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Gruber-Dorninger C, Jenkins T, Schatzmayr G. Global Mycotoxin Occurrence in Feed: A Ten-Year Survey. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E375. [PMID: 31252650 PMCID: PMC6669473 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 381] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins contaminating animal feed can exert toxic effects in animals and be transferred into animal products. Therefore, mycotoxin occurrence in feed should be monitored. To this end, we performed a large-scale global survey of mycotoxin contamination in feed and assessed regional differences and year-to-year variation of mycotoxin occurrence. Concentrations of aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin were analyzed in 74,821 samples of feed and feed raw materials (e.g., maize, wheat, soybean) collected from 100 countries from 2008 to 2017. In total, 88% of the samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin. Mycotoxin occurrence showed distinct regional trends and climate was a key determinant governing these trends. In most regions, the majority of samples complied with maximum levels and guidance values for mycotoxins in animal feed that are in effect in the European Union. However, 41.1%, 38.5%, and 20.9% of samples from South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia, respectively, exceeded the maximum level for aflatoxin B1 (20 µg/kg). In several regions, mycotoxin concentrations in maize showed a pronounced year-to-year variation that could be explained by rainfall or temperature during sensitive periods of grain development. A large fraction of samples (64%) was co-contaminated with ≥ 2 mycotoxins. Most frequently observed mycotoxin mixtures were combinations of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisins, as well as fumonisins and aflatoxin B1. Deoxynivalenol and zearalenone concentrations were correlated in maize and wheat. In conclusion, according to an extensive global survey, mycotoxin (co-)contamination of animal feed is common, shows regional trends, and is governed in part by climate and weather.
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Jajić I, Dudaš T, Krstović S, Krska R, Sulyok M, Bagi F, Savić Z, Guljaš D, Stankov A. Emerging Fusarium Mycotoxins Fusaproliferin, Beauvericin, Enniatins, and Moniliformin in Serbian Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060357. [PMID: 31248156 PMCID: PMC6628450 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Revised: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging mycotoxins such as moniliformin (MON), enniatins (ENs), beauvericin (BEA), and fusaproliferin (FUS) may contaminate maize and negatively influence the yield and quality of grain. The aim of this study was to determine the content of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in Serbian maize from the 2016, 2017, and 2018 harvests. A total of 190 samples from commercial maize production operations in Serbia were analyzed for the presence of MON, ENs, BEA, and FUS using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The obtained results were interpreted together with weather data from each year. MON, BEA, and FUS were major contaminants, while other emerging mycotoxins were not detected or were found in fewer samples (<20%). Overall contamination was highest in 2016 when MON and BEA were found in 50–80% of samples. In 2017 and 2018, high levels of MON, FUS, and BEA were detected in regions with high precipitation and warm weather during the silking phase of maize (July and the beginning of August), when the plants are most susceptible to Fusarium infections. Since environmental conditions in Serbia are favorable for the occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi, monitoring Fusarium toxins is essential for the production of safe food and feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Jajić
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Tatjana Dudaš
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Saša Krstović
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), A-3430 Tulln, Austria.
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK.
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), A-3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Ferenc Bagi
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Zagorka Savić
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Darko Guljaš
- Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
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103
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Arroyo-Manzanares N, Rodríguez-Estévez V, Arenas-Fernández P, García-Campaña AM, Gámiz-Gracia L. Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Swine Feeding from Spain. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060342. [PMID: 31208034 PMCID: PMC6628415 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A survey including 228 pig feed samples from Spain has been developed, exploring the occurrence of 19 mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, ochratoxin A, fumonisins B1 and B2, citrinin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fusarenon X, sterigmatocystin, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, enniatins A, A1, B and B2, and beauvericin). The samples were analysed by solid-liquid extraction followed by liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence or mass spectrometry detection. Enniatin B was found in 100% of the samples (up to 1200 µg/kg) and beauvericin in more than 90%. Moreover, 40% of samples were contaminated with more than five mycotoxins. This high occurrence is insurmountable and surpasses all previous studies, probably due to the inclusion of emerging mycotoxins, scarcely explored. The majority of the samples (96.9%) were in accordance with EU regulations, which do not address emerging mycotoxins or co-occurrence. These results show that in order to ensure mycotoxin absence, emerging mycotoxins should always be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Arroyo-Manzanares
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain.
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Regional Campus of International Excellence "Campus Mare Nostrum", University of Murcia, E-30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | - Vicente Rodríguez-Estévez
- Department Animal Production, Faculty of Veterinary, Campus Univ. Rabanales, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, Spain.
| | - Plácido Arenas-Fernández
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Ana M García-Campaña
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Laura Gámiz-Gracia
- Department Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain.
