complexes with different compounds, such as nutrients and pharmaceuticals, thus possibly affecting the intestinal absorption of important substances. Indeed, clays cannot be considered a completely inert feed additive, as they can interfere with gastro-intestinal (GI) metabolism, with possible consequences on animal physiology. Moreover, clays may contain impurities, constituted of inorganic micronutrients and/or toxic trace elements, and their ingestion can affect animal health. Furthermore, clays may also have effects on the GI mucosa, possibly modifying nutrient digestibility and animal microbiome. Finally, clays may directly interact with GI cells and, depending on their mineral grain size, shape, superficial charge and hydrophilicity, can elicit an inflammatory response. As in the near future due to climate change the presence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs will probably become a major problem, the use of clays in feedstuff, given their physico-chemical properties, low cost, apparent low toxicity and eco-compatibility, is expected to increase. The present review focuses on the characteristics and properties of clays as feed additives, evidencing pros and cons. Aims of future studies are suggested, evidencing that, in particular, possible interferences of these minerals with animal microbiome, nutrient absorption and drug delivery should be assessed. Finally, the fate of clay particles during their transit within the GI system and their long-term administration/accumulation should be clarified.

Occurrence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins in Zhejiang province, China

The purpose of this study was to assess the risk of aflatoxins due to multiple food consumption among the Zhejiang population. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry method was used to determine aflatoxins in 792 samples. Aflatoxins were detected in 27.1% of the samples at levels between 0.07 and 262.63 μg kg^-1, and aflatoxins B₁ was the most frequently detected among different types of samples. 0.8% of peanut oil, 3.39% of nut products as well as 1.1% of condiments contaminated with aflatoxins B₁ exceeded China national tolerance limits. Peanut oil had the highest incidence of aflatoxin, with a range from 0.17 to 22.50 μg kg^-1. Using bags conferred limited advantages in reducing aflatoxin contents. Moreover, peanut and rice were the main contributors to dietary exposure to aflatoxins among Zhejiang residents. Finally, the margin of exposure values obtained by rice consumption were far from the safe margin of 10,000, indicating a potential risk to public health. The results pointed out the need for further prioritization of aflatoxins B₁ risk-management actions in Zhejiang.

Contamination, Detection and Control of Mycotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by pathogenic fungi that colonize fruits and vegetables either during harvesting or during storage. Mycotoxin contamination in fruits and vegetables has been a major problem worldwide, which poses a serious threat to human and animal health through the food chain. This review systematically describes the major mycotoxigenic fungi and the produced mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, analyzes recent mycotoxin detection technologies including chromatography coupled with detector (i.e., mass, ultraviolet, fluorescence, etc.) technology, electrochemical biosensors technology and immunological techniques, as well as summarizes the degradation and detoxification technologies of mycotoxins in fruits and vegetables, including physical, chemical and biological methods. The future prospect is also proposed to provide an overview and suggestions for future mycotoxin research directions.

Mycotoxins in food and feed: toxicity, preventive challenges, and advanced detection techniques for associated diseases

Mycotoxins are produced primarily as secondary fungal metabolites. Mycotoxins are toxic in nature and naturally produced by various species of fungi, which usually contaminate food and feed ingredients. The growth of these harmful fungi depends on several environmental factors, such as pH, humidity, and temperature; therefore, the mycotoxin distribution also varies among global geographical areas. Various rules and regulations regarding mycotoxins are imposed by the government bodies of each country, which are responsible for addressing global food and health security concerns. Despite this legislation, the incidence of mycotoxin contamination is continuously increasing. In this review, we discuss the geographical regulatory guidelines and recommendations that are implemented around the world to control mycotoxin contamination of food and feed products. Researchers and inventors from various parts of the world have reported several innovations for controlling mycotoxin-associated health consequences. Unfortunately, most of these techniques are restricted to laboratory scales and cannot reach users. Consequently, to date, no single device has been commercialized that can detect all mycotoxins that are naturally available in the environment. Therefore, in this study, we describe severe health hazards that are associated with mycotoxin exposure, their molecular signaling pathways and processes of toxicity, and their genotoxic and cytotoxic effects toward humans and animals. We also discuss recent developments in the construction of a sensitive and specific device that effectively implements mycotoxin identification and detection methods. In addition, our study comprehensively examines the recent advancements in the field for mitigating the health consequences and links them with the molecular and signaling pathways that are activated upon mycotoxin exposure.

