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Comparing ultrastable lasers at 7 × 10 -17 fractional frequency instability through a 2220 km optical fibre network. Nat Commun 2022; 13:212. [PMID: 35017500 PMCID: PMC8752831 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27884-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultrastable lasers are essential tools in optical frequency metrology enabling unprecedented measurement precision that impacts on fields such as atomic timekeeping, tests of fundamental physics, and geodesy. To characterise an ultrastable laser it needs to be compared with a laser of similar performance, but a suitable system may not be available locally. Here, we report a comparison of two geographically separated lasers, over the longest ever reported metrological optical fibre link network, measuring 2220 km in length, at a state-of-the-art fractional-frequency instability of 7 × 10-17 for averaging times between 30 s and 200 s. The measurements also allow the short-term instability of the complete optical fibre link network to be directly observed without using a loop-back fibre. Based on the characterisation of the noise in the lasers and optical fibre link network over different timescales, we investigate the potential for disseminating ultrastable light to improve the performance of remote optical clocks.
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The Ca2+ sensor STIM1 regulates the type I interferon response by retaining the signaling adaptor STING at the endoplasmic reticulum. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.202.supp.63.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) signaling adaptor that is essential for the type I interferon response to DNA pathogens. Aberrant activation of STING is linked to the pathology of autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases. The rate-limiting step for the activation of STING is its translocation from the ER to the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment. Here, we found that deficiency in the Ca2+ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) caused spontaneous activation of STING and enhanced expression of type I interferons under resting conditions in mice and a patient with combined immunodeficiency. Mechanistically, STIM1 associated with STING to retain it in the ER membrane, and coexpression of full-length STIM1 or a STING-interacting fragment of STIM1 suppressed the function of dominant STING mutants that cause autoinflammatory diseases. Furthermore, deficiency in STIM1 strongly enhanced the expression of type I interferons after viral infection and prevented the lethality of infection with a DNA virus in vivo. This work delineates a STIM1-STING circuit that maintains the resting state of the STING pathway.
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The Ca 2+ sensor STIM1 regulates the type I interferon response by retaining the signaling adaptor STING at the endoplasmic reticulum. Nat Immunol 2019; 20:152-162. [PMID: 30643259 PMCID: PMC6340781 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-018-0287-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) signaling adaptor that is essential for the type I interferon response to DNA pathogens. Aberrant activation of STING is linked to the pathology of autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases. The rate-limiting step for the activation of STING is its translocation from the ER to the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment. Here, we found that deficiency in the Ca2+ sensor stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) caused spontaneous activation of STING and enhanced expression of type I interferons under resting conditions in mice and a patient with combined immunodeficiency. Mechanistically, STIM1 associated with STING to retain it in the ER membrane, and coexpression of full-length STIM1 or a STING-interacting fragment of STIM1 suppressed the function of dominant STING mutants that cause autoinflammatory diseases. Furthermore, deficiency in STIM1 strongly enhanced the expression of type I interferons after viral infection and prevented the lethality of infection with a DNA virus in vivo. This work delineates a STIM1-STING circuit that maintains the resting state of the STING pathway.
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First industrial-grade coherent fiber link for optical frequency standard dissemination. APPLIED OPTICS 2018; 57:7203-7210. [PMID: 30182980 DOI: 10.1364/ao.57.007203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We report on a fully bidirectional 680 km fiber link connecting two cities for which the equipment, the setup, and the characterization are managed for the first time by an industrial consortium. The link uses an active telecommunication fiber network with parallel data traffic and is equipped with three repeater laser stations and four remote double bidirectional erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. We report a short-term stability at 1 s integration time of 5.4×10-16 in 0.5 Hz bandwidth and a long-term stability of 1.7×10-20 at 65,000 s of integration time. The accuracy of the frequency transfer is evaluated as 3×10-20. No shift is observed within the statistical uncertainty. We show a continuous operation over five days with an uptime of 99.93%. This performance is comparable with the state-of-the-art coherent links established by National Metrology Institutes in Europe. It is a first step in the construction of an optical fiber network for metrology in France, which will give access to an ultrahigh performance frequency standard to a wide community of scientific users.
