1851
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Galli G, Nuti S, Tavarini S, Galli-Stampino L, De Lalla C, Casorati G, Dellabona P, Abrignani S. Innate immune responses support adaptive immunity: NKT cells induce B cell activation. Vaccine 2003; 21 Suppl 2:S48-54. [PMID: 12763683 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(03)00200-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Invariant NKT cells are a peculiar subset of T lymphocytes whose features, highly conserved both in the mouse and the human system, strongly recall those of other "innate lymphocytes". Following recognition of CD1d-presented glycosphingolipid antigens invariant NKT promptly release high amount of diverse cytokines concurring to the activation of the actors of both innate and acquired immune responses. For this reason, in recent years NKT cells have been the object of intensive study, aimed to understand their role in diverse patho-physiological conditions and to exploit the possibility to take advantage of their "adjuvant-like" activity in the formulation of new vaccines. As antibodies are an essential part of many immune responses, we focused our attention on invariant NKT-B cell interactions analyzing their influences on B cell activation and effector functions. The results of this study demonstrate that human invariant NKT cells can provide direct help for B cell proliferation and antibody production through CD1d-restricted mechanisms. Remarkably, help to B lymphocytes by invariant NKT cells is delivered also in the absence of exogenous antigen, suggesting the existence of an endogenous ligand presented by CD1d on B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazia Galli
- IRIS Research Center, Chiron Vaccines, Via Fiorentina 1, I-53100 Siena, Italy
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1852
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Bridle AR, Butler R, Nowak BF. Immunostimulatory CpG oligodeoxynucleotides increase resistance against amoebic gill disease in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2003; 26:367-371. [PMID: 12899412 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2761.2003.00457.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A R Bridle
- School of Aquaculture, Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute, University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia.
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1853
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Boraschi D, Tagliabue A, Martin MU, Rappuoli R. INNAMORA, a European Workshop focussed on the mechanisms of innate immunity in pathogen-host interaction and their exploitation in novel mucosal immunisation strategies. Vaccine 2003; 21 Suppl 2:S1-11. [PMID: 12763677 PMCID: PMC7131447 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(03)00194-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diana Boraschi
- Unit of Immunobiology, Institute of Biomedical Technologies, CNR, Via G. Moruzzi 1, I-56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Aldo Tagliabue
- The International Vaccine Institute (IVI), Seoul National University Campus, Shillim-Dong, Kwanak-Ku, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Michael U. Martin
- Institute of Immunology, Justus-Liebig University of Giessen, Wincherstrasse 2, D-35394 Giessen, Germany
| | - Rino Rappuoli
- Chiron Vaccines S.r.l., Via Fiorentina 1, I-53100 Siena, Italy
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1854
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Marshall JD, Fearon K, Abbate C, Subramanian S, Yee P, Gregorio J, Coffman RL, Van Nest G. Identification of a novel CpG DNA class and motif that optimally stimulate B cell and plasmacytoid dendritic cell functions. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 73:781-92. [PMID: 12773511 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1202630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent reports have identified two major classes of CpG motif-containing oligodeoxynucleotide immunostimulatory sequences (ISS): uniformly modified phosphorothioate (PS) oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs), which initiate B cell functions but poorly activate dendritic cells (DCs) to make interferon (IFN)-alpha, and chimeric PS/phosphodiester (PO) ODNs containing runs of six contiguous guanosines, which induce very high levels of plasmacytoid DC (PDC)-derived IFN-alpha but poorly stimulate B cells. We have generated the first reported ISS, C274, which exhibits very potent effects on all human immune cells known to recognize ISS. C274 is a potent inducer of IFN-gamma/IFN-alpha from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and exhibits accelerated kinetics of activity compared with standard ISS. This ODN also effectively stimulates B cells to proliferate, secrete cytokines, and express costimulatory antigens. In addition, C274 specifically activates PDCs to undergo maturation and secrete cytokines, including very high levels of IFN-alpha. Sequence variation studies based on C274 were used to identify the general motif requirements for this novel and distinct class of ISS. In contrast, chimeric PO/PS CpG-containing ODNs with polyguanosine sequences exert a differential pattern of ISS activity compared with C274, perhaps in part as a result of their greatly different structural nature. This pattern is composed of high IFN-alpha/IFN-gamma induction and low DC maturation in the absence of B cell stimulation. In conclusion, we have generated a novel class of ISS that transcends the limitations ascribed to classes described previously in that it provides excellent stimulation of B cells and simultaneously activates PDCs to differentiate and secrete large amounts of type I IFN.
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1855
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Lee J, Chuang TH, Redecke V, She L, Pitha PM, Carson DA, Raz E, Cottam HB. Molecular basis for the immunostimulatory activity of guanine nucleoside analogs: activation of Toll-like receptor 7. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:6646-51. [PMID: 12738885 PMCID: PMC164501 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0631696100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 438] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Certain C8-substituted and N7, C8-disubstituted guanine ribonucleosides comprise a class of small molecules with immunostimulatory activity. In a variety of animal models, these agents stimulate both humoral and cellular immune responses. The antiviral actions of these guanosine analogs have been attributed to their ability to induce type I IFNs. However, the molecular mechanisms by which the guanosine analogs potentiate immune responses are not known. Here, we report that several guanosine analogs activate Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7). 7-Thia-8-oxoguanosine, 7-deazaguanosine, and related guanosine analogs activated mouse immune cells in a manner analogous to known TLR ligands, inducing cytokine production in mouse splenocytes (IL-6 and IL-12, type I and II IFNs), bone marrow-derived macrophages (IL-6 and IL-12), and in human peripheral blood leukocytes (type I IFNs, tumor necrosis factor alpha and IL-12). The guanosine congeners also up-regulated costimulatory molecules and MHC I/II in dendritic cells. Genetic complementation studies in human embryonic kidney 293 cells confirmed that the guanosine analogs activate cells exclusively via TLR7. The stimulation of TLR7 by the guanosine analogs in human cells appears to require endosomal maturation because inhibition of this process with chloroquine significantly reduced the downstream activation of NF-kappaB. However, TLR8 activation by R-848 and TLR2 activation by [S-[2,3-bis(palmitoyloxy)-(2-RS)-propyl]-N-palmitoyl-R-Cys-S-Ser-Lys4-OH, trihydrochloride)] were not inhibited by chloroquine, whereas TLR9 activation by CpG oligodeoxynucleotides was abolished. In summary, we present evidence that guanosine analogs activate immune cells via TLR7 by a pathway that requires endosomal maturation. Thus, the B cell-stimulating and antiviral activities of the guanosine analogs may be explained by their TLR7-activating capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongdae Lee
- Department of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0663, USA
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1856
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Zou W, Amcheslavsky A, Bar-Shavit Z. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides modulate the osteoclastogenic activity of osteoblasts via Toll-like receptor 9. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:16732-40. [PMID: 12611893 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m212473200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulation of osteoclastogenesis by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is mediated via its interactions with toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on both osteoclast- and osteoblast-lineage cells. We have recently demonstrated that CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs), known to mimic bacterial DNA, modulate osteoclastogenesis via interactions with osteoclast precursors. In the present study we characterize the interactions of CpG ODNs with osteoblasts, in comparison with LPS. We find that, similar to LPS, CpG ODNs modulate osteoclastogenesis in bone marrow cell/osteoblast co-cultures, although in a somewhat different pattern. Osteoblasts express receptors for both LPS and CpG ODN (TLR4 and TLR9, respectively). The osteoblastic TLR9 transmits signals into the cell as demonstrated by NFkappaB activation as well as by extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38 phosphorylation. Similar to LPS, CpG ODN increases in osteoblasts the expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF). The two TLR ligands do not affect osteoprotegerin expression in osteoblasts. CpG ODN does not significantly affect receptor activator of NFkappaB ligand (RANKL) expression, in contrast to LPS, which induces the expression of this molecule. In the co-cultures CpG ODN induces RANKL expression in osteoblasts as a result of the more efficient TNF-alpha induction. CpG ODN activity (modulation of osteoclastogenesis, gene expression, ERK and p38 phosphorylation, and nuclear translocation of NFkappaB) is specific, because the control oligodeoxynucleotide, not containing CpG, is inactive. Furthermore, these effects (unlike the LPS effects) are inhibited by chloroquine, suggesting a requirement for endosomal maturation/acidification, the classic CpG ODN mode of action. We conclude that CpG ODN, upon TLR9 ligation, induces osteoblasts osteoclastogenic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zou
- H. Hubert Humphrey Center for Experimental Medicine and Cancer Research, The Hebrew University Faculty of Medicine, P. O. Box 12272, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
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1857
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Kumaraguru U, Pack CD, Rouse BT. Toll-like receptor ligand links innate and adaptive immune responses by the production of heat-shock proteins. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 73:574-83. [PMID: 12714571 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0902470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The report shows that CpG can exert additional adjuvant effects by inducing cells that are normally inferior antigen (Ag)-presenting cells to participate in immune induction by cross-priming. Macrophages (Mphi) exposed to protein Ag in the presence of bioactive CpG DNA released material that induced primary CD8(+) T cell responses in DC-naïve T cell cultures. This cross-priming event was accompanied by up-regulation of the stress protein response as well as inflammatory cytokine expression in treated Mphi. The material released was indicated to contain inducible heat shock protein-70 and epitope peptide, which in turn, were presented by dendritic cells (DCs) to responder T cells. Such an adjuvant effect by CpG may serve to salvage immunogenic material from otherwise inert depot cellular sites and additionally stimulate DCs to effectively cross-prime. The cross-priming, shown also to occur in vivo, may be particularly useful when Ag doses are low and have minimal opportunity for delivery to DCs for consequent direct priming.