Accumulation of HT-2 toxin from contaminated mushroom compost by edible Agaricus bisporus

Wheat straw is commonly used as a cellulose source in mushroom compost and could be a secondary source of mycotoxin contamination in the food chain. We cultivated edible Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus ostreatus on T-2/HT-2 artificially-contaminated mushroom compost and developed and in-house validated an UHPLC-MS/MS method for determination of T-2, HT-2, T2-triol and T2-tetraol in mushroom compost and mushroom basidiocarp. A rapid phase I metabolization of T-2 and HT-2 in mushroom compost was observed. In Agaricus bisporus, basidiocarps 8-15 µg kg^-1 accumulation of HT-2 calculated on wet weight was measured. No detectable mycotoxins were found in Pleurotus ostreatus basidiocarp.

Industrial-Scale Production of Mycotoxin Binder from the Red Yeast Sporidiobolus pararoseus KM281507

Red yeast Sporidiobolus pararoseus KM281507 has been recognized as a potential feed additive. Beyond their nutritional value (carotenoids and lipids), red yeast cells (RYCs) containing high levels of β-glucan can bind mycotoxins. This study investigated the industrial feasibility of the large-scale production of RYCs, along with their ability to act as a mycotoxin binder. Under a semi-controlled pH condition in a 300 L bioreactor, 28.70-g/L biomass, 8.67-g/L lipids, and 96.10-mg/L total carotenoids were obtained, and the RYCs were found to contain 5.73% (w/w) β-glucan. The encapsulated RYC was in vitro tested for its mycotoxin adsorption capacity, including for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin (T-2) and deoxynivalenol (DON). The RYCs had the highest binding capacity for OTA and T-2 at concentrations of 0.31–1.25 and 0.31–2.5 µg/mL, respectively. The mycotoxin adsorption capacity was further tested using a gastrointestinal poultry model. The adsorption capacities of the RYCs and a commercial mycotoxin binder (CMB) were comparable. The RYCs not only are rich in lipids and carotenoids but also play an important role in mycotoxin binding. Since the industrial-scale production and downstream processing of RYCs were successfully demonstrated, RYCs could be applied as possible feed additives.

Laser ablation electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging as a new tool for accessing patulin diffusion in mold-infected fruits

This work describes the use of laser ablation electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (LAESI imaging) to investigate the diffusion of the mycotoxin patulin from rotten to healthy areas of fruits. Slices of mold-infected and uninfected (control) apples and strawberries were prepared, and this was the only sample preparation step used. An infrared laser beam (2.94 μm) was used to irradiate the slices, resulting in the ablation of sample compounds directly ionized by electrospray and analyzed by mass spectrometry. Multivariate curve resolution - alternating least squares was applied in unfolded LAESI images to obtain relative quantity information. Patulin was not detected in the control samples but was seen in all mold-infected fruits. LAESI images showed the diffusion of patulin from the rotten area to unaffected parts of the fruits. This study points out the advantage of LAESI imaging over traditional analytical methods used to study the diffusion of mycotoxins in fruits.

Comprehensive Review of Fungi on Coffee

Coffee is grown in more than 80 countries as a cash crop and consumed worldwide as a beverage and food additive. It is susceptible to fungal infection during growth, processing and storage. Fungal infections, in particular, can seriously affect the quality of coffee and threaten human health. The data for this comprehensive review were collected from the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) website and published papers. This review lists the fungal species reported on coffee based on taxonomy, life mode, host, affected plant part and region. Five major fungal diseases and mycotoxin-producing species (post-harvest diseases of coffee) are also discussed. Furthermore, we address why coffee yield and quality are affected by fungi and propose methods to control fungal infections to increase coffee yield and improve quality. Endophytic fungi and their potential as biological control agents of coffee disease are also discussed.