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Giorni P, Bertuzzi T, Battilani P. Impact of Fungi Co-occurrence on Mycotoxin Contamination in Maize During the Growing Season. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1265. [PMID: 31244797 PMCID: PMC6563760 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize is a possible host of many fungi, some of them able to produce different mycotoxins. Few studies exist on co-occurring fungi and resulting multi-mycotoxin contamination in field; for this reason, in field trials were conducted in two consecutive years to verify fungal incidence and mycotoxin production in the case of the co-occurrence of the three main mycotoxigenic fungi of maize in Italy: Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium verticillioides, and Fusarium graminearum able to produce, respectively, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisins (FBs), and deoxynivalenol (DON). Artificial inoculation was done after silk emergence of maize and samples were collected with a 2 week schedule up to harvest time (four samplings). Fungal interaction resulted as playing a role for both fungal incidence and mycotoxins production, as did weather conditions too. Main interactions were noted between A. flavus and F. verticillioides, and between F. verticillioides and F. graminearum. In particular, as a result of fungal co-occurrence, AFB1 resulted stimulated by F. graminearum presence while no effects were noted in FBs and DON in case of F. verticillioides-F. graminearum co-occurrence. Interestingly, the co-presence of A. flavus significantly reduced both FB and DON production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Giorni
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (Di.Pro.Ve.S), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza, Italy
| | - Terenzio Bertuzzi
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza, Italy
| | - Paola Battilani
- Department of Sustainable Crop Production (Di.Pro.Ve.S), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Piacenza, Italy
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105
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Woelflingseder L, Warth B, Vierheilig I, Schwartz-Zimmermann H, Hametner C, Nagl V, Novak B, Šarkanj B, Berthiller F, Adam G, Marko D. The Fusarium metabolite culmorin suppresses the in vitro glucuronidation of deoxynivalenol. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:1729-1743. [PMID: 31049613 PMCID: PMC6620244 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02459-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Glucuronidation is a major phase II conjugation pathway in mammals, playing an important role in the detoxification and biotransformation of xenobiotics including mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON). Culmorin (CUL), a potentially co-occurring Fusarium metabolite, was recently found to inhibit the corresponding detoxification reaction in plants, namely DON-glucoside formation, raising the question whether CUL might affect also the mammalian counterpart. Using cell-free conditions, CUL when present equimolar (67 µM) or in fivefold excess, suppressed DON glucuronidation by human liver microsomes, reducing the formation of DON-15-glucuronide by 15 and 50%, and DON-3-glucuronide by 30 and 50%, respectively. Substantial inhibitory effects on DON glucuronidation up to 100% were found using the human recombinant uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) 2B4 and 2B7, applying a tenfold excess of CUL (100 µM). In addition, we observed the formation of a novel metabolite of CUL, CUL-11-glucuronide, identified for the first time in vitro as well as in vivo in piglet and human urine samples. Despite the observed potency of CUL to inhibit glucuronidation, no significant synergistic toxicity on cell viability was observed in combinations of CUL (0.1-100 µM) and DON (0.01-10 µM) in HT-29 and HepG2 cells, presumably reflecting the limited capacity of the tested cell lines for DON glucuronidation. However, in humans, glucuronidation is known to represent the main detoxification pathway for DON. The present results, including the identification of CUL-11-glucuronide in urine samples of piglets and humans, underline the necessity of further studies on the relevance of CUL as a potentially co-occurring modulator of DON toxicokinetics in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Woelflingseder
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Immina Vierheilig
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Heidi Schwartz-Zimmermann
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Christian Hametner
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Barbara Novak
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Ecology, Faculty of Food Technology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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106
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Prevalent Mycotoxins in Animal Feed: Occurrence and Analytical Methods. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050290. [PMID: 31121952 PMCID: PMC6563184 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Today, we have been witnessing a steady tendency in the increase of global demand for maize, wheat, soybeans, and their products due to the steady growth and strengthening of the livestock industry. Thus, animal feed safety has gradually become more important, with mycotoxins representing one of the most significant hazards. Mycotoxins comprise different classes of secondary metabolites of molds. With regard to animal feed, aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone are the more prevalent ones. In this review, several constraints posed by these contaminants at economical and commercial levels will be discussed, along with the legislation established in the European Union to restrict mycotoxins levels in animal feed. In addition, the occurrence of legislated mycotoxins in raw materials and their by-products for the feeds of interest, as well as in the feeds, will be reviewed. Finally, an overview of the different sample pretreatment and detection techniques reported for mycotoxin analysis will be presented, the main weaknesses of current methods will be highlighted.
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107
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Meyer H, Skhosana ZD, Motlanthe M, Louw W, Rohwer E. Long Term Monitoring (2014⁻2018) of Multi-Mycotoxins in South African Commercial Maize and Wheat with a Locally Developed and Validated LC-MS/MS Method. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050271. [PMID: 31091836 PMCID: PMC6563230 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins occur worldwide in the major grains, and producers, traders and processors are all challenged to prevent serious health problems for consumers. The challenges originate with pre-harvest fungi infections in the grain fields, increased contamination during improper storage and, finally, the mycotoxin accumulation in commercial food and feed products. Little is known about the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in maize and wheat commercially produced in South Africa. This is the first comprehensive study that reports on the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in South African produced maize and wheat crops after harvest, over four production seasons, in all the production regions of the country. The study was made possible with the development of a fit-for-purpose, cost-effective LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method, validated for 13 “regulated” mycotoxins. A low mycotoxin risk was found in South African produced wheat, with only deoxynivalenol (DON) in 12.5% of the 160 samples at levels well below the 2000 µg/kg South African (SA) regulatory level. It was concluded that aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is seldom present in South African produced commercial maize. The concentrations, regional variation and seasonal trends of deoxynivalenol and fumonisins, the two most prevalent mycotoxins, and of zearalenone (ZON), are reported for white and yellow maize in all the production provinces, based on the analytical results of 1400 maize samples. A threefold to eightfold increase in deoxynivalenol mean concentrations in white maize was observed in the main production regions in the fourth season, with 8.9% samples above 2000 µg/kg. A strong correlation was found between higher deoxynivalenol concentrations and the presence of 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON). The mean fumonisin concentrations were well below the 4000 µg/kg South African regulatory value. A possible shift in the incidence and severity of mycotoxigenic Fusarium spp. in the provinces must be investigated. The variations and trends highlight the importance of a continuous monitoring of multi-mycotoxins in South Africa along the grain value chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannalien Meyer
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Zanele Diana Skhosana
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Mamsy Motlanthe
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Wiana Louw
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Egmont Rohwer
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
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108
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Aupanun S, Poapolathep S, Phuektes P, Giorgi M, Zhang Z, Oswald IP, Poapolathep A. Individual and combined mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and fusarenon-X induced apoptosis in lymphoid tissues of mice after oral exposure. Toxicon 2019; 165:83-94. [PMID: 31054920 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocytes are involved in the adaptive immune response and are highly sensitive to type B trichothecenes. In grains and their products, deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most widely distributed trichothecene. It usually co-occurs with other type B members, such as nivalenol (NIV) and fusarenon-X (FX), because they are all produced by the same Fusarium fungi. However, the combined effects of mycotoxins are complex and cannot be predicted based on individual toxicity. Thus, the adverse effects of combined toxins are of increasing concern. The aim of this study was to compare the toxicity to lymphoid tissues of mice of DON alone or mixed with NIV or FX. Forty, 3-week-old male ICR mice were given a single oral administration of a vehicle control, one toxin, binary, or ternary mixtures and then sacrificed at 12 h after exposure. Mice treated with FX alone showed marked nuclear condensation and fragmentation of lymphocytes in the cortical thymus and germinal center of Peyer's patches and spleen. Similarly, these animals clearly displayed TUNEL- and Caspase-3-positive cells in the regions. In contrast, minimal changes were noticed in the lymphoid tissues of mice receiving combined toxins when compared to this toxin alone. In addition, oral exposure to FX alone significantly up-regulated the relative expression of Bax, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, and Trp53. These data increase our understanding of the toxic actions of DON, NIV, and FX alone or in combination to lymphocytes and can be used to assess the possible risk associated with their co-occurrences in foodstuffs to human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sawinee Aupanun
- .Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand; Center for Advanced Studies for Agriculture and Food, KU Institute for Advanced Studies, Kasetsart University, CASAF, NRU-KU, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | - Saranya Poapolathep
- .Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand; Center for Advanced Studies for Agriculture and Food, KU Institute for Advanced Studies, Kasetsart University, CASAF, NRU-KU, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand
| | - Patchara Phuektes
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Khonkaen University, Khonkaen, 40002, Thailand
| | - Mario Giorgi
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Via Livornese, San Piero a Grado, 56122, Pisa, Italy
| | - Zhaowei Zhang
- Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, China
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Amnart Poapolathep
- .Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand; Center for Advanced Studies for Agriculture and Food, KU Institute for Advanced Studies, Kasetsart University, CASAF, NRU-KU, Bangkok, 10900, Thailand.