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Immunomodulation of Host Immunity by Bacteriodes fragillis Polysaccharide A (PSA) Prevents Viral Encephalitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.196.supp.217.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
A major impact of commensal microbiota on many aspects of host physiology including regulation of host immunity extends beyond the gut to remote sites, including the brain. Studies in mouse models have shown that the commensal Bacteroides fragilis and its capsular PSA can prevent various inflammatory disorders including colitis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and asthma. However, little is known about the interaction of gut bacteria and their products with the immune system during viral infection. We assessed the immunomodulatory potential of PSA in a murine model of herpes simplex virus (HSV) encephalitis (HSE). Fatal HSE results from inflammation of the brain in susceptible 129 strain of mice due to uncontrolled invasion by Ly6Chigh inflammatory monocytes (IM) and neutrophils. Naïve 129 mice pretreated with PSA or PBS were then given a 1-week course of the anti-viral drug acyclovir (ACV) from day 4-post HSV infection to simulate a clinical setting. PSA, but not PBS-treated mice survived with dramatically reduced brain inflammation including fewer degranulating IM and altered cytokine and chemokine profiles. Mesenteric lymph node cellularity was increased and IL-10 secreting ICOS+ CD73+ CD4+ T cells and CD73+ CD8+ T cells were induced by PSA treatment. Importantly, IL-10 deficient and Rag knockout mice were not protected, suggesting T/B cells derived IL-10 as the protective mechanism. Interestingly, B cells were required for PSA mediated protection. We infer that the microbiota augment immunity to HSV using pathways distinct from those required for protection in chronic autoimmunity models, and that probiotics in combination with antivirals might act synergistically to limit HSV induced inflammatory diseases.
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Anti-inflammatory activity of intravenous immunoglobulins protects against West Nile virus encephalitis. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:1347-1357. [PMID: 25667322 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), an important global human pathogen, targets neurons to cause lethal encephalitis, primarily in elderly and immunocompromised patients. Currently, there are no approved therapeutic agents or vaccines to treat WNV encephalitis. Recent studies have suggested that inflammation is a major contributor to WNV encephalitis morbidity. In this study we evaluated the use of IVIG (intravenous immunoglobulins - a clinical product comprising pooled human IgG) as an anti-inflammatory treatment in a model of lethal WNV infection. We report here that IVIG and pooled human WNV convalescent sera (WNV-IVIG) inhibited development of lethal WNV encephalitis by suppressing central nervous system (CNS) infiltration by CD45(high) leukocytes. Pathogenic Ly6C(high) CD11b(+) monocytes were the major infiltrating subset in the CNS of infected control mice, whereas IVIG profoundly reduced infiltration of these pathogenic Ly6C(high) monocytes into the CNS of infected mice. Interestingly, WNV-IVIG was more efficacious than IVIG in controlling CNS inflammation when mice were challenged with a high-dose inoculum (10(5) versus 10(4) p.f.u.) of WNV. Importantly, adsorption of WNV E-glycoprotein neutralizing antibodies did not abrogate IVIG protection, consistent with virus neutralization not being essential for IVIG protection. These findings confirmed the potent immunomodulatory activity of generic IVIG, and emphasized its potential as an effective immunotherapeutic drug for encephalitis and other virus induced inflammatory diseases.
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SIGN-R1 confers susceptibility to West Nile Virus encephalitis (P6036). THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.190.supp.49.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
DC-SIGN is a critical determinant of susceptibility to flaviviral infections. To study its role in immunity to West Nile Virus (WNV), we used mice that lacked the murine homolog SIGNR1. Following infection with a lethal dose of WNV, knockout (KO) but not wildtype (WT) mice were resistant to WNV; all WT mice succumbed by day 9 pi. CNS inflammation in WT and KO mice was similar. CD45high infiltrates in brains were similar at day 6-8 pi; macrophages and DCs were predominant in both KO and WT mice at day 6 pi but Ly6Chigh inflammatory macrophages was significantly increased in WT compared to KO brains (45% Vs 23%). T cell infiltrates were increased in WT compared to KO brains at day 8 pi, yet they did not protect. Analysis of T cell activation revealed increased CD62Llow CD44high effector CD4+ (40% Vs 10%) and CD8+T cells (35% Vs 5%) in the spleens of KO compared to WT mice. Enhanced T cell activation was supported by an increase in IFN-γ secreting T cells in the KO spleen. Higher levels of PD-1+ CD4+ and CD8+ T cells observed in WT compared to KO spleens possibly contributed to the reduced activation. Treatment of WT mice with a blocking mAb 22D1 and an RNA aptamer selected for binding to SIGNR1 that transiently reduces surface SIGNR1 expression significantly protected mice from mortality. These data suggest that SIGN-R1 plays an inhibitory role in activating WNV specific T cells and is a potential target for immunotherapeutic approaches for WNV and other flaviviral infections.