Determination of Alternaria Toxins in Food by SPE and LC-IDMS: Development and In-House Validation of a Candidate Method for Standardisation

Alternaria toxins (ATs) are frequently found contaminants in foodstuffs (e.g., alternariol), often reaching high concentrations (e.g., tenuazonic acid). They can spoil a wide variety of food categories (e.g., cereals, vegetables, seeds and drinks) and storage at fridge temperatures does not prevent the growth of Alternaria fungi. Therefore, reliable and validated analytical methods are needed to protect human health and to ensure a transparent and fair trade. This paper describes new technical features that improved a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the analysis of ATs in tomato, wheat and sunflower seeds. This analytical method should be simple to implement in different laboratories across the EU and thus be an attractive candidate for standardisation. The major element for improvement was the use of isotopically labelled internal standards, only recently commercially available, thereby reducing the sample handling and improving the accuracy of the results. In addition, the sample extraction and the solid-phase extraction (SPE) enrichment/clean-up were fine-tuned, whereas a more suitable analytical column (XSelect HSS T3) with improved selectivity was also employed. Overall, this method shows adequate precision (repeatability < 5.7% RSD; intermediate precision < 7.0% RSD) and trueness (recoveries ranging from 74% to 112%). The limits of quantification in wheat (the most analytically demanding matrix) vary between 0.19 and 1.40 µg/kg. These figures were deemed satisfactory by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and have formed the basis for a subsequent interlaboratory validation study. The corresponding standard was published by CEN in 2021.

Effect of Dietary L-Threonine and Toxin Binder on Performance, Blood Parameters, and Immune Response of Broilers Exposed to Aflatoxin B1

To evaluate the effect of L-Threonine (L-Thr) and Mycofix® Plus (MP) on aflatoxicosis, an experiment with a 3-way ANOVA model was carried out with 8 replicates and 640 birds. Treatments included two levels of L-Thr (100% and 125% of the requirements, Cobb 500, Cobb-Vantress), Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (0, 500 ppb), and MP (0, 1 g/kg). As the main effects showed, AFB1 decreased breast meat yield and carcass percentage (p < 0.001), serum urea, antibody titer against infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), and bone density (p < 0.05), while it increased the plasma concentrations of glucose and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (p < 0.05). Mycofix Plus improved the grower feed intake (FI), tibia fresh weight, and body weight (BW) to bone weight (p < 0.05). L-Threonine increased the grower FI, breast meat yield, serum aspartate transaminase (AST), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) (p < 0.05). There were positive interactions with breast meat yield, cholesterol, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and IBV titer. Of the treatments used, the combination of L-Thr and MP without AFB1 improved breast meat and carcass percentage. L-Threonine and MP significantly improved IBV titer in birds challenged with AFB1 (p < 0.001). In conclusion, L-Thr and MP were beneficial to improve immunity.

Study on Contamination with Some Mycotoxins in Maize and Maize-Derived Foods

Crops can be contaminated by fungi which produce mycotoxins. Many fungal strains are responsible for producing varied mycotoxins. The research carried out so far has described over 400 different mycotoxins. They have chemical and physical properties that significantly differ, and they are produced by several different existing fungi. The intake of mycotoxins through food can be achieved directly, by feeding on contaminated food, or indirectly from foods of animal origin. The mycotoxin contamination of food and food products for certain animals is a phenomenon studied worldwide, in countries in Europe but also in Asia, Africa and America. The purpose of this study is to develop an evaluation of the mycotoxins prevalent in corn and corn-derived products produced in Romania. A total of 38 maize samples and 19 corn-derivative samples were investigated for the presence of mycotoxins specific to these products, such as deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisins. Fumonisins had the highest presence and zearalenone had the lowest. The limits determined for the three mycotoxins were always in accordance with legal regulations.