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109
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Abass AB, Adegoke GO, Awoyale W, Gaspar A, Mlingi N, Andrianavalona V, Randrianarivelo R, Sulyok M, Mneney A, Ranaivoson LR. Enumeration of the microbiota and microbial metabolites in processed cassava products from Madagascar and Tanzania. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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110
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Lauwers M, Croubels S, Letor B, Gougoulias C, Devreese M. Biomarkers for Exposure as A Tool for Efficacy Testing of A Mycotoxin Detoxifier in Broiler Chickens and Pigs. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E187. [PMID: 30925814 PMCID: PMC6520943 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11040187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Applying post-harvest control measures such as adding mycotoxin detoxifying agents is a frequently-used mitigation strategy for mycotoxins. EFSA states that the efficacy of these detoxifiers needs to be tested using specific biomarkers for exposure. However, the proposed biomarkers for exposure are not further optimized for specific target species. Hence, the goal of this study was a) to evaluate the most suitable biomarkers for deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) in porcine plasma, urine and feces; and DON, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in plasma and excreta of broiler chickens and b) to determine the efficacy of a candidate detoxifier, as a proof-of-concept study. Therefore, a mixture of mycotoxins was administered as a single oral bolus with or without detoxifying agent. In accordance with literature AFB1, OTA, and DON-sulphate (DON-S) proved optimal biomarkers in broilers plasma and excreta whereas, in pigs DON-glucuronide (DON-GlcA) and ZEN-glucuronide (ZEN-GlcA) proved the optimal biomarkers in plasma, DON and ZEN-GlcA in urine and, ZEN in feces. A statistically significant reduction was seen between control and treatment group for both AFB1 and DON in broiler plasma, under administration of the mycotoxin blend and detoxifier dose studied suggesting thus, beneficial bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Lauwers
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Innovad, Postbaan 69, 2910 Essen, Belgium.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Ben Letor
- Innovad, Postbaan 69, 2910 Essen, Belgium.
| | | | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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111
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Lauwers M, De Baere S, Letor B, Rychlik M, Croubels S, Devreese M. Multi LC-MS/MS and LC-HRMS Methods for Determination of 24 Mycotoxins including Major Phase I and II Biomarker Metabolites in Biological Matrices from Pigs and Broiler Chickens. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11030171. [PMID: 30893895 PMCID: PMC6468661 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A reliable and practical multi-method was developed for the quantification of mycotoxins in plasma, urine, and feces of pigs, and plasma and excreta of broiler chickens using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The targeted mycotoxins belong to the regulated groups, i.e., aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and Fusarium mycotoxins, and to two groups of emerging mycotoxins, i.e., Alternaria mycotoxins and enniatins. In addition, the developed method was transferred to a LC-high resolution mass spectrometry instrument to qualitatively determine phase I and II metabolites, for which analytical standards are not always commercially available. Sample preparation of plasma was simple and generic and was accomplished by precipitation of proteins alone (pig) or in combination with removal of phospholipids (chicken). A more intensive sample clean-up of the other matrices was needed and consisted of a pH-dependent liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) using ethyl acetate (pig urine), methanol/ethyl acetate/formic acid (75/24/1, v/v/v) (pig feces) or acetonitrile (chicken excreta). For the extraction of pig feces, additionally a combination of LLE using acetone and filtration of the supernatant on a HybridSPE-phospholipid cartridge was applied. The LC-MS/MS method was in-house validated according to guidelines defined by the European and international community. Finally, the multi-methods were successfully applied in a specific toxicokinetic study and a screening study to monitor the exposure of individual animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Lauwers
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Innovad, Postbaan 69, 2910 Essen, Belgium.
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Ben Letor
- Innovad, Postbaan 69, 2910 Essen, Belgium.
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2, 85354 Freising, Germany.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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112
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Nafuka SN, Misihairabgwi JM, Bock R, Ishola A, Sulyok M, Krska R. Variation of Fungal Metabolites in Sorghum Malts Used to Prepare Namibian Traditional Fermented Beverages Omalodu and Otombo. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11030165. [PMID: 30884826 PMCID: PMC6468557 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2018] [Revised: 02/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Sorghum malts, which are important ingredients in traditional fermented beverages, are commonly infected by mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins may transfer into the beverages, risking consumers’ health. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was used to determine variation of fungal metabolites in 81 sorghum malts processed for brewing of Namibian beverages, otombo (n = 45) and omalodu (n = 36). Co-occurrence of European Union (EU)-regulated mycotoxins, such as patulin, aflatoxins (B1, B2, and G2), and fumonisins (B1, B2, and B3) was detected in both malts with a prevalence range of 2–84%. Aflatoxin B1 was quantified in omalodu (44%) and otombo malts (14%), with 20% of omalodu malts and 40% of otombo malts having levels above the EU allowable limit. Fumonisin B1 was quantified in both omalodu (84%) and otombo (42%) malts. Emerging mycotoxins, aflatoxin precursors, and ergot alkaloids were quantified in both malts. Notably, 102 metabolites were quantified in both malts, with 96% in omalodu malts and 93% in otombo malts. An average of 48 metabolites were quantified in otombo malts while an average of 67 metabolites were quantified in omalodu malts. The study accentuates the need to monitor mycotoxins in sorghum malts intended for brewing and to determine their fate in the beverages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia N Nafuka
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Namibia, Windhoek 10005, Namibia.
| | - Jane M Misihairabgwi
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Namibia, Windhoek 10005, Namibia.
| | - Ronnie Bock
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Namibia, Windhoek 10005, Namibia.
| | - Anthony Ishola
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Phytochemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Namibia, Windhoek 10005, Namibia.
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agro Biotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agro Biotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK.