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Passively administered pooled human immunoglobulins exert IL-10 dependent anti-inflammatory effects that protect against fatal HSV encephalitis. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002071. [PMID: 21655109 PMCID: PMC3107211 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2010] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
HSV-1 is the leading cause of sporadic encephalitis in humans. HSV infection of susceptible 129S6 mice results in fatal encephalitis (HSE) caused by massive inflammatory brainstem lesions comprising monocytes and neutrophils. During infection with pathogenic microorganisms or autoimmune disease, IgGs induce proinflammatory responses and recruit innate effector cells. In contrast, high dose intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) are an effective treatment for various autoimmune and inflammatory diseases because of potent anti-inflammatory effects stemming in part from sialylated IgGs (sIgG) present at 1–3% in IVIG. We investigated the ability of IVIG to prevent fatal HSE when given 24 h post infection. We discovered a novel anti-inflammatory pathway mediated by low-dose IVIG that protected 129S6 mice from fatal HSE by modulating CNS inflammation independently of HSV specific antibodies or sIgG. IVIG suppressed CNS infiltration by pathogenic CD11b+ Ly6Chigh monocytes and inhibited their spontaneous degranulation in vitro. FcγRIIb expression was required for IVIG mediated suppression of CNS infiltration by CD45+ Ly6Clow monocytes but not for inhibiting development of Ly6Chigh monocytes. IVIG increased accumulation of T cells in the CNS, and the non-sIgG fraction induced a dramatic expansion of FoxP3+ CD4+ T regulatory cells (Tregs) and FoxP3− ICOS+ CD4+ T cells in peripheral lymphoid organs. Tregs purified from HSV infected IVIG treated, but not control, mice protected adoptively transferred mice from fatal HSE. IL-10, produced by the ICOS+ CD4+ T cells that accumulated in the CNS of IVIG treated, but not control mice, was essential for induction of protective anti-inflammatory responses. Our results significantly enhance understanding of IVIG's anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory capabilities by revealing a novel sIgG independent anti-inflammatory pathway responsible for induction of regulatory T cells that secrete the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 and further reveal the therapeutic potential of IVIG for treating viral induced inflammatory diseases. We show that fatal HSV encephalitis (HSE) is caused by excessive brainstem inflammation. Once brainstem inflammation is initiated, antiviral drugs that inhibit only viral replication are ineffective in protecting against fatal HSE. Infusion of high doses of pooled human IgG (IVIG) is an effective anti-inflammatory treatment for various autoimmune diseases. One anti-inflammatory mechanism depends on sialylated IgGs (sIgG) present in limiting amounts (1–3%) in IVIG, hence the need for high doses of IVIG. We discovered a novel anti-inflammatory pathway mediated by low doses of IVIG independent of sIgG that prevented fatal HSE by suppressing CNS inflammation. The non-sIgG fraction of IVIG induced regulatory CD4+ T cells that produced the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 in the brainstem. Importantly, we show that IL-10 is critical for suppressing the generation of pathogenic inflammatory macrophages. Thus, IVIG has a remarkable ability to balance the host inflammatory responses to virus infection and thereby promotes virus clearance without bystander damage to the CNS, accounting for survival of all infected mice. Overall, our results provide important new insights in understanding IVIG's anti-inflammatory activity and further reveal its potential for use in treatment of viral inflammatory diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Ly/metabolism
- Blood-Brain Barrier/immunology
- Brain Stem/pathology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Encephalitis, Herpes Simplex/immunology
- Encephalitis, Herpes Simplex/mortality
- Encephalitis, Herpes Simplex/prevention & control
- Encephalitis, Herpes Simplex/virology
- Flow Cytometry
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/immunology
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/pathogenicity
- Humans
- Immunoglobulins, Intravenous/administration & dosage
- Immunoglobulins, Intravenous/immunology
- Immunoglobulins, Intravenous/therapeutic use
- Immunologic Factors/therapeutic use
- Interleukin-10/administration & dosage
- Interleukin-10/immunology
- Interleukin-10/metabolism
- Leukocytes/immunology
- Macrophages/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Monocytes/immunology
- Neutrophils/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- Time Factors
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Anti inflammatory role of IFN gamma in a viral model of encephalitis (115.21). THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.186.supp.115.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
HSV1 induced encephalitis in susceptible mice such as 129 and BALB/c mice is characterized by CNS inflammation associated with pathogenic Ly6Chigh macrophages and neutrophils. Mortality in this model correlates with degranulation by these cells rather than virus mediated cytopathology. IVIG, composed of pooled human IgG protects these mice by induction of regulatory CD4 T cells including IL-10 secreting Tregs and Tr1 cells secreting IL-10 and IFNγ. Surprisingly, IFNγ has an anti-inflammatory role in this model as infection of IFNγKO mice results in severe early morbidity and mortality associated with unabated CNS inflammation by neutrophils and Ly6Chigh monocytes suggesting that IFNγ is critical in the control of expansion of these cells. Interestingly, IVIG cannot protect IFNγKO mice despite control of infectious virus but not CNS inflammation typified by the inflammatory Ly6Chigh macrophages, indicating that IFNγ is crucial to IVIG’s anti-inflammatory activities. Adoptive transfer of T cells subsets from either WT or IFNγKO mice into Rag recipients reinforced the importance of IFNγ on CNS inflammation. Furthermore, IFNγ appears to have a role in the IVIG induced expansion of Tregs while in the absence of IFNγ, there was an increase in γδ T cells secreting IL-17, which may contribute to the early unmitigated expansion of the neutrophils and monocytes. IFNγ related effects on CEACAM1a and iNOS on monocytes, on Tregs, and the cell subset that secretes IFNγ will be discussed.