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1858
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1859
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Abstract
Lupus is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease with complex clinical manifestations. In humans, lupus, also known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), affects between 40 and 250 individuals, mostly females, in each 100 000 of the population. There are also a number of murine models of lupus widely used in studies of the genetics, immunopathology, and treatment of lupus. Human patients and murine models of lupus manifest a wide range of immunological abnormalities. The most pervasive of these are: (1) the ability to produce pathogenic autoantibodies; (2) lack of T- and B-lymphocyte regulation; and (3) defective clearance of autoantigens and immune complexes. This article briefly reviews immunological abnormalities and disease mechanisms characteristic of lupus autoimmunity and highlight recent studies on the use of gene therapy to target these abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Mageed
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Pathology, Royal Free and University College School of Medicine, London, UK
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1860
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Verthelyi D, Gursel M, Kenney RT, Lifson JD, Liu S, Mican J, Klinman DM. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides protect normal and SIV-infected macaques from Leishmania infection. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:4717-23. [PMID: 12707351 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.9.4717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs (CpG ODNs) mimic microbial DNA and activate effectors of the innate immune response, which limits the spread of pathogens and promotes an adaptive immune response. CpG ODNs have been shown to protect mice from infection with intracellular pathogens. Unfortunately, CpG motifs that optimally stimulate humans are only weakly active in mice, mandating the use of nonhuman primates to monitor the activity and safety of "human" CpG ODNs in vivo. This study demonstrates that CpG ODN treatment of rhesus macaques significantly reduces the severity of the lesions caused by a challenge with Leishmania: Leishmania superinfection is common in immunocompromised hosts, particularly those infected with HIV. This study shows that PBMCs from HIV-infected subjects respond to stimulation with CpG ODNs. To determine whether CpG ODNs can protect retrovirus-infected primates, SIV-infected macaques were treated with CpG ODNs and then challenged with Leishmania: Both lesion size and parasite load were significantly reduced in the CpG-treated animals. These findings support the clinical development of CpG ODNs as immunoprotective agents in normal and HIV-infected patients.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/therapeutic use
- Adult
- Animals
- Antiprotozoal Agents/administration & dosage
- Antiprotozoal Agents/therapeutic use
- Cells, Cultured
- CpG Islands/immunology
- Female
- HIV Infections/immunology
- Humans
- Injections, Intradermal
- Leishmania mexicana/immunology
- Leishmaniasis, Cutaneous/immunology
- Leishmaniasis, Cutaneous/prevention & control
- Leishmaniasis, Cutaneous/virology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/virology
- Macaca mulatta
- Male
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/administration & dosage
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/therapeutic use
- Protozoan Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Protozoan Vaccines/therapeutic use
- Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/immunology
- Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/parasitology
- Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/therapy
- Simian Immunodeficiency Virus/immunology
- Viral Load
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Verthelyi
- Section of Retroviral Immunology and Division of Bacterial, Parasitic, and Allergenic Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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1861
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Kerkmann M, Rothenfusser S, Hornung V, Towarowski A, Wagner M, Sarris A, Giese T, Endres S, Hartmann G. Activation with CpG-A and CpG-B oligonucleotides reveals two distinct regulatory pathways of type I IFN synthesis in human plasmacytoid dendritic cells. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:4465-74. [PMID: 12707322 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.9.4465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Two different CpG oligonucleotides (ODN) were used to study the regulation of type I IFN in human plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC): ODN 2216, a CpG-A ODN, known to induce high amounts of IFN-alpha in PDC, and ODN 2006, a CpG-B ODN, which is potent at stimulating B cells. CpG-A ODN showed higher and prolonged kinetics of type I IFN production compared with that of CpG-B ODN. In contrast, CpG-B ODN was more active than CpG-A ODN in stimulating IL-8 production and increasing costimulatory and Ag-presenting molecules, suggesting that CpG-A and CpG-B trigger distinct regulatory pathways in PDC. Indeed, CpG-A ODN, but not CpG-B ODN, activated the type I IFNR-mediated autocrine feedback loop. PDC were found to express high constitutive levels of IFN regulatory factor (IRF)7. IRF7 and STAT1, but not IRF3, were equally up-regulated by both CpG-A and CpG-B. CD40 ligand synergistically increased CpG-B-induced IFN-alpha independent of the IFNR but did not affect CpG-B-induced IFN-beta. In conclusion, our studies provide evidence for the existence of two distinct regulatory pathways of type I IFN synthesis in human PDC, one dependent on and one independent of the IFNR-mediated feedback loop. The alternate use of these pathways is based on the type of stimulus rather than the quantity of IFN-alphabeta available to trigger the IFNR. Constitutive expression of IRF7 and the ability to produce considerable amounts of IFN-alpha independent of the IFNR seem to represent characteristic features of PDC.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/antagonists & inhibitors
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Aged
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/metabolism
- Antigens, Surface/biosynthesis
- CD40 Ligand/pharmacology
- Cells, Cultured
- CpG Islands/immunology
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- DNA-Binding Proteins/biosynthesis
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Drug Combinations
- Feedback, Physiological/immunology
- Humans
- Interferon Regulatory Factor-3
- Interferon Regulatory Factor-7
- Interferon Type I/biosynthesis
- Interferon Type I/metabolism
- Interferon-alpha/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interferon-alpha/biosynthesis
- Interferon-alpha/metabolism
- Interferon-beta/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interferon-beta/biosynthesis
- Kinetics
- Lectins, C-Type/immunology
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Ligands
- Membrane Glycoproteins
- Membrane Proteins
- Middle Aged
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/antagonists & inhibitors
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/pharmacology
- Plasma Cells/immunology
- Plasma Cells/metabolism
- Receptor, Interferon alpha-beta
- Receptors, Immunologic
- Receptors, Interferon/physiology
- STAT1 Transcription Factor
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Trans-Activators/biosynthesis
- Transcription Factors/biosynthesis
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/antagonists & inhibitors
- Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha/biosynthesis
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Affiliation(s)
- Miren Kerkmann
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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1862
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Kandimalla ER, Agrawal S. Chemistry of CpG DNA. CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN NUCLEIC ACID CHEMISTRY 2003; Chapter 4:Unit 4.16. [PMID: 18428906 DOI: 10.1002/0471142700.nc0416s12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The vertebrate immune system can recognize specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns in invading microorganisms, including the unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. This unit discusses the receptors that recognize CpG motifs and important aspects of the sequence context of CpG motifs to the end of understanding and designing CpG DNA for therapeutic purposes.