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113
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Biodegradation of deoxynivalenol and its derivatives by Devosia insulae A16. Food Chem 2019; 276:436-442. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 09/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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114
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Aupanun S, Phuektes P, Poapolathep S, Alassane-Kpembi I, Oswald IP, Poapolathep A. Individual and combined cytotoxicity of major trichothecenes type B, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and fusarenon-X on Jurkat human T cells. Toxicon 2019; 160:29-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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115
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Zhang Z, Nie D, Fan K, Yang J, Guo W, Meng J, Zhao Z, Han Z. A systematic review of plant-conjugated masked mycotoxins: Occurrence, toxicology, and metabolism. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:1523-1537. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1578944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqi Zhang
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongxia Nie
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Kai Fan
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Junhua Yang
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenbo Guo
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiajia Meng
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhihui Zhao
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zheng Han
- Institute for Agro-food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
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116
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Viegas S, Assunção R, Martins C, Nunes C, Osteresch B, Twarużek M, Kosicki R, Grajewski J, Ribeiro E, Viegas C. Occupational Exposure to Mycotoxins in Swine Production: Environmental and Biological Monitoring Approaches. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E78. [PMID: 30717100 PMCID: PMC6410041 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Swine production workers are exposed simultaneously to multiple contaminants. Occupational exposure to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) in Portuguese swine production farms has already been reported. However, besides AFB₁, data regarding fungal contamination showed that exposure to other mycotoxins could be expected in this setting. The present study aimed to characterize the occupational exposure to multiple mycotoxins of swine production workers. To provide a broad view on the burden of contamination by mycotoxins and the workers' exposure, biological (urine) samples from workers (n = 25) and 38 environmental samples (air samples, n = 23; litter samples, n = 5; feed samples, n = 10) were collected. The mycotoxins biomarkers detected in the urine samples of the workers group were the deoxynivalenol-glucuronic acid conjugate (60%), aflatoxin M₁ (16%), enniatin B (4%), citrinin (8%), dihydrocitrinone (12%) and ochratoxin A (80%). Results of the control group followed the same pattern, but in general with a lower number of quantifiable results (
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Viegas
- H&TRC-Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL-Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, 1990-096 Lisbon, Portugal.
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde Pública, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Ricardo Assunção
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Carla Martins
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde Pública, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisbon, Portugal.
- Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health Doutor Ricardo Jorge, I.P. (INSA), Av. Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisbon, Portugal.
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
- Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Carla Nunes
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde Pública, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisbon, Portugal.
- Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Bernd Osteresch
- Group of Prof. Humpf, Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Magdalena Twarużek
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Experimental Biology, Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland.
| | - Robert Kosicki
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Experimental Biology, Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland.
| | - Jan Grajewski
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Experimental Biology, Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland.
| | - Edna Ribeiro
- H&TRC-Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL-Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, 1990-096 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Carla Viegas
- H&TRC-Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL-Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, 1990-096 Lisbon, Portugal.
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde Pública, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1600-560 Lisbon, Portugal.
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117
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Panasiuk L, Jedziniak P, Pietruszka K, Piatkowska M, Bocian L. Frequency and levels of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in silage in Poland. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:17-25. [PMID: 30136099 PMCID: PMC6331501 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0327-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
In this study, 120 silage samples collected in 2015 from farms in Poland were analysed by a multimycotoxin method based on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The study included toxins which are regulated within the European Union (aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, T-2/HT-2 toxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone) and non-regulated mycotoxins (enniatins, beauvericin, 8-ketotrichothecenes, sterigmatocystin, zearalenone derivatives). All silage samples were positive for at least one mycotoxin, and 61% of samples contained five or more mycotoxins simultaneously. The most frequently detected toxins were deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, zearalenone, enniatins and beauvericin, although the levels of these toxins were relatively low. The mean concentration of deoxynivalenol and zearalenon was 406 and 80.6 μg/kg, respectively, and two toxins were positive-correlated. This is the first study that provides information about emerging mycotoxins contaminating silage in Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Panasiuk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland.
| | - P Jedziniak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - K Pietruszka
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
| | - M Piatkowska
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - L Bocian
- Department of Epidemiology and Risk Assessment, National Veterinary Research Institute, Partyzantow Avenue 57, 24-100, Pulawy, Poland
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118
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Valgaeren B, Théron L, Croubels S, Devreese M, De Baere S, Van Pamel E, Daeseleire E, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Vidal A, Di Mavungu JD, Fruhmann P, Adam G, Callebaut A, Bayrou C, Frisée V, Rao AS, Knapp E, Sartelet A, Pardon B, Deprez P, Antonissen G. The role of roughage provision on the absorption and disposition of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in calves: from field observations to toxicokinetics. Arch Toxicol 2018; 93:293-310. [PMID: 30535711 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2368-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A clinical case in Belgium demonstrated that feeding a feed concentrate containing considerable levels of deoxynivalenol (DON, 1.13 mg/kg feed) induced severe liver failure in 2- to 3-month-old beef calves. Symptoms disappeared by replacing the highly contaminated corn and by stimulating ruminal development via roughage administration. A multi-mycotoxin contamination was demonstrated in feed samples collected at 15 different veal farms in Belgium. DON was most prevalent, contaminating 80% of the roughage samples (mixed straw and maize silage; average concentration in positives: 637 ± 621 µg/kg, max. 1818 µg/kg), and all feed concentrate samples (411 ± 156 µg/kg, max. 693 µg/kg). In order to evaluate the impact of roughage provision and its associated ruminal development on the gastro-intestinal absorption and biodegradation of DON and its acetylated derivatives (3- and 15-ADON) in calves, a toxicokinetic study was performed with two ruminating and two non-ruminating male calves. Animals received in succession a bolus of DON (120 µg/kg bodyweight (BW)), 15-ADON (50 µg/kg BW), and 3-ADON (25 µg/kg) by intravenous (IV) injection or per os (PO) in a cross-over design. The absolute oral bioavailability of DON was much higher in non-ruminating calves (50.7 ± 33.0%) compared to ruminating calves (4.1 ± 4.5%). Immediately following exposure, 3- and 15-ADON were hydrolysed to DON in ruminating calves. DON and its acetylated metabolites were mainly metabolized to DON-3-glucuronide, however, also small amounts of DON-15-glucuronide were detected in urine. DON degradation to deepoxy-DON (DOM-1) was only observed to a relevant extent in ruminating calves. Consequently, toxicity of DON in calves is closely related to roughage provision and the associated stage of ruminal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bonnie Valgaeren