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Anti-Inflammatory Activity of IVIG Protects Against HSV Encephalitis. (45.26). THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.184.supp.45.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Susceptible mouse strains like 129 mice develop HSV encephalitis (HSE) characterized by large focal inflammatory CNS lesions associated with massive accumulation of monocytes and neutrophils, resulting in rapid onset of death. In contrast, regulated CNS inflammatory responses protect resistant C57BL/6 mice against HSE. Disease progression was not affected by early inhibition of HSV replication consistent with immune mediated pathology and not virus cytopathology, causing death. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) possesses potent anti-inflammatory activities and is highly effective in treating various inflammatory diseases. We report here that IVIG protects against fatal HSE by inhibiting CNS inflammation through a mechanism(s) independent of HSV antibody. Both sialylated and non-sialylated but not deglycosylated IgGs mediated protection. IVIG treatment profoundly altered host immune responses, promoting lymphocytic rather than monocytic infiltration of the CNS accompanied by phenotypic alteration of macrophages and a dramatic expansion of CD4+ Tregs that accumulated in peripheral lymphoid organs. However the Tregs were not solely responsible for inhibiting inflammation. IL-10 secreted by APCs was primarily responsible for suppressing CNS inflammation. Despite controlling virus replication IVIG treated IL-10 deficient mice were unable to control CNS inflammation and succumbed eventually. In addition, FcγR2b was critical for IVIG’s immunomodulatory activity.
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Abstract
RNA interference is a powerful tool for target-specific knockdown of gene expression. The triggers for this process are duplex small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) of 21-25 nt with 2-bp 3' overhangs produced in cells by the RNase III family member Dicer. We have observed that short RNAs that are long enough to serve as Dicer substrates (D-siRNA) can often evoke more potent RNA interference than the corresponding 21-nt siRNAs; this is probably a consequence of the physical handoff of the Dicer-produced siRNAs to the RNA-induced silencing complex. Here we describe the design parameters for D-siRNAs and a protocol for in vitro and in vivo intraperitoneal delivery of D-siRNAs and siRNAs to macrophages. siRNA delivery and transfection and analysis of macrophages in vivo can be accomplished within 36 h.
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Effects of CXCR3 Signaling on Development of Fatal Encephalitis and Corneal and Periocular Skin Disease in HSV-Infected Mice Are Mouse-Strain Dependent. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 48:4162-70. [PMID: 17724202 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.07-0261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The host inflammatory response to ocular infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) can be either protective, with disease-free survival, or it can promote diseases such as HSV corneal disease (or herpes stromal keratitis [HSK] in humans) and encephalitis (HSE), depending on mouse strain. The role of CXCR3 chemokine signaling in HSV-induced central nervous system (CNS) inflammation and corneal disease was evaluated, and responses in genetically susceptible and resistant strains of mice were contrasted. METHODS Resistant C57BL/6J (B6) and susceptible 129S6 (129) mice were given monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to neutralize the CXCR3 ligands monokine induced by interferon-gamma (MIG, CXCL9) and interferon inducible protein-10 (IP-10, CXCL10) during HSV infection. In addition, the development of HSV disease was monitored in CXCR3-null mutant mice derived from resistant (B6) and susceptible (BALB/c) strains. Inflammatory cells infiltrating the cornea and brain stem were isolated and stained for flow cytometric analysis. RESULTS MIG and IP-10 were induced in nervous system tissue after HSV inoculation by the corneal route. HSV-infected 129 mice treated with MIG- or IP-10-neutralizing mAbs showed significantly enhanced survival compared with mice treated with control isotype antibody, whereas survival of the B6 mice was unaltered. Similarly, greater survival was observed for BALB.CXCR3(-/-) mice compared with control BALB/c mice. Reduced CNS inflammation was documented that extended to the cornea, such that HSV corneal disease severity was reduced in susceptible BALB.CXCR3(-/-). In contrast, although survival of B6 and B6.CXCR3(-/-) mice was indistinguishable, B6.CXCR3(-/-) mice developed more severe corneal and periocular skin disease. CONCLUSIONS The effects of CXCR3 signaling in HSV infection are strongly dependent on mouse strain.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Brain Stem/metabolism
