The cyanobacterial toxin microcystin binds covalently to cysteine-273 on protein phosphatase 1

Covalent glutathione conjugation to cyanobacterial hepatotoxin microcystin LR by F344 rat cytosolic and microsomal glutathione S-transferases

Most investigators report that microcystins (MCs) bound covalently to SH compounds, such as L-cysteine and reduced glutathione (GSH). However, their studies were based on a high pH condition. In the present study, we investigated the reaction between microcystin LR (MCLR) and GSH in various pH conditions. As a result, we found that no MCLR conjugated with GSH in these conditions, and MCLR mixed with GSH showed different peaks of retention time compared with intact MCLR on the high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) chromatograms. Furthermore, we found the GSH conjugate of MCLR was detected in the glutathione S-transferase (GST) assay using F344 rat liver cytosol and microsomes. This indicates that the covalent GSH conjugation was caused only by an enzymatic activity. We conclude, therefore, that the reaction is caused by enzymatic action and is not due to the Michael reaction.

Direct analysis of microcystins by microbore liquid chromatography electrospray ionization ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry

Microcystins are a group of structurally similar cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxins and tumor promoters, produced by cyanobacteria. A microbore liquid chromatography electrospray ionization ion-trap mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-ITMS) method has been developed which is capable of separating and detecting trace amounts of microcystin variants in environmental samples. Extracted water sample was loaded onto a LC trapping column and, using a column switching technique, the compounds of interest were back-flushed onto a 1-mm LC column. Structural elucidation was achieved using ion-trap with tandem mass spectrometry in the data dependent scan mode. Collision-induced dissociation to MS3 allowed tentative identification of these cyclic peptides. Full-scan LC-ESI-MS mass spectrum was obtained when 250 pg of the authentic compound was injected onto the HPLC column, which represents the detection limit for microcystin-LR. This study demonstrated that LC-ESI-ITMS is a reliable and sensitive technique for analysing trace levels of microcystins.

NIMA-related kinase 2 (Nek2), a cell-cycle-regulated protein kinase localized to centrosomes, is complexed to protein phosphatase 1

The cell cycle-regulated protein serine/threonine NIMA-related kinase 2 (Nek2), which shows a predominant localization at centrosomes, is identified as a protein which interacts with protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) using the yeast two-hybrid system. Complex formation between Nek2 and PP1 is supported by co-precipitation of the two proteins using transfected expression constructs of Nek2 and the endogenous Nek2/PP1 proteins. The sequence KVHF in the C-terminal region of Nek2, which conforms to the consensus PP1-binding motif, is shown to be essential for the interaction of Nek2 with PP1. Nek2 activity increases with autophosphorylation and addition of phosphatase inhibitors and decreases in the presence of PP1. PP1 is a substrate for Nek2 and phosphorylation of PP1gamma(1) on two C-terminal sites reduces its phosphatase activity. The presence of a ternary complex containing centrosomal Nek2-associated protein (C-Nap1), Nek2 and PP1 has also been demonstrated, and C-Nap1 is shown to be a substrate for both Nek2 and PP1 in vitro and in cell extracts. The implications of kinase-phosphatase complex formation involving Nek2 and PP1 are discussed in terms of the coordination of centrosome separation with cell cycle progression.

Monitoring of microcystin-protein phosphatase adduct formation with immunochemical methods

Using anti-microcystin-LR monoclonal antibodies, an immunoblotting procedure was developed to monitor the formation of microcystin-protein phosphatase adducts in vitro and in vivo. The detection limits for the covalent binding of MCYST-LR with the recombinant protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) and rabbit liver cytosol proteins were found to be 0.1 ng and 0.3 ng per assay, respectively. MCYST-PP1 adducts were detected 30 s after the addition of MCYST-LR into the reaction mixture. Reduction of the methyldehydroalanine (Mdha) residue of MCYST-LR with ethanethiol totally abolished the covalent binding of the toxin to PP1, but retained its inhibitory toxicity on PP1. Immunoblotting analyses and enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay showed that between 5 min to 16 h after i.p. injection of single dose (35 microg/kg) of MCYST-LR into mice, approximately 0-27% of the injected toxin was found covalently bound while 0.2-9.2% existed as free form in liver cytosol.