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1863
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Bu Z, Ye L, Skeen MJ, Ziegler HK, Compans RW, Yang C. Enhancement of immune responses to an HIV env DNA vaccine by a C-terminal segment of listeriolysin O. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2003; 19:409-20. [PMID: 12803999 DOI: 10.1089/088922203765551755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
An effective vaccine against AIDS should induce both cellular and humoral immune responses. Here we report that immunization of mice with a DNA plasmid encoding a chimeric protein consisting of HIV89.6 Env gp140 and the listeriolysin O (LLO) C-terminal segment (59 amino acids) significantly enhanced both humoral and cellular immune responses against the HIV89.6 Env protein. Plasmid DNA expression vectors with genes codon-optimized for mammalian expression were synthesized for HIV89.6 gp140 as well as for chimeric protein gp140-LLO, in which the coding sequence for the C-terminal 59 amino acids of LLO were fused in frame to the 3' end of the codon-optimized gene for gp140. All plasmid vectors produced high levels of protein expression, and the gp140-LLO chimeric protein was cleaved and secreted as efficiently as gp140. Analysis of humoral immune responses by ELISA showed that the chimeric gp140-LLO construct induced higher antibody responses than the gp140 construct in immunized mice, more notably in the IgG2a antibody subtype. Intracellular cytokine staining and flow cytometry analysis showed that the gp140-LLO construct induced significantly higher levels of cytotoxic T lymphocyte immune responses against the HIV 89.6 Env protein than those observed with the gp140 construct. Our results thus demonstrate that the C-terminal segment of LLO can be effectively employed to enhance both cellular and humoral immune responses against the HIV89.6 Env antigen in the context of a DNA vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigao Bu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA
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1864
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Takaoka A, Taniguchi T. New aspects of IFN-alpha/beta signalling in immunity, oncogenesis and bone metabolism. Cancer Sci 2003; 94:405-11. [PMID: 12824884 PMCID: PMC11160234 DOI: 10.1111/j.1349-7006.2003.tb01455.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2003] [Revised: 03/31/2003] [Accepted: 04/01/2003] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Although interferons (IFNs) were originally identified as humoral factors that confer an antiviral state upon cells, they have been demonstrated to be multifunctional in a variety of biological systems. The IFN-alpha/beta system modulates not only the cellular immune response to viral and bacterial infections, but also the oncogenic process and bone metabolism. Further studies have revealed additional unique facets of the IFN-alpha/beta system. A weak signal by constitutively produced IFN-alpha/beta is critical not only for the regulation of cellular amplification of IFN-alpha/beta production upon viral infection or the enhancement of signalling by other cytokines, but also for the regulation of adaptive immune responses, such as the enhancement of CD8()+ T cell activation. Furthermore, IFN-beta signalling is critical for the regulation of the bone-resorbing osteoclasts. In this review, we focus on the newly discovered roles of the IFN-alpha/beta system in host defense and bone remodeling, particularly on the functions of the weak IFN-alpha/beta signalling in the context of what we refer to as the "revving-up" model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akinori Takaoka
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine and Faculty of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
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1865
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Galli G, Nuti S, Tavarini S, Galli-Stampino L, De Lalla C, Casorati G, Dellabona P, Abrignani S. CD1d-restricted help to B cells by human invariant natural killer T lymphocytes. J Exp Med 2003; 197:1051-7. [PMID: 12695492 PMCID: PMC2193881 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20021616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Invariant natural killer T (NKT) cells are a highly conserved subset of T lymphocytes expressing a semi-invariant T cell receptor (TCR), which is restricted to CD1d and specific for the glycosphingolipid antigen alpha-galactosylceramide. Their ability to secrete a variety of cytokines, which in turn modulate the activation of cells of both innate and acquired immune responses, suggests that invariant NKT cells exert a regulatory role mainly via indirect mechanisms. A relevant question is whether invariant NKT cells can directly help B cells. We document here that human invariant NKT cells are as efficient as conventional CD4+ Th0 lymphocytes in promoting proliferation of autologous memory and naive B lymphocytes in vitro, and in inducing immunoglobulin production. Help to B cells by invariant NKT cells is CD1d-dependent and delivered also in the absence of alpha-galactosylceramide, suggesting that NKT cells recognize an endogenous ligand presented by CD1d on B cells. The two major subsets of invariant NKT cells, CD4+ and double negative (CD4-CD8-), express comparable levels of CD40 ligand and cytokines, but differ in helper functions. Indeed, both subsets induce similar levels of B cell proliferation, whereas CD4+ NKT cells induce higher levels of immunoglobulin production. These results suggest a direct role for invariant NKT cells in regulating B lymphocyte proliferation and effector functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazia Galli
- IRIS Research Center, Chiron Vaccines, 53100 Siena, Italy
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1866
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Blackwell SE, Krieg AM. CpG-A-induced monocyte IFN-gamma-inducible protein-10 production is regulated by plasmacytoid dendritic cell-derived IFN-alpha. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:4061-8. [PMID: 12682235 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.8.4061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Unmethylated CpG motifs in bacterial DNA or synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) are known for inducing a Th1 cytokine/chemokine environment, but the mechanisms regulating this have been unclear. Recent studies have defined two classes of CpG ODN, CpG-A ODN that induce plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) to secrete very high levels of IFN-alpha, and CpG-B ODN that induce only low levels of IFN-alpha production, but strongly activate B cells. We now demonstrate that a CpG-A ODN directly activates pDC secretion of IFN-alpha and other soluble factors that secondarily induce purified monocytes to secrete high levels of the Th1-promoting chemokine IFN-gamma-inducible protein-10 (IP-10). Cell contact between the monocytes and pDC is not required for this interaction. IFN-alpha is necessary, but only partially sufficient, for this indirect CpG-induced monocyte IP-10 production. Although CpG ODN induce human PBMC to make only very slight amounts of IFN-gamma, we find that these low concentrations synergize with IFN-alpha for inducing monocyte production of IP-10. These studies provide a better understanding of the mechanisms through which CpG ODN create a Th1-like environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sue E Blackwell
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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1867
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Holmgren J, Harandi AM, Czerkinsky C. Mucosal adjuvants and anti-infection and anti-immunopathology vaccines based on cholera toxin, cholera toxin B subunit and CpG DNA. Expert Rev Vaccines 2003; 2:205-17. [PMID: 12899572 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2.2.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The mucosal immune system consists of an integrated network of lymphoid cells that work in concert with innate host factors to promote host defence. Mucosal immunization can be used both to protect the mucosal surfaces against colonization and invasion by microbial pathogens and to provide a means for immunological treatment of selected autoimmune, allergic or infectious-immunopathological disorders through the induction of antigen-specific tolerance. The development of mucosal vaccines, whether for prevention of infectious diseases or for oral tolerance immunotherapy, requires efficient antigen delivery and adjuvant systems. Significant progress has recently been made to generate partly or wholly detoxified derivatives of cholera toxin (including the completely nontoxic cholera toxin B subunit) and the closely related Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin, with retained adjuvant activity. Cholera toxin B subunit is a protective component of a widely registered oral vaccine against cholera, and has proven to be a promising vector for either giving rise to anti-infective immunity or for inducing peripheral anti-inflammatory tolerance to chemically or genetically linked foreign antigens administered mucosally. Promising advances have also recently been made in the design of efficient mucosal adjuvants based on bacterial DNA that contains CpG-motifs and various imidazoquinoline compounds binding to different Toll-like receptors on mucosal antigen-presenting cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Holmgren
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology, Göteborg University Vaccine Research Institute, Göteborg University, Sweden.
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1868
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Abstract
Gene delivery has the potential to offer effective treatment to patients with life-threatening lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis, alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency and lung cancer. Phase I/II clinical trials have shown that, in principle, gene transfer to the lung is feasible and safe. However, gene expression from both viral and non-viral gene delivery systems has been inefficient. In addition to extra- and intracellular barriers, the host innate and acquired immune system represents a major barrier to successful gene transfer to the lung. Results from studies in experimental animals and clinical trials have shown that inflammatory, antibody and T cell responses can limit transgene expression duration and readministration of the gene transfer vector. We will review here how the development of pharmacological and/or immunological agents can modulate the host immune system and the limitations of these strategies. A better understanding of the immunological barriers which exist in the lung might allow for a more sustained expression of the transgene and importantly help overcome the problem of readministration of viral vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ferrari
- Department of Gene Therapy, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, London, UK.