- Chemokine CXCL10
- Chemokine CXCL9
- Chemokines, CXC/physiology
- Cornea/virology
- Disease Susceptibility
- Encephalitis, Herpes Simplex/genetics
- Encephalitis, Herpes Simplex/mortality
- Encephalitis, Herpes Simplex/physiopathology
- Flow Cytometry
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/physiology
- Immunity, Innate
- Keratitis, Herpetic/genetics
- Keratitis, Herpetic/mortality
- Keratitis, Herpetic/physiopathology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Receptors, CXCR3
- Receptors, Chemokine/physiology
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Signal Transduction/physiology
- Skin Diseases, Viral/genetics
- Skin Diseases, Viral/mortality
- Skin Diseases, Viral/physiopathology
- Trigeminal Ganglion/metabolism
- Up-Regulation
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Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) protects resistant C57BL/6 mice against herpes simplex virus-induced encephalitis independently of signaling via TNF receptor 1 or 2. J Virol 2006; 81:1451-60. [PMID: 17108044 PMCID: PMC1797509 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02243-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a multifunctional cytokine that has a role in induction and regulation of host innate and adaptive immune responses. The importance of TNF antiviral mechanisms is reflected by the diverse strategies adopted by different viruses, particularly members of the herpesvirus family, to block TNF responses. TNF binds and signals through two receptors, Tnfrsf1a (TNF receptor 1 [TNFR1], or p55) and Tnfrsf1b (TNFR2, or p75). We report here that herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection of TNF-/- mice on the resistant C57BL/6 genetic background results in significantly increased susceptibility (P < 0.0001, log rank test) to fatal HSV encephalitis (HSE) and prolonged persistence of elevated levels of virus in neural tissues. In contrast, although virus titers in neural tissues of p55-/- N13 mice were elevated to levels comparable to what was found for the TNF-/- mice, the p55-/- N13 mice were as resistant as control C57BL/6 mice (P > 0.05). The incidence of fatal HSE was significantly increased by in vivo neutralization of TNF using soluble TNFR1 (sTNFR1) or depletion of macrophages in C57BL/6 mice (P = 0.0038 and P = 0.0071, respectively). Strikingly, in vivo neutralization of TNF in HSV-1-infected p55-/- p75-/- mice by use of three independent approaches (treatment with soluble p55 receptor, anti-TNF monoclonal antibody, or in vivo small interfering RNA against TNF) resulted in significantly increased mortality rates (P = 0.005), comparable in magnitude to those for C57BL/6 mice treated with sTNFR1 (P = 0.0018). Overall, these results indicate that while TNF is required for resistance to fatal HSE, both p55 and p75 receptors are dispensable. Precisely how TNF mediates protection against HSV-1 mortality in p55-/- p75-/- mice remains to be determined.
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14
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Guest Editorial:Immunology of Herpesvirus Infections. Viral Immunol 2005. [DOI: 10.1089/vim.2005.18.408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Interferon induction by siRNAs and ssRNAs synthesized by phage polymerase. Nat Biotechnol 2004; 22:321-5. [PMID: 14990954 DOI: 10.1038/nbt940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 309] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2003] [Accepted: 12/11/2003] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Small interfering RNAs (siRNA) are potent reagents for directed post-transcriptional gene silencing and a major new genetic tool for investigating mammalian cells. When synthetic siRNAs are used for gene silencing, the costs can be substantial because of variations in siRNA efficacies. An alternative to chemically synthesized siRNAs are siRNAs produced by bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase. We found that siRNAs synthesized from the T7 RNA polymerase system can trigger a potent induction of interferon alpha and beta in a variety of cell lines. Surprisingly, we also found very potent induction of interferon alpha and beta by short single-stranded RNAs (ssRNAs) transcribed with T3, T7 and Sp6 RNA polymerases. Analyses of the potential mediators of this response revealed that the initiating 5' triphosphate is required for interferon induction. We describe here an improved method for T7 siRNA synthesis that alleviates the interferon response while maintaining full efficacy of the siRNAs.