Mutation of the toxin binding site of PP-1c: comparison with PP-2B

The catalytic cores of PP-1c and PP-2B (calcineurin) are structurally conserved. However, PP-2B is resistant to inhibition by toxins of the okadaic acid and cyclic peptide classes, while PP-1c is potently inhibited. Molecular docking of the structure of microcystin-LR onto the catalytic core of PP-2B identified residues that may be responsible for blocking access of toxins to the catalytic site. Amino acids in PP-1c were substituted with these PP-2B residues to investigate their contribution to PP-2B toxin resistance. Mutants of PP-1c were also produced to test the importance of hydrophobic interactions to toxin binding. Our results suggest that different classes of toxin inhibitors interact with the same hydrophobic side chains of PP-1c through different mechanisms. Substitution of amino acids in PP-1c with PP-2B residues demonstrated no highly significant changes in toxin inhibition. We hypothesize that an interaction outside the catalytic core causing the L7 loop of PP-2B to block the catalytic site may be responsible for PP-2B resistance to toxins.

Structure-based thermodynamic analysis of the dissociation of protein phosphatase-1 catalytic subunit and microcystin-LR docked complexes

The relationship between the structure of a free ligand in solution and the structure of its bound form in a complex is of great importance to the understanding of the energetics and mechanism of molecular recognition and complex formation. In this study, we use a structure-based thermodynamic approach to study the dissociation of the complex between the toxin microcystin-LR (MLR) and the catalytic domain of protein phosphatase-1 (PP-1c) for which the crystal structure of the complex is known. We have calculated the thermodynamic parameters (enthalpy, entropy, heat capacity, and free energy) for the dissociation of the complex from its X-ray structure and found the calculated dissociation constant (4.0 x 10(-11)) to be in excellent agreement with the reported inhibitory constant (3.9 x 10(-11)). We have also calculated the thermodynamic parameters for the dissociation of 47 PP-1c:MLR complexes generated by docking an ensemble of NMR solution structures of MLR onto the crystal structure of PP-1c. In general, we observe that the lower the root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) of the docked complex (compared to the X-ray complex) the closer its free energy of dissociation (deltaGd(o)) is to that calculated from the X-ray complex. On the other hand, we note a significant scatter between the deltaGd(o) and the RMSD of the docked complexes. We have identified a group of seven docked complexes with deltaGd(o) values very close to the one calculated from the X-ray complex but with significantly dissimilar structures. The analysis of the corresponding enthalpy and entropy of dissociation shows a compensation effect suggesting that MLR molecules with significant structural variability can bind PP-1c and that substantial conformational flexibility in the PP-1c:MLR complex may exist in solution.

Effects of serine/threonine protein phosphatases on ion channels in excitable membranes

This review deals with the influence of serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatases on the function of ion channels in the plasma membrane of excitable tissues. Particular focus is given to developments of the past decade. Most of the electrophysiological experiments have been performed with protein phosphatase inhibitors. Therefore, a synopsis is required incorporating issues from biochemistry, pharmacology, and electrophysiology. First, we summarize the structural and biochemical properties of protein phosphatase (types 1, 2A, 2B, 2C, and 3-7) catalytic subunits and their regulatory subunits. Then the available pharmacological tools (protein inhibitors, nonprotein inhibitors, and activators) are introduced. The use of these inhibitors is discussed based on their biochemical selectivity and a number of methodological caveats. The next section reviews the effects of these tools on various classes of ion channels (i.e., voltage-gated Ca(2+) and Na(+) channels, various K(+) channels, ligand-gated channels, and anion channels). We delineate in which cases a direct interaction between a protein phosphatase and a given channel has been proven and where a more complex regulation is likely involved. Finally, we present ideas for future research and possible pathophysiological implications.