The preventive effect and mechanisms of adsorbent supplementation in low concentration aflatoxin B1 contaminated diet on subclinical symptom and histological lesions of broilers

This study aimed to investigate the subclinical symptom and histological lesions of 21-day-old and 42-day-old broilers exposure to low concentration aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and the preventive effect with adsorbent (Toxo-MX) supplementation. A total of 576 one-day-old Arbor Acres broilers were randomly allotted into 6 treatments 8 replicates and 12 birds per cage, fed with 0 ppb, 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 contamination diet with or without Toxo-MX supplementation. Results showed both 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 contamination significantly reduced growth performance in 21-day-old broilers (P < 0.05), but not in 42-day-old broilers (P > 0.05), however, AFB1 contamination in diet caused a higher feed to gain ratio (P < 0.05). Broilers of 21-day-old exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 increased mRNA expression of hepatic inflammatory cytokines, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity (P < 0.05), 42-day-old broilers showed a same change in 120 ppb but not in 60 ppb of AFB1 contamination (P < 0.05). mRNA expressions of clauding-1, Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), and occludin decreased, but Bax, Bcl-2, and caspase-3 increased in 21-day-old broilers exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 (P < 0.05), broilers of 42-day-old resisted on intestinal aflatoxicosis impairment against 60 ppb AFB1 contamination (P < 0.05), but not in 120 ppb (P < 0.05). Toxo-MX supplementation significantly reversed the detrimental effects on growth performance in both age broilers and reduced the accelerated feed to gain ratio caused by AFB1 (P < 0.05). Intestinal mRNA expression of tight junction and apoptotic genes in both age broilers were recovered by Toxo-MX supplementation (P < 0.05). However, Toxo-MX did not restore the accelerated expression of hepatic inflammation cytokines and SOD, GSH-Px in 120ppb AFB1 group (P < 0.05). The data demonstrated that diet supplementation with Toxo-MX reversed the detrimental effect on growth performance and intestine in broilers exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1. However, did not completely recovered hepatic inflammation induced by AFB1.

Mycobiota profile, phenology, and potential toxicogenic and pathogenic species associated with stored groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) from the Volta Region, Ghana

This study updates the mycobiota resident in groundnut seeds, their phenology during storage with the view to ascertain their occurrence, potential toxigenic species, and pathologically important species in the stored samples. The moisture content of the seeds ranged from 5.7% to 6.5% within the stipulated safe moisture content of 8% for extension of shelf life. Culturing the seeds on mycological media (Sabouraud's Dextrose Agar SDA; Oxytetracycline Glucose Yeast Extract OGYE, Potato Dextrose Agar, PDA) caused a de novo growth of the quiescent spores at 28-30°C for 7-14 days. Fungal population counts on the three media ranged from 2.01 to 2.16 log₁₀ CFU/g samples to a final 6-month count of 1.67-2.60 log₁₀ CFU/g. Eighteen different fungal species belonging to ten genera were encountered on the media, namely Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Rhizopus, Rhodotorula, Sporendonema, and Paecilomyces. Aspergillus spp. (A. niger, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, and A. terreus) were the most frequently isolated, followed by Fusarium species (F. oxysporum, F. solani, and F. verticillioides), Trichoderma (T. harzianum and T. viride), Rhizopus spp (R. oligosporus and R. stolonifer), and Penicillium verrucosum. The species which were seed borne (A. niger, A. flavus, A. terreus, A. fumigatus, F. solani, F. verticillioides, T. viride, C. herbarum, and Curvularia lunata) were isolated on both surface sterilized and non-surface sterilized seeds. The phenology of the encountered fungal species generally followed five patterns. The most frequently isolated Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, and A. fumigatus predominated throughout the 6 months sampling period, while A. ustus and A. terreus appeared sporadically and disappeared. The early colonizers (R. oligosporus, R. stolonifer, and Paecilomyces) could not be isolated after 2-3 months owing presumably to stronger antibiosis competition from the Aspergillus species. The most predominant Aspergillus species initially constituted 36%-48% of the total population but declined to 10%-36% in 6 months. Mycobiota encountered with mycotoxigenic potential and human health importance were A. niger, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, F. verticillioides, and Penicillium verrucosum. Other species of pathological importance to plants were Curvularia lunata and Fusarium oxysporum. The practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Targeted Analysis of Sphingolipids in Turkeys Fed Fusariotoxins: First Evidence of Key Changes That Could Help Explain Their Relative Resistance to Fumonisin Toxicity