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A locus on mouse chromosome 6 that determines resistance to herpes simplex virus also influences reactivation, while an unlinked locus augments resistance of female mice. J Virol 2003; 77:11661-73. [PMID: 14557652 PMCID: PMC229335 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.21.11661-11673.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During studies to determine a role for tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection using TNF receptor null mutant mice, we discovered a genetic locus, closely linked to the TNF p55 receptor (Tnfrsf1a) gene on mouse chromosome 6 (c6), that determines resistance or susceptibility to HSV-1. We named this locus the herpes resistance locus, Hrl, and showed that it also mediates resistance to HSV-2. Hrl has at least two alleles, Hrl(r), expressed by resistant strains like C57BL/6 (B6), and Hrl(s), expressed by susceptible strains like 129S6 (129) and BALB/c. Although Hrl is inherited as an autosomal dominant gene, resistance to HSV-1 is strongly sex biased such that female mice are significantly more resistant than male mice. Analysis of backcrosses between resistant B6 and susceptible 129 mice revealed that a second locus, tentatively named the sex modifier locus, Sml, functions to augment resistance of female mice. Besides determining resistance, Hrl is one of several genes involved in the control of HSV-1 replication in the eye and ganglion. Remarkably, Hrl also affects reactivation of HSV-1, possibly by interaction with some unknown gene(s). We showed that Hrl is distinct from Cmv1, the gene that determines resistance to murine cytomegalovirus, which is encoded in the major NK cell complex just distal of p55 on c6. Hrl has been mapped to a roughly 5-centimorgan interval on c6, and current efforts are focused on obtaining a high-resolution map for Hrl.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Chromosome Mapping
- Crosses, Genetic
- Ganglion Cysts/virology
- Genetic Linkage
- Herpes Genitalis/genetics
- Herpes Genitalis/mortality
- Herpes Simplex/genetics
- Herpes Simplex/mortality
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/immunology
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/pathogenicity
- Herpesvirus 2, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 2, Human/immunology
- Herpesvirus 2, Human/pathogenicity
- Immunity, Innate/genetics
- Macrophages, Peritoneal/virology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C/genetics
- Mice, Inbred C57BL/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I
- Sex Factors
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Abstract
Recently, prokaryotic DNAs containing unmethylated CpG motifs have been shown to be intrinsically immunostimulatory both in vitro and in vivo, tending to promote Th1-like responses. In contrast, CpG dinucleotides in mammalian DNAs are extensively methylated on cytosines and hence immunologically inert. Since the herpes simplex virus (HSV) genome is unmethylated and G+C rich, we predicted that CpG motifs would be highly prevalent in the HSV genome; hence, we examined the immunostimulatory potential of purified HSV DNA in vitro and in vivo. Mouse splenocyte cultures treated with HSV DNA or HSV-derived oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) showed strong proliferative responses and production of inflammatory cytokines (gamma interferon [IFN-gamma], tumor necrosis factor [TNF], and interleukin-6 [IL-6]) in vitro, whereas splenocytes treated with mammalian CV-1 DNA or non-CpG ODN did not. After immunization with ovalbumin (OVA), only splenocytes from mice immunized with HSV DNA or HSV-ODN as the adjuvants proliferated strongly and produced typical Th1 responses, including CD8(+) cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses, upon restimulation with OVA. Furthermore, HSV-ODN synergized with IFN-gamma to induce nitric oxide (NO), IL-6, and TNF production from macrophages. These results demonstrate that HSV DNA and HSV-ODN are immunostimulatory, driving potent Th1 responses both in vitro and in vivo. Considering that HSV DNA has been found to persist in nonneuronal cells, these results fuel speculation that HSV DNA might play a role in pathogenesis, in particular, in diseases like herpes stromal keratitis (HSK) that involve chronic inflammatory responses in the absence of virus or viral antigens.
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Abstract
Corneal infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) leads to the recruitment of immune cells to the eye itself, the trigeminal ganglion and the brainstem. In addition, some resident cells in these target tissues are infected by HSV, activated during the inflammatory response or both. Chemokine signaling is an important component of the regulatory circuit governing the host immune response to virus infection. This review discusses chemokine responses in relation to HSV infection of the cornea emphasizing the role of CXCR3 chemokine signaling by the IFN-gamma inducible ligands MIG, IP10 and I-TAC and includes discussion of their potential role in immunopathology in the nervous system.