Protein phosphatases PP1 and PP2A are located in distinct positions in the Chlamydomonas flagellar axoneme

We postulated that microcystin-sensitive protein phosphatases are integral components of the Chlamydomonas flagellar axoneme, positioned to regulate inner arm dynein activity. To test this, we took a direct biochemical approach. Microcystin-Sepharose affinity purification revealed a prominent 35-kDa axonemal protein, predicted to be the catalytic subunit of type-1 protein phosphatase (PP1c). We cloned the Chlamydomonas PP1c and produced specific polyclonal peptide antibodies. Based on western blot analysis, the 35-kDa PP1c is anchored in the axoneme. Moreover, analysis of flagella and axonemes from mutant strains revealed that PP1c is primarily, but not exclusively, anchored in the central pair apparatus, associated with the C1 microtubule. Thus, PP1 is part of the central pair mechanism that controls flagellar motility. Two additional axonemal proteins of 62 and 37 kDa were also isolated using microcystin-Sepharose affinity. Based on direct peptide sequence and western blots, these proteins are the A- and C-subunits of type 2A protein phosphatase (PP2A). The axonemal PP2A is not one of the previously identified components of the central pair apparatus, outer arm dynein, inner arm dynein, dynein regulatory complex or the radial spokes. We postulate PP2A is anchored on the doublet microtubules, possibly in position to directly control inner arm dynein activity.

Binding of select forms of pRB to protein phosphatase type 1 independent of catalytic activity

The product of the retinoblastoma susceptibility gene, pRB, is a demonstrated substrate for the type 1 serine/threonine protein phosphatases (PP1). Curiously, there has been a paucity of data supporting the idea that phosphorylated pRB can be found in a complex with PP1. To more fully characterize the association between these two proteins, we utilized a PP1-affinity chromatography approach to increase our ability to capture from mammalian cell lysate populations of pRB capable of binding to PP1. Western blot analysis of the bound proteins indicates that both faster migrating, hypophosphorylated pRB, as well as slower migrating, hyperphosphorylated pRB can bind. Phosphorylated pRB binding was confirmed by immunoprecipitation of eluted 32P-labeled pRB. In addition, Western blotting of eluted proteins with pRB phosphorylated-site-specific antibodies revealed select phosphorylated forms of pRB binding to PP1. Similar binding studies performed with toxin-inhibited PP1 indicate that catalytic activity of PP1 is not required for pRB binding. The significance of this finding with respect to the functional importance of this interaction is discussed.

2-Carboxymethylendothal analogues as affinity probes for stabilized protein phosphatase 2A

Endothal (1diacid) and [3H]cantharidic acid ([3H]CA) bind with high affinity to the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). PP2A in liver cytosol was greatly stabilized with 30% glycerol as a preliminary step in the potential use of endothal-type derivatives for affinity chromatography. We report here the first introduction of a functionalizable group into endothal which allows retention of binding site affinity (assayed as [3H]CA binding in mouse liver cytosol). 2-Carboxymethylendothal anhydride (7) was prepared in two steps and 97% overall yield from cis-aconitic anhydride and furan. The potency of 7 was retained on conversion to two 2-carboxymethyl esters but not to two 2-(n-alkylcarboxamidomethyl) analogues.

Biosynthetic origin of syringomycin and syringopeptin 22, toxic secondary metabolites of the phytopathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae

The biosynthesis of syringomycin (SR) and syringopeptin 22 (SP22), bioactive lipodepsipeptides of the phytopathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, was studied by feeding (14)C-labeled precursors to chloramphenicol-containing bacterial suspensions. The preferential sites of incorporation were determined by comparing the specific activities of the intact radiolabeled metabolites and their single structural elements, obtained by hydrolytic degradation followed by derivatization and isolation by high performance liquid chromatography. The results show that, upon feeding L-[(14)C(U)]-Thr, 35.0 and 31.0% of the SR radioactivity is retained in 2,3-dehydro-2-aminobutyric acid (Dhb) and 4-chlorothreonine (Thr(4-Cl)), respectively. L-[(14)C(U)]-Asp labels the same sites, though less efficiently, and is also incorporated in 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (Dab) and 3-hydroxyaspartic acid (Asp(3-OH)). Dhb is also labeled by Thr and Asp in SP22. These are the first data on the biosynthetic origin of the modified residues in P. syringae lipopeptides.