The effects of fumonisins on sphingolipids in turkeys are unknown, except for the increased sphinganine to sphingosine ratio (Sa:So) used as a biomarker. Fumonisins fed at 20.2 mg/kg for 14 days were responsible for a 4.4 fold increase in the Sa:So ratio and a decrease of 33% and 36% in C14-C16 ceramides and C14-C16 sphingomyelins, respectively, whereas C18-C26 ceramides and C18-C26 sphingomyelins remained unaffected or were increased. Glucosyl- and lactosyl-ceramides paralleled the concentrations of ceramides. Fumonisins also increased dihydroceramides but had no effect on deoxysphinganine. A partial least squfares discriminant analysis revealed that all changes in sphingolipids were important in explaining the effect of fumonisins. Because deoxynivalenol and zearalenone are often found in feed, their effects on sphingolipids alone and in combination with fumonisins were investigated. Feeding 5.12 mg deoxynivalenol/kg reduced dihydroceramides in the liver. Zearalenone fed at 0.47 mg/kg had no effect on sphingolipids. When fusariotoxins were fed simultaneously, the effects on sphingolipids were similar to those observed in turkeys fed fumonisins alone. The concentration of fumonisin B1 in the liver of turkeys fed fumonisins was 0.06 µmol/kg. Changes in sphingolipid concentrations differed but were consistent with the IC50 of fumonisin B1 measured in mammals; these changes could explain the relative resistance of turkeys to fumonisins.

Mycotoxins’ Toxicological Mechanisms Involving Humans, Livestock and Their Associated Health Concerns: A Review

Mycotoxins are well established toxic metabolic entities produced when fungi invade agricultural/farm produce, and this happens especially when the conditions are favourable. Exposure to mycotoxins can directly take place via the consumption of infected foods and feeds; humans can also be indirectly exposed from consuming animals fed with infected feeds. Among the hundreds of mycotoxins known to humans, around a handful have drawn the most concern because of their occurrence in food and severe effects on human health. The increasing public health importance of mycotoxins across human and livestock environments mandates the continued review of the relevant literature, especially with regard to understanding their toxicological mechanisms. In particular, our analysis of recently conducted reviews showed that the toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins deserve additional attention to help provide enhanced understanding regarding this subject matter. For this reason, this current work reviewed the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms involving humans, livestock, and their associated health concerns. In particular, we have deepened our understanding about how the mycotoxins’ toxicological mechanisms impact on the human cellular genome. Along with the significance of mycotoxin toxicities and their toxicological mechanisms, there are associated health concerns arising from exposures to these toxins, including DNA damage, kidney damage, DNA/RNA mutations, growth impairment in children, gene modifications, and immune impairment. More needs to be done to enhance the understanding regards the mechanisms underscoring the environmental implications of mycotoxins, which can be actualized via risk assessment studies into the conditions/factors facilitating mycotoxins’ toxicities.