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Abstract
Gender influences the incidence and severity of some bacterial and viral infections and autoimmune diseases in animal models and humans. To determine a gender-based difference, comparisons were made between male and female mice inoculated with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) by the corneal route. Mortality was higher in the male mice of the three strains tested: 129/Sv//Ev wild type, gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) knockout (GKO), and IFN-gamma receptor knockout (RGKO). Similarly, in vivo HSV-1 reactivation occurred more commonly in male mice, but the male-female difference in reactivation was restricted to the two knockout strains and was not seen in the 129/Sv//Ev control. Comparison among male mice of the three strains showed a higher mortality of the RGKO mice and a higher reactivation rate of the GKO and RGKO mice than of the 129/Sv//Ev males. In contrast, female RGKO and GKO mice did not differ from female 129/Sv//Ev controls in either mortality or reactivation. HSV-1 periocular and eyelid disease was also more severe in male and dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-treated female mice than in control female mice. These results show a consistent gender difference in HSV-1 infection, with a worse outcome in male mice. In addition, the results comparing GKO and RGKO mice to controls show differences only in male mice, suggesting that some effects of IFN-gamma, a key immunoregulatory molecule, are gender specific.
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Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) receptor null-mutant mice are more susceptible to herpes simplex virus type 1 infection than IFN-gamma ligand null-mutant mice. J Virol 1999; 73:5196-200. [PMID: 10233988 PMCID: PMC112570 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.73.6.5196-5200.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/1998] [Accepted: 02/22/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse strains with null mutations in the gamma interferon gene (Ifng) or the gamma interferon receptor gene (Ifngr) have been engineered. The use of these strains as animal models of viral and bacterial infections has enhanced our understanding of the role of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) in the host immune response. However, direct comparisons between Ifng-/- (GKO) and Ifngr-/- (RGKO) mice have been problematic because previously available strains of these mice have had different genetic backgrounds (i.e., C57BL/6 and BALB/c for GKO mice and 129/Sv//Ev for RGKO mice). To enable direct comparison of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infections in GKO and RGKO mice, we introduced the IFN-gamma null mutation into the 129/Sv//Ev background. We report that, after HSV-1 inoculation, mortality was significantly greater in RGKO mice than in GKO mice (38 versus 23%, P = 0.0001). Similarly, the mortality from vaccinia virus challenge was significantly greater in RGKO mice than in GKO mice. With differences in genetic background excluded as a confounding issue, these results are consistent with the existence of an alternative ligand(s) for the IFN-gamma receptor that is also capable of mediating protection against viral challenge.
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Genetic Variation Among 129 Substrains: Practical Consequences. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 1999. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.162.10.6294.b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Genetic variation among 129 substrains: practical consequences. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 1999; 162:6294-5. [PMID: 10375305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
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Abstract
Observation of chronic inflammatory cells and associated high-level gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production in ganglia during herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) latent infection in mice (E. M. Cantin, D. R. Hinton, J. Chen, and H. Openshaw, J. Virol. 69:4898-4905, 1995) prompted studies to determine a role of IFN-gamma in maintaining latency. Mice lacking IFN-gamma (GKO mice) or the IFN-gamma receptor (RGKO mice) were inoculated with HSV-1, and the course of the infection was compared with that in IFN-gamma-competent mice with the same genetic background (129/Sv//Ev mice). A time course study showed no significant difference in trigeminal ganglionic viral titers or the timing of establishment of latency. Spontaneous reactivation resulting in infectious virus in the ganglion did not occur during latency in any of the mice. However, 24 h after the application of hyperthermic stress to mice, HSV-1 antigens were detected in multiple neurons in the null mutant mice but in only a single neuron in the 129/Sv//Ev control mice. Mononuclear inflammatory cells clustered tightly around these reactivating neurons, and by 48 h, immunostaining was present in satellite cells as well. The incidence of hyperthermia-induced reactivation as determined by recovery of infectious virus from ganglia was significantly higher in the null mutant than in control mice: 11% in 129/Sv//Ev controls, 50% in GKO mice (P = 0.0002), and 33% in RGKO mice (P = 0.03). We concluded that IFN-gamma is not involved in the induction of reactivation but rather contributes to rapid suppression of HSV once it is reactivated.
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Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1) establishes latent infections in neural tissues of humans and experimental animals. Utilizing a sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay we detected HSV DNA sequences in blood cells of healthy prospective bone marrow transplant (BMT) donors and patients. In three healthy individuals studied, HSV DNA sequences were found in all blood cell types and also in bone marrow cells as well as in stem cell progenitor colonies isolated from in vitro cultures. Studies of BMT donor-recipient pairs suggested that HSV reactivation may occur in hematopoietic cells after transplantation, as the PCR signal intensity increased over time simultaneous with an increased antibody titer to HSV. In a mouse model for HSV infection, HSV DNA sequences were found in blood and bone marrow cells at the latent stage of infection, after intravenous (IV) inoculation, but not after ocular inoculation. These studies suggest that bone marrow cells may be an additional site of HSV latency capable of reactivation after BMT. These studies have broad implications for understanding pathogenesis of HSV disease and are of particular significance in situations where allogeneic bone marrow cells are given therapeutically.