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.,Faculty of Science and Technology, University College Ghent, Melle, Belgium
| | - Léonard Théron
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Els Van Pamel
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit-Food Safety, Melle, Belgium
| | - Els Daeseleire
- Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit-Food Safety, Melle, Belgium
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arnau Vidal
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - José Diana Di Mavungu
- Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Philipp Fruhmann
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Tulln, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Tulln, Austria
| | - Alfons Callebaut
- Veterinary and Agrochemical Research Centre, CODA-CERVA, Tervuren, Belgium
| | - Calixte Bayrou
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Vincent Frisée
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Anne-Sophie Rao
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Emilie Knapp
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Arnaud Sartelet
- Clinical Department of Production Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Bart Pardon
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Piet Deprez
- Department of Large Animal Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium. .,Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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119
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Kagera I, Kahenya P, Mutua F, Anyango G, Kyallo F, Grace D, Lindahl J. Status of aflatoxin contamination in cow milk produced in smallholder dairy farms in urban and peri-urban areas of Nairobi County: a case study of Kasarani sub county, Kenya. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2018; 9:1547095. [PMID: 30598736 PMCID: PMC6263096 DOI: 10.1080/20008686.2018.1547095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Milk consumption in Kenya supersedes other countries in East Africa. However, milk contamination with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is common, but the magnitude of this exposure and the health risks are poorly understood and need to be monitored routinely. This study aimed at assessing the awareness, knowledge and practices of urban and peri-urban farmers about aflatoxins and determining the levels of aflatoxin contamination in on-farm milk in a selected area within Nairobi County. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study was undertaken to assess aflatoxin contamination levels of milk in Kasarani sub-county. A total of 84 milk samples were collected from small-holder dairy farms and analyzed for AFM1 using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Results and Discussion: Ninety nine percent of the samples (83/84) analysed were contaminated with AFM1. The mean aflatoxin level was 84 ng/kg with 64% of the samples exceeding the EU legal limit of 50 ng/kg. Whereas 80% of the farmers were aware of aflatoxin, there was no correlation between farmers' knowledge and gender with AFM1 prevalence. Conclusion: This study concludes that AFM1 is a frequent contaminant in milk and there is need to enhance farmers awareness on mitigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Kagera
- Department of Human Nutrition Sciences, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya.,Department of Animal and Human Health, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Peter Kahenya
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Florence Mutua
- Department of Animal and Human Health, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.,Department of Public Health, Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Gladys Anyango
- Department of Public Health, Maseno University, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Florence Kyallo
- Department of Human Nutrition Sciences, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Delia Grace
- Department of Animal and Human Health, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Johanna Lindahl
- Department of Animal and Human Health, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.,Zoonosis Science Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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120
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Yesterday masked, today modified; what do mycotoxins bring next? Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2018; 69:196-214. [DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2018-69-3108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi in crops worldwide. In (micro)organisms such as plants, fungi, bacteria, or animals they may be further metabolised and modified, but this is also true for food processing, which may lead to a wide range of masked mycotoxin forms. These often remain undetected by analytical methods and are the culprits for underestimates in risk assessments. Furthermore, once ingested, modified mycotoxins can convert back to their parent forms. This concern has raised the need for analytical methods that can detect and quantify modified mycotoxins as essential for accurate risk assessment. The promising answer is liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. New masked mycotoxin forms are now successfully detected by iontrap, time-of-flight, or high-resolution orbitrap mass spectrometers. However, the toxicological relevance of modified mycotoxins has not been fully clarified.
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121
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Woelflingseder L, Del Favero G, Blažević T, Heiss EH, Haider M, Warth B, Adam G, Marko D. Impact of glutathione modulation on the toxicity of the Fusarium mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), NX-3 and butenolide in human liver cells. Toxicol Lett 2018; 299:104-117. [PMID: 30244016 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
DON, NX-3 and butenolide (BUT) are secondary metabolites formed by Fusarium graminearum. Evidence for formation of DON-glutathione adducts exists in plants, and also in human liver (HepG2) cells mass spectrometric evidence for GSH-adduct formation was reported. NX-3 is a DON derivative lacking structural features for Thiol-Michael addition, while BUT has the structural requirements (conjugated double bond and keto group). In the present study, we addressed whether these structural differences affect levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species in HepG2 cells, and if intracellular GSH levels influence toxic effects induced by DON, NX-3 and BUT. Pre-treatment with an inhibitor of GSH bio-synthesis, L-buthionine-[S,R]-sulfoximine, aggravated substantially BUT-induced cytotoxicity (≥50 μM, 24 h), but only marginally affected the cytotoxicity of DON and NX-3 indicating that GSH-mediated detoxification is of minor importance in HepG2 cells. We further investigated whether BUT, a compound inducing alone low oral toxicity, might affect the toxicity of DON. Under different experimental designs with respect to pre- and/or co-incubations, BUT was found to contribute to the combinatorial cytotoxicity, exceeding the toxic effect of DON alone. The observed combinatorial effects underline the potential contribution of secondary metabolites like BUT, considered to be alone of low toxicological relevance, to the toxicity of DON or structurally related trichothecenes, arguing for further studies on the toxicological relevance of naturally occurring mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Woelflingseder
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Tina Blažević
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Elke H Heiss
- Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Maximilian Haider
- Institute for Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9/163, 1060 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstrasse 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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122