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1869
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Stacey KJ, Young GR, Clark F, Sester DP, Roberts TL, Naik S, Sweet MJ, Hume DA. The molecular basis for the lack of immunostimulatory activity of vertebrate DNA. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:3614-20. [PMID: 12646625 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.7.3614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages and B cells are activated by unmethylated CpG-containing sequences in bacterial DNA. The lack of activity of self DNA has generally been attributed to CpG suppression and methylation, although the role of methylation is in doubt. The frequency of CpG in the mouse genome is 12.5% of Escherichia coli, with unmethylated CpG occurring at approximately 3% the frequency of E. coli. This suppression of CpG alone is insufficient to explain the inactivity of self DNA; vertebrate DNA was inactive at 100 micro g/ml, 3000 times the concentration at which E. coli DNA activity was observed. We sought to resolve why self DNA does not activate macrophages. Known active CpG motifs occurred in the mouse genome at 18% of random occurrence, similar to general CpG suppression. To examine the contribution of methylation, genomic DNAs were PCR amplified. Removal of methylation from the mouse genome revealed activity that was 23-fold lower than E. coli DNA, although there is only a 7-fold lower frequency of known active CpG motifs in the mouse genome. This discrepancy may be explained by G-rich sequences such as GGAGGGG, which potently inhibited activation and are found in greater frequency in the mouse than the E. coli genome. In summary, general CpG suppression, CpG methylation, inhibitory motifs, and saturable DNA uptake combined to explain the inactivity of self DNA. The immunostimulatory activity of DNA is determined by the frequency of unmethylated stimulatory sequences within an individual DNA strand and the ratio of stimulatory to inhibitory sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katryn J Stacey
- Cooperative Research Center for Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
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1870
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Utaisincharoen P, Kespichayawattana W, Anuntagool N, Chaisuriya P, Pichyangkul S, Krieg AM, Sirisinha S. CpG ODN enhances uptake of bacteria by mouse macrophages. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 132:70-5. [PMID: 12653838 PMCID: PMC1808663 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2003.02107.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Unmethylated CpG motif in synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide (CpG ODN) or bacterial DNA is well recognized for its role in innate immunity, including enhancing production of NO and cytokines by macrophages. In the present study, we demonstrated the effect of CpG ODN on the phagocytic uptake of bacteria by macrophages. Flow cytometric analysis of mouse macrophages (RAW 264.7) incubated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labelled Burkholderia pseudomallei, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi or Escherichia coli showed that CpG ODN increased the uptake of these bacteria by mouse macrophages. The enhancement of bacterial uptake by CpG ODN was concentration-dependent. The increase of bacterial uptake by CpG ODN-activated macrophages shown above is consistent with the result of bacteria internalization study using a standard antibiotic protection assay. There was also an increase in the rate and degree of multi-nucleated giant cell formation, phenomena which have been shown previously to be unique when the cells were infected with B. pseudomallei. These observations may provide significant insights for future investigation into host cell-pathogen interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Utaisincharoen
- Laboratory of Immunology, Chulabhorn Research Institute, Bangkok, Thailand.
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1871
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Deng C, Radu C, Diab A, Tsen MF, Hussain R, Cowdery JS, Racke MK, Thomas JA. IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 regulates susceptibility to organ-specific autoimmunity. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:2833-42. [PMID: 12626533 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.6.2833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Infections often precede the development of autoimmunity. Correlation between infection with a specific pathogen and a particular autoimmune disease ranges from moderately strong to quite weak. This lack of correspondence suggests that autoimmunity may result from microbial activation of a generic, as opposed to pathogen-specific host-defense response. The Toll-like receptors, essential to host recognition of microbial invasion, signal through a common, highly conserved pathway, activate innate immunity, and control adaptive immune responses. To determine the influence of Toll/IL-1 signaling on the development of autoimmunity, the responses of wild-type (WT) mice and IL-1R-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1)-deficient mice to induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis were compared. C57BL/6 and B6.IRAK1-deficient mice were immunized with MOG 35-55/CFA or MOG 35-55/CpG DNA/IFA. WT animals developed severe disease, whereas IRAK1-deficient mice were resistant to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, exhibiting little or no CNS inflammation. IRAK1-deficient T cells also displayed impaired Th1 development, particularly during disease induction, despite normal TCR signaling. These results suggest that IRAK1 and the Toll/IL-1 pathway play an essential role in T cell priming, and demonstrate one means through which innate immunity can control subsequent development of autoimmunity. These findings may also help explain the association between antecedent infection and the development or exacerbations of some autoimmune diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/physiology
- Animals
- Cell Movement/genetics
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- CpG Islands/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Freund's Adjuvant/administration & dosage
- Freund's Adjuvant/immunology
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease
- Glycoproteins/immunology
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Immunologic Memory/genetics
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-1 Receptor-Associated Kinases
- Interphase/genetics
- Interphase/immunology
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Macrophages/immunology
- Macrophages/pathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/administration & dosage
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/immunology
- Organ Specificity/genetics
- Organ Specificity/immunology
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Protein Kinases/deficiency
- Protein Kinases/genetics
- Protein Kinases/physiology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/physiology
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-1/physiology
- Spleen/cytology
- Spleen/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/enzymology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Caishu Deng
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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1872
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Hemmi H, Kaisho T, Takeda K, Akira S. The roles of Toll-like receptor 9, MyD88, and DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit in the effects of two distinct CpG DNAs on dendritic cell subsets. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:3059-64. [PMID: 12626561 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.6.3059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Oligodeoxynucleotides containing unmethylated CpG motifs (CpG DNAs) can function as powerful immune adjuvants by activating APC. Compared with conventional phosphorothioate-backbone CpG DNAs, another type of CpG DNAs, called an A or D type (A/D-type), possesses higher ability to induce IFN-alpha production. Conventional CpG DNAs can exert their activity through Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) signaling, which depends on a cytoplasmic adapter, MyD88. However, it remains unknown how A/D-type CpG DNAs exhibit their immunostimulatory function. In this study we have investigated murine dendritic cell (DC) responses to these two distinct CpG DNAs. Not only splenic, but also in vitro bone marrow-derived, DCs could produce larger amounts of IFN-alpha in response to A/D-type CpG DNAs compared with conventional CpG DNAs. This IFN-alpha production was mainly due to the B220(+) DC subset. On the other hand, the B220(-) DC subset responded similarly to both CpG DNAs in terms of costimulatory molecule up-regulation and IL-12 induction. IFN-alpha, but not IL-12, induction was dependent on type I IFN. However, all activities of both CpG DNAs were abolished in TLR9- and MyD88-, but were retained in DNA-PKcs-deficient DCs. This study demonstrates that the TLR9-MyD88 signaling pathway is essential for all DC responses to both types of CpG DNAs.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/pharmacology
- Animals
- Antigens, Differentiation/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation/physiology
- Blotting, Northern
- CD11c Antigen/biosynthesis
- Catalytic Domain/genetics
- Catalytic Domain/physiology
- CpG Islands/physiology
- Cytokines/biosynthesis
- DNA, Bacterial/pharmacology
- DNA-Activated Protein Kinase
- DNA-Binding Proteins/biosynthesis
- DNA-Binding Proteins/deficiency
- DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- DNA-Binding Proteins/physiology
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Interferon Regulatory Factor-7
- Interferon-alpha/biosynthesis
- Leukocyte Common Antigens/biosynthesis
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88
- Nuclear Proteins
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/classification
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides/pharmacology