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Persistence of herpes simplex virus DNA in rabbit corneal cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1992; 33:2470-5. [PMID: 1321797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Corneal cell cultures were established from the corneas of rabbits killed during a period of latency 118 d after ocular infection with the RE strain of herpes simplex virus (HSV). DNA was isolated from frozen cell pellets of 42 cell cultures that did not develop viral cytopathic effects during 44 d in culture. Using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify HSV thymidine kinase (TK) gene sequences, HSV-specific DNA was detected in 15 of 42 culture-negative cell cultures. Subsequent reamplification, using nested primers that were complementary to HSV TK sequences internal to the orginal primers, resulted in eight additional culture-negative samples showing positive hybridization for HSV TK DNA. Twenty three of the 42 virus culture-negative corneal cell cultures tested by PCR were found to contain HSV genetic material. Detailed examination of the clinical histories of the eyes from which the corneal cultures were obtained showed no correlation between increased frequency or severity of epithelial disease, stromal disease, or virus shedding and more frequent isolation of virus or detection of HSV-specific DNA. These studies document that HSV DNA residues in the corneas of HSV-infected rabbits up to 118 d post-infection. About 10% of the eyes contained virus that could be reactivated in culture, whereas an additional 55% of the eyes contained DNA sequences homologous to a portion of the HSV TK gene.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Cornea/microbiology
- Cornea/pathology
- Corneal Stroma/microbiology
- Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral
- DNA, Viral/isolation & purification
- Electrophoresis, Agar Gel
- Epithelium/microbiology
- Epithelium/pathology
- Eye Infections, Viral/drug therapy
- Eye Infections, Viral/microbiology
- Eye Infections, Viral/pathology
- Keratitis, Herpetic/drug therapy
- Keratitis, Herpetic/microbiology
- Keratitis, Herpetic/pathology
- Neutralization Tests
- Oligonucleotide Probes
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Rabbits
- Simplexvirus/enzymology
- Simplexvirus/growth & development
- Simplexvirus/isolation & purification
- Thymidine Kinase/genetics
- Trifluridine/therapeutic use
- Virus Activation
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Evaluation of antiviral immunity using vaccinia virus recombinants expressing cloned genes for herpes simplex virus type 1 glycoproteins. J Gen Virol 1989; 70 ( Pt 6):1359-70. [PMID: 2543783 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-70-6-1359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunization of mice with vaccinia virus recombinants expressing the glycoproteins B or D of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) induced humoral antibody as well as multiple aspects of HSV-1-specific T lymphocyte-mediated responses. However, vaccinated mice were not completely resistant to HSV-1 challenge and were unable to eliminate an epithelial infection rapidly. Evidence is presented which indicates that immunization with either vaccinia virus recombinant, while inducing the necessary protective populations of CD4+ T lymphocytes, fails to induce the complementing CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes necessary for high levels of protection against a primary HSV-1 infection. These findings are discussed with relevance to the future development of anti-HSV vaccines.
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Abstract
We have used recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing the cloned genes coding for glycoprotein B (gB) or glycoprotein D (gD) of HSV-1 to analyze the role of HSV-1--specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) in antiviral immunity. Various studies in mice revealed that either vector could stimulate some aspects of HSV-1--specific immunity, but surprisingly, HSV-specific CTL were not induced. Even though gD appeared to be a target antigen for class II-MHC-restricted CTL, neither the gB or the gD vector was capable of forming a target-cell complex that was recognized by class I-MHC-restricted HSV-specific CTL. The inability of these major extracellular glycoproteins to act as CTL-target antigens was even more unusual in light of the ability of CTL to apparently recognize the immediate early genes of HSV, none of which are considered to be expressed on the surface of infected cells. The selective failure of either the gB or gD vector to induce numerous aspect of anti-HSV immunity in the absence of a CTL response allowed us to assess the consequence of this failure in terms of the level of protective immunity against HSV challenge seen in vector-immunized mice. These studies suggest that this failure to induce HSV-specific CTL appears to minimize the protective response to only efficiently protecting against low-challenge doses of HSV-1. These findings are discussed with relevance to the role of CTL in the control of herpesvirus infections.
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