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Misihairabgwi J, Ishola A, Quaye I, Sulyok M, Krska R. Diversity and fate of fungal metabolites during the preparation of oshikundu, a Namibian traditional fermented beverage. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2018.2352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Sorghum and pearl millet, ingredients for the popular Namibian traditional fermented beverage oshikundu, are prone to fungal infection, raising concerns for consumer health from mycotoxin exposure. This study aimed at determining the diversity of fungal metabolites in street-vended ingredients and their transfer rates into oshikundu. A total of 105 samples (40 sorghum malt, 40 pearl millet, 25 oshikundu) were analysed for 700 fungal, bacterial and plant metabolites, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Of 98 quantified metabolites, 84 were fungal, some being mycotoxins. Aspergillus metabolites were most prevalent (50%, n=42), including aflatoxins, aflatoxin precursors, cyclopiazonic acid and 3-nitropropionic acid from Aspergillus flavus; helvolic acid, gliotoxin and fumiquinazolines from Aspergillus fumigatus and cytochalasin E, patulin and tryptoquivalines from Aspergillus clavatus. High levels of up to 2,280 μg/kg for cyclopiazonic acid and 11,900 μg/kg for 3-nitropropionic acid were quantified in sorghum malts. Other metabolites included fumonisins, curvularin, alternariol and dihydroergosine produced by Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria and Claviceps genera, respectively. European Union legislated mycotoxins occurred in cereals at a prevalence range of 3-75%, while none were quantifiable in oshikundu. Aflatoxin B1 was quantified in pearl millet meals (13%) and sorghum malts (50%), with 15% sorghum malts having levels above the European Union regulatory limit of 5 μg/kg. Fumonisin B1 was quantified in pearl millet meals (50%) and sorghum malts (75%) at maximum levels of 3,060 μg/kg and 123 μg/kg respectively, and levels in 5% pearl millet meals were above the European Union regulatory limit of 2,000 μg/kg. Zearalenone and ochratoxin A were quantified in the cereals at levels below European Union regulatory limits. For most metabolites quantifiable in oshikundu, transfer rates from cereals to oshikundu were above 50%, necessitating the use of good quality ingredients for preparing oshikundu and assessment of consumer exposure to mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.M. Misihairabgwi
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Namibia, Private Bag 13301, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - A. Ishola
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Phytochemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Namibia, Private Bag 13301, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - I. Quaye
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Namibia, Private Bag 13301, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - M. Sulyok
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - R. Krska
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen´s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, United Kingdom
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Gruber-Dorninger C, Jenkins T, Schatzmayr G. Multi-mycotoxin screening of feed and feed raw materials from Africa. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
As animal feed is prone to infestation with mycotoxin-producing fungi, mycotoxin contamination of feed should be monitored. Here, we report a multi-mycotoxin survey of feed samples from Africa. We determined the concentrations of aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, zearalenone and ochratoxin A in 1,045 samples of finished feed and feed raw materials (maize, maize silage, other cereals, etc.) from South Africa and 318 samples from Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Namibia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Madagascar. We compared the measured mycotoxin concentrations to regulatory limits or guidance values that are in effect in the European Union and analysed the co-occurrence of these mycotoxins. To determine the occurrence of other fungal secondary metabolites, a subset of the samples was analysed using a multi-analyte liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry-based method for the simultaneous detection of over 700 fungal metabolites. We found that 33.3% of maize samples and 54.4% of finished feed samples from Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Ghana, Namibia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania exceeded the European regulatory limit of 20 ng/g aflatoxins. The Fusarium mycotoxins zearalenone, fumonisins and deoxynivalenol were prevalent in all commodities from all countries, but concentrations were in most cases below European guidance values. Concentrations of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were correlated. Several other Fusarium metabolites occurred frequently (e.g. moniliformin, beauvericin, aurofusarin) or in high concentrations (e.g. aurofusarin, fusaproliferin). Furthermore, high levels of diplodiatoxin were occasionally detected in samples from South Africa and the Alternaria metabolite tenuazonic acid was prevalent and reached high concentrations. In conclusion, aflatoxins frequently occurred in African feed samples in potentially unsafe concentrations. While Fusarium mycotoxins mostly occurred in concentrations below European guidance values, a correlation between deoxynivalenol and zearalenone concentrations suggests that toxicological interactions of these compounds deserve attention. Several less investigated fungal secondary metabolites occurred frequently or reached high concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - T. Jenkins
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - G. Schatzmayr
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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Hennig-Pauka I, Koch FJ, Schaumberger S, Woechtl B, Novak J, Sulyok M, Nagl V. Current challenges in the diagnosis of zearalenone toxicosis as illustrated by a field case of hyperestrogenism in suckling piglets. Porcine Health Manag 2018; 4:18. [PMID: 30221009 PMCID: PMC6134784 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-018-0095-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) causes functional and morphological alterations in reproductive organs of pigs. In the field, diagnosis of ZEN-induced disorders is often challenging, as relevant feed lots are no longer available, or feed analysis results are not conclusive. Here, we report a field case of hyperestrogenism in newborn piglets. Surprisingly, more than 50 fungal metabolites were detected in hay pellets fed to gestating sows, including ZEN and its modified form zearalenone-14-sulfate (ZEN-14-S). Despite the broad contamination range in this unconventional feed component, a definite diagnosis of mycotoxicosis could not be achieved. In this context, current limitations regarding the confirmation of suspected cases of ZEN-induced disorders are discussed, covering both feed analysis and the biomarker approach. Case presentation A piglet producer with 200 sows experienced a sudden increase in suckling piglet losses up to 30% by lower vitality and crushing. Predominant clinical signs were splay legs and signs of hyperestrogenism such as swollen and reddened vulvae in newborn piglets. The first differential diagnosis was ZEN mycotoxicosis although feed batches had not been changed for months with the exception of ground hay pellets, which had been included in the diet five months before. Analysis of hay pellets resulted in a sum value of ZEN and its modified forms of more than 1000 μg/kg, with ZEN-14-S alone accounting for 530 μg/kg. Considering the inclusion rate of 7% in the diet for gestating sows, the severe impact of the additional ZEN load due to the contaminated hay pellets seemed unrealistic but could not be completely excluded either. One month after hay pellets had been removed from the diet no further clinical signs were observed. Conclusions Enrichment materials and other fibre sources can contain significant amounts of mycotoxins and should be therefore included in feed analysis. Adequate methods for broad spectrum mycotoxin determination, including modified mycotoxins, are important. As highlighted by this field case, there is a need to establish reliable biomarkers for ZEN exposure in pigs. Currently, available biomarkers do not allow a solid prediction of the ZEN intake of pigs under field conditions, which limits their application to experimental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Hennig-Pauka
- Field Station for Epidemiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Buescheler Straße 9, 49456 Bakum, Germany
| | - Franz-Josef Koch
- Tierarztpraxis im Holbeinring, Holbeinring 16, 35369 Gießen, Germany
| | | | - Bettina Woechtl
- 4University Clinic for Swine, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Novak
- 5Functional Botanical Substances, Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- 6Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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Fullerol C 60(OH) 24 nanoparticles modulate aflatoxin B 1 biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12855. [PMID: 30150708 PMCID: PMC6110770 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31305-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The water soluble fullerene C60 daughter product - fullerols C60(OH)24 (FNP) possesses a great potential of modifying secondary metabolites biosynthesis. In order to clarify the extent of interaction, the impact of FNP (10, 100 and 1000 ng mL-1) on aflatoxin production and the available precursors of biosynthesis pathway from Aspergillus flavus NRRL 3251 was determined, in both the mycelia and yeast extract sucrose (YES) medium, during a 168-hour growth period at 29 °C in the dark. The FNP of 8 nm in diameter, and with a zeta potential of -33 mV affected mycelial growth at 1000 ng mL-1 while conidia production was slightly affected at 10 ng mL-1. The FNP effect on aflatoxin and it biosynthetic precursors was concentration dependent and alteration of the sterigmatocystin (ST) export from the cell was observed. Most of the monitored aflatoxin precursors, except norsolorinic acid, were detected in both mycelia and YES medium. However, observed precursor concentrations were much higher in mycelia, with exception of ST. The study shows the loss of FNP antioxidative effect after 120 hours of growth, and strong concentration dependent aflatoxigenic effect after that time. Thus, this data is relevant to guide future considerations on FNP-fungal interactions in the environments and on risk assessment.