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/deficiency
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/physiology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Cell Surface/deficiency
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, Cell Surface/physiology
- Receptors, Immunologic/deficiency
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/physiology
- Spleen/cytology
- Spleen/immunology
- Spleen/metabolism
- Toll-Like Receptor 9
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Hemmi
- Department of Host Defense, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University and Solution-Oriented Research for Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Corp., Suita, Osaka, Japan
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1873
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Woodberry T, Gardner J, Elliott SL, Leyrer S, Purdie DM, Chaplin P, Suhrbier A. Prime boost vaccination strategies: CD8 T cell numbers, protection, and Th1 bias. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:2599-604. [PMID: 12594287 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.5.2599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Vaccination strategies involving priming with DNA and boosting with a poxvirus vector have emerged as a preferred combination for the induction of protective CD8 T cell immunity. Using IFN-gamma ELISPOT and a series of DNA plasmid, peptide, and modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) vaccine combinations, we demonstrate that the DNA/MVA combination was uniquely able to enhance IFN-gamma secretion by Ag-specific CD8 T cells. However, CD8 T cell populations induced by DNA/MVA vaccination failed to show an enhanced capability to mediate protection in an IFN-gamma-independent influenza challenge model. The DNA/MVA vaccine strategy was also not unique in its ability to induce high numbers of CD8 T cells, with optimal strategies simply requiring the use of vaccine modalities that individually induce high numbers of CD8 T cells. These experiments argue that rivals to DNA/poxvirus vaccination strategies for the induction of optimal protective CD8 T cell responses are likely to emerge.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Intranasal
- Animals
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/pathology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/virology
- Female
- Genetic Vectors/immunology
- Humans
- Immunization, Secondary/methods
- Influenza A virus/growth & development
- Influenza A virus/immunology
- Influenza Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Influenza Vaccines/genetics
- Influenza Vaccines/immunology
- Influenza Vaccines/therapeutic use
- Influenza, Human/immunology
- Influenza, Human/prevention & control
- Influenza, Human/virology
- Interferon-gamma/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Count
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/pathology
- Th1 Cells/virology
- Vaccination/methods
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/genetics
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Vaccines, DNA/therapeutic use
- Vaccinia virus/genetics
- Vaccinia virus/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonia Woodberry
- Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Cooperative Research Center for Vaccine Technology, Australian Center for International & Tropical Health & Nutrition, Brisbane, Australia
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1874
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Prinz C, Hafsi N, Voland P. Helicobacter pylori virulence factors and the host immune response: implications for therapeutic vaccination. Trends Microbiol 2003; 11:134-8. [PMID: 12648945 DOI: 10.1016/s0966-842x(03)00024-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori colonizes the human gastric mucosa and is associated with specific gastric disease. Virulence factors, such as urease, the vacuolating toxin (VacA), the cytotoxin-associated antigen CagA or blood-group-antigen-binding adhesin (BabA), an adherence factor, might account for the development of different diseases. Vaccination trials exploiting the antigenic properties of some of these proteins have not been successful in preventing infection in humans. A more in-depth understanding of the immune response to H. pylori infection as well as additional information on suitable epitopes and adjuvants will be required before a successful vaccine can be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Prinz
- Department of Medicine II, Technical University, Ismaningerstr. 22, 81675 Munich, Germany.
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1875
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Lundberg P, Cantin E. A potential role for CXCR3 chemokines in the response to ocular HSV infection. Curr Eye Res 2003; 26:137-50. [PMID: 12815542 DOI: 10.1076/ceyr.26.3.137.14898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Corneal infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) leads to the recruitment of immune cells to the eye itself, the trigeminal ganglion and the brainstem. In addition, some resident cells in these target tissues are infected by HSV, activated during the inflammatory response or both. Chemokine signaling is an important component of the regulatory circuit governing the host immune response to virus infection. This review discusses chemokine responses in relation to HSV infection of the cornea emphasizing the role of CXCR3 chemokine signaling by the IFN-gamma inducible ligands MIG, IP10 and I-TAC and includes discussion of their potential role in immunopathology in the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patric Lundberg
- Department of Virology, City of Hope National Medical Center and Beckman Research Institute, Duarte, California, USA.
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1876
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Felix G, Boller T. Molecular sensing of bacteria in plants. The highly conserved RNA-binding motif RNP-1 of bacterial cold shock proteins is recognized as an elicitor signal in tobacco. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:6201-8. [PMID: 12471032 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m209880200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
To detect microbial infection multicellular organisms have evolved sensing systems for pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Here, we identify bacterial cold shock protein (CSP) as a new such PAMP that acts as a highly active elicitor of defense responses in tobacco. Tobacco cells perceive a conserved domain of CSP and synthetic peptides representing 15 amino acids of this domain-induced responses at subnanomolar concentrations. Central to the elicitor-active domain is the RNP-1 motif KGFGFITP, a motif conserved also in many RNA- and DNA-binding proteins of eukaryotes. Csp15-Nsyl, a peptide representing the domain with highest homology to csp15 in a protein of Nicotiana sylvestris exhibited only weak activity in tobacco cells. Crystallographic and genetic data from the literature show that the RNP-1 domain of bacterial CSPs resides on a protruding loop and exposes a series of aromatic and basic side chains to the surface that are essential for the nucleotide-binding activity of CSPs. Similarly, these side chains were also essential for elicitor activity and replacement of single residues in csp15 with Ala strongly reduced or abolished activity. Most strikingly, csp15-Ala10, a peptide with the RNP-1 motif modified to KGAGFITP, lacked elicitor activity but acted as a competitive antagonist for CSP-related elicitors. Bacteria commonly have a small family of CSP-like proteins including both cold-inducible and noninducible members, and Csp-related elicitor activity was detected in extracts from all bacteria tested. Thus, the CSP domain containing the RNP-1 motif provides a structure characteristic for bacteria in general, and tobacco plants have evolved a highly sensitive chemoperception system to detect this bacterial PAMP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Felix
- Friedrich Miescher-Institute, P. O. Box 2543, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland.
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1877
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Filion MC, Saha N, Gueddi M, Phillips NC. Development of short non-CpG phosphodiester oligonucleotides as immune stimulatory agents. Vaccine 2003; 21:983-9. [PMID: 12547612 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00549-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported that DNA isolated from Mycobacterium phlei (M. phlei) stimulates the synthesis of cytokines by monocytes and macrophages independently of the presence of unmethylated CpG motifs. Oligonucleotides as small as five to six bases isolated from M. phlei DNA have been found to induce cytokine synthesis. In the present study, we have investigated the potential for such CpG-lacking DNA to act as an immune stimulant. A series of six base length phosphodiester oligonucleotides derived from the genome of M. phlei were synthesised and tested for their ability to induce the synthesis of cytokines by murine, non-human primate (rhesus macaques and chimpanzee) and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The results show that phosphodiester oligonucleotides with a 5'GGGxGG3' sequence where x is A, C, G or T have the ability to induce the synthesis of IL-1beta, IL-6, IL10 or IL-12 by non-human primate and human PBMC, murine cells being unresponsive. The phosphodiester 5'GGGxGG3' oligonucleotides were shown to be stable in human serum, with a half-life of approximately 72 h. The addition of aluminium hydroxide to these 5'GGGxGG3' oligonucleotides potentiated, in a concentration-dependent manner, the synthesis of IL-12 by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These phosphodiester six base length non-CpG motif oligonucleotides may have potential as immunopotentiators for vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario C Filion
- Bioniche Therapeutics Division, Bioniche Life Sciences Inc, Montreal, Que, Canada H4P 2R2.