Advances, Applications, and Comparison of Thermal (Pasteurization, Sterilization, and Aseptic Packaging) against Non-Thermal (Ultrasounds, UV Radiation, Ozonation, High Hydrostatic Pressure) Technologies in Food Processing

Nowadays, food treatment technologies are constantly evolving due to an increasing demand for healthier and tastier food with longer shelf lives. In this review, our aim is to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of some of the most exploited industrial techniques for food processing and microorganism deactivation, dividing them into those that exploit high temperatures (pasteurization, sterilization, aseptic packaging) and those that operate thanks to their inherent chemical–physical principles (ultrasound, ultraviolet radiation, ozonation, high hydrostatic pressure). The traditional thermal methods can reduce the number of pathogenic microorganisms to safe levels, but non-thermal technologies can also reduce or remove the adverse effects that occur using high temperatures. In the case of ultrasound, which inactivates pathogens, recent advances in food treatment are reported. Throughout the text, novel discoveries of the last decade are presented, and non-thermal methods have been demonstrated to be more attractive for processing a huge variety of foods. Preserving the quality and nutritional values of the product itself and at the same time reducing bacteria and extending shelf life are the primary targets of conscious producers, and with non-thermal technologies, they are increasingly possible.

Occurrence and risk assessment of sterigmatocystin in agricultural products and processed foods in Korea

Sterigmatocystin (STC), a carcinogenic mycotoxin, is known to be produced during the biosynthetic pathway of aflatoxin B₁. STC in various foods was determined by LC-MS/MS and its risks were assessed. The analytical method was validated in different food categories, and the performance was acceptable based on the criteria of AOAC. A total 1,135 samples (613 agricultural products and 522 processed foods) were analysed, and STC was detected in 46 samples, indicating a detection rate of 4.1%. STC was found in the range of 0.08-10.07 ng/g, and the detection rates of STC were 3.9% in agricultural products and 4.2% in processed foods. The exposure to STC by average consumption of foods was estimated to 0.09 ng/kg b.w./day. The margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied to assess the risk of STC, and MOE for the whole population was over 1 × 10⁶. Exposure to STC from the consumption of foods distributed in Korea is unlikely to cause human health problems.

Adsorption efficiency of sodium & calcium bentonite for ochratoxin A in some Egyptian cheeses: an innovative fortification model, in vitro and in vivo experiments

The incidence of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) in cheeses constitutes a significant economic and health concern for producers and consumers alike. Recently, detoxification approaches using food additives to counteract mycotoxins have been widely recommended in the food industry. This study aimed to quantify OTA levels in some Egyptian cheese types, and experimentally determine the detoxification effect of bentonite both in vitro and in vivo. The examined Roomy and Karish cheese showed higher OTA levels (4.138 and 3.399 μg/kg, respectively) than other cheeses. Calcium bentonite presented higher adsorption efficiency than sodium bentonite at all concentrations, both in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and feta cheese, and at the whole pH range. Calcium bentonite concentrations (60 and 100 mg/ml) had much higher sequestering activity on OTA both in PBS and feta cheese, while the adsorption efficiency was higher at pH 6.8 than at pH 3. All enzymatic activities were near the control levels in rats treated both with OTA and bentonite compared with rats treated with OTA alone. The IC50 of calcium bentonite was 107.75 μg/ml, which was less cytotoxic than sodium bentonite (52.96 μg/ml). Bentonites were categorised by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as excellent binders of OTA. The innovative calcium bentonite-fortified feta cheese showed the most superior sensorial properties; hence it can be predicted as a novel food-grade adsorbent for OTA sequestration.

The control of fungi and mycotoxins by food active packaging: a review

Conventionally used petrochemical-based plastics are poorly degradable and cause severe environmental pollution. Alternatively, biopolymers (e.g., polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and their blends) are biodegradable and environment-friendly, and thus their use in packaging technologies has been on the rise. Spoilage of food by mycotoxigenic fungi poses a severe threat to human and animal health. Hence, because of the adverse effects of synthetic preservatives, active packaging as an effective technique for controlling and decontaminating fungi and related mycotoxins has attracted considerable interest. The current review aims to provide an overview of the prevention of fungi and mycotoxins through active packaging. The impact of different additives on the antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic functionality of packaging incorporating active films/coatings is also investigated. In addition, active packaging applications to control and decontaminate common fungi and mycotoxins in bakery products, cereal grains, fruits, nuts, and dairy products are also introduced. The results of recent studies have confirmed that biopolymer films and coatings incorporating antimicrobial agents provide great potential for controlling common fungi and mycotoxins and enhancing food quality and safety.