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Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in Dairy Cattle Feeds from the Gauteng Province of South Africa: A Pilot Study Using UHPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10070294. [PMID: 30013005 PMCID: PMC6071188 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10070294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The indispensable nature of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in agricultural systems is of worldwide concern, hence the need for surveillance studies to preserve public health. Thirteen dairy farms were surveyed and 40 dairy feeds of varying nature collected and analyzed for mycotoxins. Estimated levels of aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), zearalenone (ZEN), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), β-zearalenol (β-ZEL), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3- and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (ADONs), HT-2 toxin (HT-2), and beauvericin (BEA) were established using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Highest frequencies (40/40) were found for AFG2 (range: <LOQ—116.1 ppb), α-ZEL (range: 0.98–13.24 ppb), and β-ZEL (range: 0.73–4.71 ppb), followed by AFB2 at 37/40 (range: <LOQ—23.88 ppb), BEA at 36/40 (range: <LOQ—55.99 ppb), HT-2 at 35/40 (range: <LOQ—312.95 ppb), and FB1 at 34/40 (range: <LOQ—1389.62 ppb). Apart from samples exceeding regulatory limits for total AFs in dairy feeds due to the high amounts of AFG2 and AFB2, levels of other mycotoxins were regarded as safe for dairy production in South Africa. This is the first-time the natural occurrence of the cold climate HT-2 in South African feeds was documented. Persistent co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins across samples, however, may elicit synergistic and/or additive effects in hosts, hence raising concerns about their impacts and how such interactions may affect the dairy livestock sector.
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127
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Bryła M, Waśkiewicz A, Ksieniewicz-Woźniak E, Szymczyk K, Jędrzejczak R. Modified Fusarium Mycotoxins in Cereals and Their Products-Metabolism, Occurrence, and Toxicity: An Updated Review. Molecules 2018; 23:E963. [PMID: 29677133 PMCID: PMC6017960 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23040963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, toxic to humans, animals and plants. Under the influence of various factors, mycotoxins may undergo modifications of their chemical structure. One of the methods of mycotoxin modification is a transformation occurring in plant cells or under the influence of fungal enzymes. This paper reviews the current knowledge on the natural occurrence of the most important trichothecenes and zearalenone in cereals/cereal products, their metabolism, and the potential toxicity of the metabolites. Only very limited data are available for the majority of the identified mycotoxins. Most studies concern biologically modified trichothecenes, mainly deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, which is less toxic than its parent compound (deoxynivalenol). It is resistant to the digestion processes within the gastrointestinal tract and is not absorbed by the intestinal epithelium; however, it may be hydrolysed to free deoxynivalenol or deepoxy-deoxynivalenol by the intestinal microflora. Only one zearalenone derivative, zearalenone-14-glucoside, has been extensively studied. It appears to be more reactive than deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside. It may be readily hydrolysed to free zearalenone, and the carbonyl group in its molecule may be easily reduced to α/β-zearalenol and/or other unspecified metabolites. Other derivatives of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone are poorly characterised. Moreover, other derivatives such as glycosides of T-2 and HT-2 toxins have only recently been investigated; thus, the data related to their toxicological profile and occurrence are sporadic. The topics described in this study are crucial to ensure food and feed safety, which will be assisted by the provision of widespread access to such studies and obtained results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Bryła
- Department of Food Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Waśkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznan, Poland.
| | - Edyta Ksieniewicz-Woźniak
- Department of Food Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Krystyna Szymczyk
- Department of Food Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Renata Jędrzejczak
- Department of Food Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland.
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128
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Knutsen HK, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Gutleb AC, Humpf HU, Galli C, Metzler M, Oswald IP, Parent-Massin D, Binaglia M, Steinkellner H, Alexander J. Appropriateness to set a group health-based guidance value for fumonisins and their modified forms. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05172. [PMID: 32625807 PMCID: PMC7009576 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) established a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for fumonisin B1 (FB 1) of 1.0 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day based on increased incidence of megalocytic hepatocytes found in a chronic study with mice. The CONTAM Panel considered the limited data available on toxicity and mode of action and structural similarities of FB 2-6 and found it appropriate to include FB 2, FB 3 and FB 4 in a group TDI with FB 1. Modified forms of FBs are phase I and phase II metabolites formed in fungi, infested plants or farm animals. Modified forms also arise from food or feed processing, and include covalent adducts with matrix constituents. Non-covalently bound forms are not considered as modified forms. Modified forms of FBs identified are hydrolysed FB 1-4 (HFB 1-4), partially hydrolysed FB 1-2 (pHFB 1-2), N-(carboxymethyl)-FB 1-3 (NCM-FB 1-3), N-(1-deoxy-d-fructos-1-yl)-FB 1 (NDF-FB 1), O-fatty acyl FB 1, N-fatty acyl FB 1 and N-palmitoyl-HFB 1. HFB 1, pHFB 1, NCM-FB 1 and NDF-FB 1 show a similar toxicological profile but are less potent than FB 1. Although in vitro data shows that N-fatty acyl FBs are more toxic in vitro than FB 1, no in vivo data were available for N-fatty acyl FBs and O-fatty acyl FBs. The CONTAM Panel concluded that it was not appropriate to include modified FBs in the group TDI for FB 1-4. The uncertainty associated with the present assessment is high, but could be reduced provided more data are made available on occurrence, toxicokinetics and toxicity of FB 2-6 and modified forms of FB 1-4.
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129
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Dellafiora L, Dall'Asta C, Galaverna G. Toxicodynamics of Mycotoxins in the Framework of Food Risk Assessment-An In Silico Perspective. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E52. [PMID: 29360783 PMCID: PMC5848153 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10020052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins severely threaten the health of humans and animals. For this reason, many countries have enforced regulations and recommendations to reduce the dietary exposure. However, even though regulatory actions must be based on solid scientific knowledge, many aspects of their toxicological activity are still poorly understood. In particular, deepening knowledge on the primal molecular events triggering the toxic stimulus may be relevant to better understand the mechanisms of action of mycotoxins. The present work presents the use of in silico approaches in studying the mycotoxins toxicodynamics, and discusses how they may contribute in widening the background of knowledge. A particular emphasis has been posed on the methods accounting the molecular initiating events of toxic action. In more details, the key concepts and challenges of mycotoxins toxicology have been introduced. Then, topical case studies have been presented and some possible practical implementations of studying mycotoxins toxicodynamics have been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Chiara Dall'Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy.
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy.