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1878
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Kawane K, Fukuyama H, Yoshida H, Nagase H, Ohsawa Y, Uchiyama Y, Okada K, Iida T, Nagata S. Impaired thymic development in mouse embryos deficient in apoptotic DNA degradation. Nat Immunol 2003; 4:138-44. [PMID: 12524536 DOI: 10.1038/ni881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2002] [Accepted: 12/03/2002] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is often accompanied by the degradation of chromosomal DNA. Caspase-activated DNase (CAD) is an endonuclease that is activated in dying cells, whereas DNase II is present in the lysosomes of macrophages. Here, we show that CAD(-/-) thymocytes did not undergo apoptotic DNA degradation. But, when apoptotic cells were phagocytosed by macrophages, their DNA was degraded by DNase II. The thymus of DNase II(-/-)CAD(-/-) embryos contained many foci carrying undigested DNA and the cellularity was severely reduced due to a block in T cell development. The interferon-beta gene was strongly up-regulated in the thymus of DNase II(-/-)CAD(-/-) embryos, suggesting that when the DNA of apoptotic cells is left undigested, it can activate innate immunity leading to defects in thymic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohki Kawane
- Department of Genetics, Osaka University Medical School, Japan
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1879
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Bhagat L, Zhu FG, Yu D, Tang J, Wang H, Kandimalla ER, Zhang R, Agrawal S. CpG penta- and hexadeoxyribonucleotides as potent immunomodulatory agents. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003; 300:853-61. [PMID: 12559951 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)02943-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We demonstrate a new design for immunomodulatory CpG DNA containing two sequences each with as few as five or six-nucleotides joined together via 3(')-3(') linkers. These do not require the -PuPu(Py)CGPyPy- hexameric motif generally found essential for CpG DNA immune stimulation. These novel, short-immunomers show potent immunostimulatory activity manifested by IL-12 and IL-6 secretion in murine spleen cell and PBMC cultures and splenomegaly in vivo. Short-immunomers show strong activation of NF-kappaB and stress-activated signaling pathways and induce cytokines in J774 cell cultures. The same sequences also induce cytokines in healthy human PBMC cultures whereas conventional CpG DNA requires different optimal sequences for murine and human immune cells. Additionally, short-immunomers inhibit IL-5 secretion and induce IFN-gamma secretion in conalbumin-sensitized mouse spleen cell cultures, suggesting reversal of established Th2 responses to Th1 type responses. Short-immunomer also inhibits growth of MCF-7 human tumor xenograft in nude mice. This is the first report of activity with such short DNA sequences and also of sequences lacking hexameric motifs proposed in earlier studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakshmi Bhagat
- Hybridon, Inc., 345 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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1880
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Abstract
The immune system can recognize and produce antibodies to virtually any molecule in the Universe. This enormous diversity arises from the ingenious reshuffling of DNA sequences encoding components of the immune system. Immunology is an example of a field completely transformed during the past 50 years by the discovery of the structure of DNA and the emergence of DNA technologies that followed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustav J V Nossal
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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1881
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Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are type I transmembrane proteins involved in innate immunity by recognizing microbial conserved structures. Recent studies have shown that TLR3 recognizes dsRNA, a viral product, whereas TLR9 recognizes unmethylated CpG motifs frequently found in the genome of bacteria and viruses, but not vertebrates. TLR7 recognizes small synthetic immune modifiers including imiquimod, R-848, loxoribine, and bropirimine, all of which are already applied or promising for clinical use against viral infections and cancers. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells express TLR7 and TLR9, and respond to TLR7 and TLR9 ligands by producing a large amount of interferon (IFN-alpha). These results indicate that TLR3, TLR7 and TLR9 may play an important role in detecting and combating viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shizuo Akira
- Department of Host Defense, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, SORST of Japan Science and Technology Corporation, 3-1 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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1882
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Host Immunity and Vaccine Development to Coccidia and Salmonella Infections in Chickens. J Poult Sci 2003. [DOI: 10.2141/jpsa.40.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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1883
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Abstract
AbstractOver the past few years, improved understanding of the molecular basis of interactions between antigen presenting cells and effector cells and advances in informatics have both led to the identification of many candidate antigens that are targets for immunotherapy. However, while immunotherapy has successfully eradicated relapsed hematologic malignancy after allogeneic transplant as well as virally induced tumors, limitations have been identified in extending immunotherapy to a wider range of hematologic malignancies. This review provides an overview of three immunotherapy strategies and how they may be improved.In Section I, Dr. Stevenson reviews the clinical experience with genetic vaccines delivered through naked DNA alone or viral vectors, which are showing promise in clinical trials in lymphoma and myeloma patients. She describes efforts to manipulate constructs genetically to enhance immunogenicity and to add additional elements to generate a more sustained immune response.In Section II, Dr. Molldrem describes clinical experience with peptide vaccines, with a particular focus on myeloid tissue-restricted proteins as GVL target antigens in CML and AML. Proteinase 3 and other azurophil granule proteins may be particularly good targets for both autologous and allogeneic T-cell responses. The potency of peptide vaccines may potentially be increased by genetically modifying peptides to enhance T-cell receptor affinity.Finally, in Section III, Dr. Heslop reviews clinical experience with adoptive immunotherapy with T cells. Transferred T cells have clinical benefit in treating relapsed malignancy post transplant, and Epstein-Barr virus associated tumors. However, T cells have been less successful in treating other hematologic malignancies due to inadequate persistence or expansion of adoptively transferred cells and the presence of tumor evasion mechanisms. An improved understanding of the interactions of antigen presenting cells with T cells should optimize efforts to manufacture effector T cells, while manipulation of lymphocyte homeostasis in vivo and development of gene therapy approaches may enhance the persistence and function of adoptively transferred T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen E Heslop
- Baylor College of Medicine, Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Houston, TX 77030-2303, USA
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1884
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Farman CA, Kornbrust DJ. Oligodeoxynucleotide studies in primates: antisense and immune stimulatory indications. Toxicol Pathol 2003; 31 Suppl:119-22. [PMID: 12597439 DOI: 10.1080/01926230390174995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Antisense oligodeoxynucleotide compounds (AS ODN) are being developed as therapeutics for various disease indications. Their safety and pharmacokinetics are most commonly evaluated in rodents and nonhuman primates. Traditional AS ODN are short, single strands of DNA, and they target specific mRNA sequences. Plasma clearance of AS ODN is rapid, broad tissue distribution occurs, and elimination is by nuclease metabolism. Structural modifications to AS ODN have been made to enhance their efficacy and improve their safety. A number of class effects are observed with AS ODN that are unrelated to the specific targeted mRNA sequence. Acute effects include activation of the alternative complement pathway and inhibition of the intrinsic coagulation pathway. In monkeys, rodents, and dogs given repeated doses of AS ODN, accumulation of AS ODN and/or metabolites occurs in the form of basophilic granules in various tissues, including the kidney, lymph nodes and liver. A new potential therapeutic application of ODN is that of immune stimulation. Immunostimulatory ODN (IS ODN) are being investigated for use in treating cancer, infectious disease, and allergy. For the development of both AS and IS ODN, primates will continue to be important for safety assessment.
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1885
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Brawand P, Fitzpatrick DR, Greenfield BW, Brasel K, Maliszewski CR, De Smedt T. Murine plasmacytoid pre-dendritic cells generated from Flt3 ligand-supplemented bone marrow cultures are immature APCs. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:6711-9. [PMID: 12471102 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.12.6711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The putative counterparts of human plasmacytoid pre-dendritic cells (pDCs) have been described in vivo in mouse models and very recently in an in vitro culture system. In this study, we report that large numbers of bone marrow-derived murine CD11c(+)B220(+) pDCs can be generated with Flt3 ligand (FL) as the sole exogenous differentiation/growth factor and that pDC generation is regulated in vivo by FL because FL-deficient mice showed a major reduction in splenic pDC numbers. We extensively analyzed bone marrow-derived CD11c(+)B220(+) pDCs and described their immature APC phenotype based on MHC class II, activation markers, and chemokine receptor level of expression. CD11c(+)B220(+) pDCs showed a nonoverlapping Toll-like receptor pattern of expression distinct from that of classical CD11c(+)B220(-) dendritic cells and were poor T cell stimulators. Stimulation of CD11c(+)B220(+) pDCs with oligodeoxynucleotides containing certain CpG motifs plus CD40 ligand plus GM-CSF led to increased MHC class II, CD80, CD86, and CD8alpha expression levels, to a switch in chemokine receptor expression that affected their migration, to IFN-alpha and IL-12 secretion, and to the acquisition of priming capacities for both CD4(+) and CD8(+) OVA-specific TCR-transgenic naive T cells. Thus, the in vitro generation of murine pDCs may serve as a useful tool to further investigate pDC biology as well as the potential role of these cells in viral immunity and other settings.