Simultaneous determination of trichothecene mycotoxins in cereals by LC-MS/MS

This study was designed to determine the residual trichothecene mycotoxins in cereal samples. The optimal solvent for extraction was 84% (v/v) aqueous acetonitrile with 1% (v/v) formic acid. The best performing clean-up method was dispersive-solid phase with a mixture octadecyl silica and primary-secondary amine. The recoveries for the studied mycotoxins ranged from 83.3 to 92.8%. The methodology was successfully applied for monitoring 100 cereal samples obtained from a Korean market. The bean sample were found to be co-contamination with deoxynivalenol and HT-2 toxin. Deoxynivalenol possessed the highest detection freauency (4/100) and amount (727.38 µg/kg) among the trichothecene mycotoxins. The hazard index was less than 1.0 for all the observed mycotoxins in all cereal samples except one white rice sample (1.2681). This results indicated that periodic risk assessments of trichothecene mycotoxin through cereal intake are necessary for the health and safety.

Use of Mustard Extracts Fermented by Lactic Acid Bacteria to Mitigate the Production of Fumonisin B1 and B2 by Fusarium verticillioides in Corn Ears

Corn (Zea mays) is a worldwide crop subjected to infection by toxigenic fungi such as Fusarium verticillioides during the pre-harvest stage. Fusarium contamination can lead to the synthesis of highly toxic mycotoxins, such as Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and Fumonisin B₂ (FB₂), which compromises human and animal health. The work aimed to study the antifungal properties of fermented yellow and oriental mustard extracts using nine lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in vitro. Moreover, a chemical characterization of the main phenolic compounds and organic acids were carried out in the extracts. The results highlighted that the yellow mustard, fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum strains, avoided the growth of Fusarium spp. in vitro, showing Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC) values, ranging from 7.8 to 15.6 g/L and 15.6 to 31.3 g/L, respectively. Then, the lyophilized yellow mustard fermented extract by L. plantarum TR71 was applied through spray-on corn ears contaminated with F. verticillioides to study the antimycotoxigenic activity. After 14 days of incubation, the control contained 14.71 mg/kg of FB₁, while the treatment reduced the content to 1.09 mg/kg (92.6% reduction). Moreover, no FB₂ was observed in the treated samples. The chemical characterization showed that lactic acid, 3-phenyllactic acid, and benzoic acid were the antifungal metabolites quantified in higher concentrations in the yellow mustard fermented extract with L. plantarum TR71. The results obtained confirmed the potential application of fermented mustard extracts as a solution to reduce the incidence of mycotoxins in corn ears.

Bioprospecting Phenols as Inhibitors of Trichothecene-Producing Fusarium: Sustainable Approaches to the Management of Wheat Pathogens

Fusarium spp. are ubiquitous fungi able to cause Fusarium head blight and Fusarium foot and root rot on wheat. Among relevant pathogenic species, Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum cause significant yield and quality loss and result in contamination of the grain with mycotoxins, mainly type B trichothecenes, which are a major health concern for humans and animals. Phenolic compounds of natural origin are being increasingly explored as fungicides on those pathogens. This review summarizes recent research activities related to the antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic activity of natural phenolic compounds against Fusarium, including studies into the mechanisms of action of major exogenous phenolic inhibitors, their structure-activity interaction, and the combined effect of these compounds with other natural products or with conventional fungicides in mycotoxin modulation. The role of high-throughput analysis tools to decipher key signaling molecules able to modulate the production of mycotoxins and the development of sustainable formulations enhancing potential inhibitors’ efficacy are also discussed.