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131
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Use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to screen for aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and deoxynivalenol in dry pet foods. Mycotoxin Res 2017; 34:69-75. [PMID: 29147915 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-017-0300-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to perform a market survey on dry pet foods using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect total aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), and deoxynivalenol (DON). Pet food products (n = 58) marketed for dogs, cats, birds, and rabbits were tested in duplicate with ELISA, and results above the limit of quantitation were confirmed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). OTA was detected in one product (rabbit food) and AFs were detected in two products (one dog treat and one bird treat). In contrast, DON was detected in the majority (74%) of products tested. Bird and rabbit products were the most affected by DON, with levels above 0.5 μg/g in 50 and 80% of samples, respectively. One rabbit sample tested positive for both OTA and DON. Overall, the findings of this study revealed a low incidence of AFs and OTA in commercial pet food. Although DON was detected in numerous products, the levels were well below those associated with acute toxic effects.
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132
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Laganà A. Introduction to the Toxins Special Issue on LC-MS/MS Methods for Mycotoxin Analysis. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9100325. [PMID: 29035304 PMCID: PMC5666372 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9100325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy.
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133
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Fraeyman S, Croubels S, Devreese M, Antonissen G. Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria Mycotoxins: Occurrence, Toxicity and Toxicokinetics. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9070228. [PMID: 28718805 PMCID: PMC5535175 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 07/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins gain more and more interest due to their frequent contamination of food and feed, although in vivo toxicity and toxicokinetic data are limited. Whereas the Fusarium mycotoxins beauvericin, moniliformin and enniatins particularly contaminate grain and grain-based products, Alternaria mycotoxins are also detected in fruits, vegetables and wines. Although contamination levels are usually low (µg/kg range), higher contamination levels of enniatins and tenuazonic acid may occasionally occur. In vitro studies suggest genotoxic effects of enniatins A, A1 and B1, beauvericin, moniliformin, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altertoxins and stemphyltoxin-III. Furthermore, in vitro studies suggest immunomodulating effects of most emerging toxins and a reproductive health hazard of alternariol, beauvericin and enniatin B. More in vivo toxicity data on the individual and combined effects of these contaminants on reproductive and immune system in both humans and animals is needed to update the risk evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority. Taking into account new occurrence data for tenuazonic acid, the complete oral bioavailability, the low total body clearance in pigs and broiler chickens and the limited toxicity data, a health risk cannot be completely excluded. Besides, some less known Alternaria toxins, especially the genotoxic altertoxins and stemphyltoxin III, should be incorporated in risk evaluation as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fraeyman
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Mathias Devreese
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Zhu Y, Hassan YI, Lepp D, Shao S, Zhou T. Strategies and Methodologies for Developing Microbial Detoxification Systems to Mitigate Mycotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E130. [PMID: 28387743 PMCID: PMC5408204 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9040130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins, the secondary metabolites of mycotoxigenic fungi, have been found in almost all agricultural commodities worldwide, causing enormous economic losses in livestock production and severe human health problems. Compared to traditional physical adsorption and chemical reactions, interest in biological detoxification methods that are environmentally sound, safe and highly efficient has seen a significant increase in recent years. However, researchers in this field have been facing tremendous unexpected challenges and are eager to find solutions. This review summarizes and assesses the research strategies and methodologies in each phase of the development of microbiological solutions for mycotoxin mitigation. These include screening of functional microbial consortia from natural samples, isolation and identification of single colonies with biotransformation activity, investigation of the physiological characteristics of isolated strains, identification and assessment of the toxicities of biotransformation products, purification of functional enzymes and the application of mycotoxin decontamination to feed/food production. A full understanding and appropriate application of this tool box should be helpful towards the development of novel microbiological solutions on mycotoxin detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhu
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Yousef I Hassan
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Dion Lepp
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Suqin Shao
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
| | - Ting Zhou
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON N1G5C9, Canada.
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135
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Do Plant-Bound Masked Mycotoxins Contribute to Toxicity? Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9030085. [PMID: 28264486 PMCID: PMC5371840 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Masked mycotoxins are plant metabolites of mycotoxins which co-contaminate common cereal crops. Since their discovery, the question has arisen if they contribute to toxicity either directly or indirectly through the release of the parent mycotoxins. Research in this field is rapidly emerging and the aim of this review is to summarize the latest knowledge on the fate of masked mycotoxins upon ingestion. Fusarium mycotoxins are the most prevalent masked mycotoxins and evidence is mounting that DON3Glc and possibly other masked trichothecenes are stable in conditions prevailing in the upper gut and are not absorbed intact. DON3Glc is also not toxic per se, but is hydrolyzed by colonic microbes and further metabolized to DOM-1 in some individuals. Masked zearalenone is rather more bio-reactive with some evidence on gastric and small intestinal hydrolysis as well as hydrolysis by intestinal epithelium and components of blood. Microbial hydrolysis of ZEN14Glc is almost instantaneous and further metabolism also occurs. Identification of zearalenone metabolites and their fate in the colon are still missing as is further clarification on whether or not masked zearalenone is hydrolyzed by mammalian cells. New masked mycotoxins continuously emerge and it is crucial that we gain detailed understanding of their individual metabolic fate in the body before we can assess synergistic effects and extrapolate the additive risk of all mycotoxins present in food.
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Krska R, Sulyok M, Berthiller F, Schuhmacher R. Mycotoxin testing: From Multi-toxin analysis to metabolomics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.2520/myco.67-1-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf Krska
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry
| | - Michael Sulyok
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry
| | - Franz Berthiller
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry
| | - Rainer Schuhmacher
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry
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Effect of Fusarium-Derived Metabolites on the Barrier Integrity of Differentiated Intestinal Porcine Epithelial Cells (IPEC-J2). Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8110345. [PMID: 27869761 PMCID: PMC5127141 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8110345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human, animal and plant pathogen Fusarium, which contaminates agricultural commodities worldwide, produces numerous secondary metabolites. An example is the thoroughly-investigated deoxynivalenol (DON), which severely impairs gastrointestinal barrier integrity. However, to date, the toxicological profile of other Fusarium-derived metabolites, such as enniatins, beauvericin, moniliformin, apicidin, aurofusarin, rubrofusarin, equisetin and bikaverin, are poorly characterized. Thus we examined their effects—as metabolites alone and as metabolites in combination with DON—on the intestinal barrier function of differentiated intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) over 72 h. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured at 24-h intervals, followed by evaluation of cell viability using neutral red (NR) assay. Enniatins A, A1, B and B1, apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin significantly reduced TEER. Moniliformin, equisetin, bikaverin and rubrofusarin had no effect on TEER. In the case of apicidin, aurofusarin and beauvericin, TEER reductions were further substantiated by the addition of otherwise no-effect DON concentrations. In all cases, viability was unaffected, confirming that TEER reductions were not due to compromised viability. Considering the prevalence of mycotoxin contamination and the diseases associated with intestinal barrier disruption, consumption of contaminated food or feed may have substantial health implications.
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