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1886
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Bernasconi NL, Traggiai E, Lanzavecchia A. Maintenance of serological memory by polyclonal activation of human memory B cells. Science 2002; 298:2199-202. [PMID: 12481138 DOI: 10.1126/science.1076071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 990] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Production of antibodies can last for a lifetime, through mechanisms that remain poorly understood. Here, we show that human memory B lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells in response to polyclonal stimuli, such as bystander T cell help and CpG DNA. Furthermore, plasma cells secreting antibodies to recall antigens are produced in vivo at levels proportional to the frequency of specific memory B cells, even several years after antigenic stimulation. Although antigen boosting leads to a transient increase in specific antibody levels, ongoing polyclonal activation of memory B cells offers a means to maintain serological memory for a human lifetime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia L Bernasconi
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, Via Vela 6, CH 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
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1887
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Yoshinaga T, Yasuda K, Ogawa Y, Takakura Y. Efficient uptake and rapid degradation of plasmid DNA by murine dendritic cells via a specific mechanism. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 299:389-94. [PMID: 12445812 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)02648-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In spite of the important roles of dendritic cells in DNA-based therapies, the cellular uptake mechanism of plasmid DNA (pDNA) in dendritic cells is poorly understood. The present study was undertaken to investigate the binding and uptake of pDNA in vitro using a murine dendritic cell line, DC2.4 cells. A significant and time-dependent cellular association of [32P]pDNA with DC2.4 cells was observed at 37 degrees C and this fell markedly at 4 degrees C. The binding and uptake of [32P]pDNA were significantly inhibited by cold pDNA, polyinosinic acid (poly[I]), dextran sulfate, or heparin, but not by polycytidylic acid (poly[C]), dextran, or EDTA, suggesting that a specific mechanism mediated by a receptor like the macrophage scavenger receptor may be involved. The TCA precipitation experiments showed that DC2.4 cells rapidly endocytosed and degraded a significant amount of [32P]pDNA at 37 degrees C and released the degradation products into the medium. The pDNA degradation was also significantly inhibited by poly[I], but not poly[C]. The rate of pDNA degradation by DC2.4 cells was significantly higher than that by macrophages. A confocal microscopic study using fluorescein-labeled pDNA confirmed the rapid internalization and degradation of pDNA by the dendritic cells. Taken together, these results indicate that pDNA is efficiently taken up and rapidly digested by the dendritic cells via a specific mechanism. These findings may suggest the important role of the dendritic cells in the innate immune system for host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takaharu Yoshinaga
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Drug Metabolism, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, 46-29 Yoshidashimoadachi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
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1888
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Abstract
The lymphocyte's decision between tolerance and immunity/autoimmunity is regulated at many levels. Two important parameters in this decision are the maturation state of the antigen presenting cells (APCs) and the amount of self antigen that is detected by the immune system. Maturation of APCs occurs as a consequence of signals received by the innate immune system and may lead to the breakdown of tolerance. Particularly relevant to this process are the Toll-like receptors and mechanisms of cross presentation of self antigens. In addition, genetic alterations in a variety of cell surface receptors, signalling components and regulators of apoptosis/survival can break tolerance and lead to autoimmunity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela S Ohashi
- University Health Network, Ontario Cancer Institute, Toronto, Canada.
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1889
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Abstract
The vertebrate immune system has established TLR9 to detect microbial DNA based on unmethylated CG dinucleotides within certain sequence contexts (CpG motifs). In humans, the expression of toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is restricted to B cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC). The PDC is characterized by the ability to rapidly synthesize large amounts of type I IFN (IFN-alpha and IFN-beta) in response to viral infection. In contrast to other dendritic cell subsets which express a broad profile of TLRs, the TLR profile in PDC is restricted to TLR7 and TLR9. So far, CpG DNA is the only defined microbial molecule recognized by PDC. An intriguing feature of PDC is its ability to simultaneously produce the two major Th1-inducing cytokines in humans, IFN-alpha and IL-12, both at high levels. The ratio of IFN-alpha versus IL-12 and the quantity of these cytokines are regulated by T helper cell-mediated costimulation via CD40 ligation. The ratio also depends on the differentiation stage of the PDC at the time of stimulation and the type of CpG ODN used. We propose a model in which the establishment of Th1 responses in vivo is improved by appropriately stimulated PDC that otherwise - in the absence of CpG DNA--support Th2 or Th0 responses and thus have been called DC2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Rothenfusser
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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1890
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Abstract
Prolonged exposure of the immune system to type I interferons (IFN-alpha/beta/omega) in patients receiving IFN-alpha therapy frequently results in development of autoantibodies and autoimmune disease. This is attributed to the many immunostimulatory effects of these cytokines. Patients with the autoimmune disease systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have an ongoing IFN-alpha production. Recent studies of SLE demonstrated the presence of endogenous IFN-alpha inducers, acting specifically on natural IFN-alpha producing cells (NIPC), often termed plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC). These IFN-alpha inducers were potent, present at the blood level, and characterized as immune complexes that contained DNA and IgG as essential components. They were considered a likely reason for the activated IFN-alpha production in SLE, which, in turn, might be an important etiopathogenic factor. Here, we briefly review the biology of the type I IFN system, with emphasis on inducers, producing cells (especially NIPC/PDC), IFN-alpha actions, and target immune cells, which might be relevant in SLE. Based on such information and results from studies in SLE patients, we propose a hypothesis that explains how NIPC/PDC become activated and play a pivotal etiopathogenic role in SLE and perhaps also other autoimmune diseases. This hypothesis furthermore indicates new therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Rönnblom
- Department of Medical Sciences, Section of Rheumatology, University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden.
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1891
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Kadowaki N, Liu YJ. Natural type I interferon-producing cells as a link between innate and adaptive immunity. Hum Immunol 2002; 63:1126-32. [PMID: 12480256 DOI: 10.1016/s0198-8859(02)00751-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFNs) are promptly produced upon invasion of pathogens, and activate a broad range of effector cells in the innate and adaptive immune system. Lin(-)CD4(+)CD11c(-) plasmacytoid dendritic cell precursors (plasmacytoid pre-DCs) produce enormous amounts of type I IFNs in response to viruses and CpG DNA, thus corresponding to the previously described but not fully defined natural type I IFN-producing cells (IPCs). Plasmacytoid pre-DCs strongly express toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 and TLR9, in contrast to monocytes, which mainly express TLR1, 2, 4, 5, and 8, suggesting that these two DC precursors recognize different microbial molecules and that they may have developed through different evolutionary trails. Three different stimuli, CpG DNA plus CD40 ligand, interleukin-3 (IL-3), and herpes simplex virus, stimulate plasmacytoid pre-DCs to differentiate into DCs that induce distinct types of T helper cells, i.e., Th1, Th2, and IFN-gamma- and IL-10-producing T cells, respectively. The remarkable versatility of plasmacytoid pre-DCs distinguishes them from other cell types in the immune system that have only limited functions, and suggests that these cells may play a key role in integrating the innate and adaptive aspects of various immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norimitsu Kadowaki
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
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1892
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O'Keeffe M, Hochrein H, Vremec D, Caminschi I, Miller JL, Anders EM, Wu L, Lahoud MH, Henri S, Scott B, Hertzog P, Tatarczuch L, Shortman K. Mouse plasmacytoid cells: long-lived cells, heterogeneous in surface phenotype and function, that differentiate into CD8(+) dendritic cells only after microbial stimulus. J Exp Med 2002; 196:1307-19. [PMID: 12438422 PMCID: PMC2193989 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20021031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The CD45RA(hi)CD11c(int) plasmacytoid predendritic cells (p-preDCs) of mouse lymphoid organs, when stimulated in culture with CpG or influenza virus, produce large amounts of type I interferons and transform without division into CD8(+)CD205(-) DCs. P-preDCs express CIRE, the murine equivalent of DC-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3 grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN). P-preDCs are divisible by CD4 expression into two subgroups differing in turnover rate and in response to Staphylococcus aureus. The kinetics of bromodeoxyuridine labeling and the results of transfer to normal recipient mice indicate that CD4(-) p-preDCs are the immediate precursors of CD4(+) p-preDCs. Similar experiments indicate that p-preDCs are normally long lived and are not the precursors of the short-lived steady-state conventional DCs. However, in line with the culture studies on transfer to influenza virus-stimulated mice the p-preDCs transform into CD8(+)CD205(-) DCs, distinct from conventional CD8(+)CD205(+) DCs. Hence as well as activating preexistant DCs, microbial infection induces a wave of production of a new DC subtype. The functional implications of this shift in the DC network remain to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith O'Keeffe
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, Victoria 3050, Australia.
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1893
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Pyles RB, Higgins D, Chalk C, Zalar A, Eiden J, Brown C, Van Nest G, Stanberry LR. Use of immunostimulatory sequence-containing oligonucleotides as topical therapy for genital herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. J Virol 2002; 76:11387-96. [PMID: 12388699 PMCID: PMC136753 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.22.11387-11396.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic oligonucleotides containing CpG motifs in specific sequence contexts have been shown to induce potent immune responses. We have evaluated mucosal administration of two immunostimulatory sequence (ISS)-containing phosphorothioate-stabilized oligonucleotides for antiherpetic efficacy in animal models. The ISS oligonucleotides, suspended in phosphate-buffered saline, were tested in mouse and guinea pig vaginal models of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection. For comparison, groups of untreated, non-ISS oligonucleotide-treated, and acyclovir-treated animals also were monitored. The results indicated that vaginal epithelial application of ISS (up to 6 h after viral inoculation) with mice lethally challenged with HSV-2 delayed disease onset and reduced the number of animals that developed signs of disease (P = 0.003). ISS application significantly increased survival rates over those of controls (P = 0.0014). The ISS also impacted an established infection in the guinea pig model of HSV-2 disease. A single administration of ISS (21 days after viral inoculation) significantly reduced the frequency and severity of HSV-2 lesions compared to results with non-ISS oligonucleotide-treated and untreated guinea pigs (P < 0.01). HSV-2 is shed from the vaginal cavity of the guinea pig in the absence of lesions, similar to the case with humans. As an additional indication of ISS efficacy, the magnitude of viral shedding also was significantly reduced in ISS-treated animals (P < 0.001). These effects appeared to be immunologically mediated, since ISS had no direct effect on HSV-2 replication in vitro using standard plaque assays. These data suggest that ISS may be useful in the treatment and control of genital herpes in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B Pyles
- Department of Pediatrics and the Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555, USA.
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1894
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Yu D, Kandimalla ER, Bhagat L, Tang JY, Cong Y, Tang J, Agrawal S. 'Immunomers'--novel 3'-3'-linked CpG oligodeoxyribonucleotides as potent immunomodulatory agents. Nucleic Acids Res 2002; 30:4460-9. [PMID: 12384593 PMCID: PMC137145 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkf582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2002] [Revised: 08/29/2002] [Accepted: 08/29/2002] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligodeoxyribonucleotides containing CpG dinucleotides (CpG DNAs) are currently being evaluated as novel immunomodulators in clinical trials. Recently, we showed that an accessible 5' end is required for immunostimulatory activity and blocking the 5' end of CpG DNA by conjugation of certain ligands abrogates immunostimulatory activity. Based on these results, we designed and synthesized 3'-3'-linked CpG DNAs that contained two or more identical CpG DNA segments, referred to here as 'immunomers'. The use of solid support bearing diDMT-glyceryl-linker permitted convenient synthesis of immunomers with both segments synthesized simultaneously, giving better yields and purity. The in vitro and in vivo studies suggest that as a result of accessibility to two 5' ends for recognition, immunomers show an enhanced immunostimulatory activity compared with linear CpG DNAs. We also studied the suitability of a number of different linkers for attaching the two segments of immunomers. A C3-linker was found to be optimal for joining the two segments of immunomers. Incorporation of multiple linkers between the two segments of immunomers resulted in different cytokine profiles depending on the nature and number of linkers incorporated. Additionally, the length of immunomer also plays a significant role in inducing immune responses. An immunomer containing 11 nt in each segment showed the highest activity and an 11mer linear CpG DNA failed to stimulate an immune response. These results suggest that immunomers have several advantages over conventional linear CpG DNAs for immunomodulatory activity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Yu
- Hybridon, Inc., 345 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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1895
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Abstract
Tuberculosis still remains a leading infectious cause of death worldwide, although the BCG vaccine has been used for 80 years. There is an urgent need to develop improved BCG or new tuberculosis vaccines. This apparently represents a daunting task, since it will take a long time before a vaccine can be declared to be better than the current BCG vaccine, both in experimental and human studies. The current review takes a brief historic look at the use of current BCG vaccine and provides an overview on what are considered to be the key immunologic criteria that have to be met by a new generation of tuberculosis vaccines. It also provides the most up-to-date information on the latest developments in tuberculosis vaccine research, with a focus on mycobacterial organism-based and Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigen-based vaccines. Consideration is also given to the mucosal route of immunization and 'prime and boost' regimens. This review also presents several important tables, highlighting critical components of antituberculosis immunity, the most commonly tested immune adjuvants, the types of novel tuberculosis antigen-based vaccines and the outcome of different heterologous 'prime and boost' vaccination regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wang
- Health Science Centre, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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1896
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Erb KJ, Wohlleben G. Novel vaccines protecting against the development of allergic disorders: a double-edged sword? Curr Opin Immunol 2002; 14:633-43. [PMID: 12183166 DOI: 10.1016/s0952-7915(02)00385-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The severity and incidence of allergic disorders is steadily increasing despite the widespread use of steroids and other drugs. Recent results obtained in animals suggest that it may be possible to develop novel anti-allergy vaccines for human use, thereby stopping this alarming worldwide increase in allergic diseases. The most promising approaches are the induction of allergen-specific T helper 1 or allergen-specific T regulatory responses. However, both approaches potentially harbour negative side effects that need to be ruled out before vaccinating young children -- the best candidates for the primary prevention of allergic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus J Erb
- Centre for Infectious Diseases, University of Würzburg, Röntgenring 11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany.
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1897
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Abstract
Vaccination approaches are increasingly explored as means for both prevention and therapy of skin diseases. These development are boosted by the rapidly accumulating knowledge of the molecular and cellular bases of these disease and the antigens involved, on the one hand, and of the components and mechanisms of cellular and humoral immune responses, on the other. In a number of cases these newly developed vaccination strategies are already tested in clinical trials. Although most of them are still in very early stages of the development, it is foreseeable that vaccination will emerge as an important option for prevention and treatment of infectious skin diseases as well as of cancer, allergies and maybe, auto-immune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Sterry
- Department of Dermatology, Charité, Humboldt University Medical School, Berlin, Germany.
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1898
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Dupont B. Introduction: current concepts in immunity to human cancer and therapeutic antitumor vaccines. Immunol Rev 2002; 188:5-8. [PMID: 12445276 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065x.2002.18801.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bo Dupont
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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1899
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Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) are bone marrow-derived professional antigen-presenting cells that function as sentinels of the immune system. Their importance in immunity resides in their unique ability to prime or tolerize T lymphocytes, thereby initiating or inhibiting immune responses. They reside in all tissues and organs and upon appropriate activation, migrate to secondary lymphoid organs to present antigen to T lymphocytes in the T cell zones. Because of this central role in T cell activation, there is a great deal of interest in using DC therapeutically to deliver positive or negative signals to the immune system. The DC system is critically dependent on the ability of DC at different stages of maturation to respond to a range of soluble and cell-bound signals, including members of the chemokine gene superfamily. This review will describe the interactions between DC and the chemokine system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun R McColl
- Chemokine Biology Laboratory and Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Adelaide, Australia.
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1900
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Zuany-Amorim C, Hastewell J, Walker C. Toll-like receptors as potential therapeutic targets for multiple diseases. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002; 1:797-807. [PMID: 12360257 DOI: 10.1038/nrd914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The family of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) is receiving considerable attention as potential regulators and controllers of the immune response through their ability to recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns. The discovery that endogenous ligands, as well as microbial components, are recognized by TLRs, and that small-molecular-mass synthetic compounds activate TLRs, raised interest in these receptors as potential targets for the development of new therapies for multiple diseases. In this review, we discuss the current and future use of TLR agonists or antagonists in chronic inflammatory diseases and highlight potential problems that are associated with such approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Zuany-Amorim
- Novartis Horsham Research Centre, Novartis Pharmaceutical Ltd, Wimblehurst Road, Horsham, West Sussex RH12 5AB, UK
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