Hepatic toxicity and persistence of ser/thr protein phosphatase inhibition by microcystin in the little skate Raja erinacea

Microcystin-induced ser/thr protein phosphatase (PP) inhibition and toxicity were examined in the little skate (Raja erinacea), an evolutionarily primitive marine vertebrate. As in mammals, PP inhibition and toxicity were exclusively hepatocellular, but were much more persistent in the skate. A dose of 63 microg/kg given iv to adult male skates resulted in the near complete inhibition of hepatic PP activity at 24 h. PP activity was still 95% inhibited 7 days after dosing in skates given 125 microg/kg microcystin. Mortality occurred at doses of 500 microg/kg or more. Hepatic lesions were only seen in animals with fully inhibited PP activity in liver. The histological changes seen at 125 microg/kg were mild periportal inflammatory changes increasing in severity together with hepatocyte necrosis at higher doses of microcystin. Microcystin persisted and could be detected in plasma up to 7 days after dosing. This finding shows that, in the skate, as in mammals, the liver is the only organ capable of uptake of microcystin, since there was no significant inhibition of PP activity in the rectal gland and small decreases in PP activity of the kidney that were not time or dose dependent. In vitro microcystin caused dose-dependent inhibition of PP activity in isolated skate hepatocytes, while it was without effect in cultured rectal glands. Uptake of microcystin and the accompanying inhibition of PP activity in skate hepatocytes was prevented by the addition of a series of organic dyes and bile acids. The spectrum of inhibitors of microcystin uptake in skate is similar to that seen in the rat, indicating common features of the carrier(s) in these diverse species.

Control of the terminal step of intracellular membrane fusion by protein phosphatase 1

Intracellular membrane fusion is crucial for the biogenesis and maintenance of cellular compartments, for vesicular traffic between them, and for exo- and endocytosis. Parts of the molecular machinery underlying this process have been identified, but most of these components operate in mutual recognition of the membranes. Here it is shown that protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) is essential for bilayer mixing, the last step of membrane fusion. PP1 was also identified in a complex that contained calmodulin, the second known factor implicated in the regulation of bilayer mixing. The PP1-calmodulin complex was required at multiple sites of intracellular trafficking; hence, PP1 may be a general factor controlling membrane bilayer mixing.

Identification of MYPT1 and NIPP1 as subunits of protein phosphatase 1 in rat liver cytosol

Various studies have provided evidence for the existence of spontaneously active cytosolic species of protein phosphatase 1, but these enzymes have never been purified and characterized. We have used chromatography on microcystin-Sepharose and Resource Q to purify cytosolic protein phosphatases from rat liver. Two of the isolated enzymes were identified by Western analysis and peptide sequencing as complexes of the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 1 and either the inhibitor NIPP1 or the myosin-binding subunit MYPT1, which reportedly is not present in chicken liver. In contrast, PCR cloning revealed the expression of two MYPT1 splice variants in rat liver.

Ca2+-independent phosphorylation of myosin in rat caudal artery and chicken gizzard myofilaments

1. Smooth muscle contraction is activated primarily by the Ca2+-calmodulin (CaM)-dependent phosphorylation of the 20 kDa light chains (LC20) of myosin. Activation can also occur in some instances without a change in intracellular free [Ca2+] or indeed in a Ca2+-independent manner. These signalling pathways often involve inhibition of myosin light chain phosphatase and unmasking of basal kinase activity leading to LC20 phosphorylation and contraction. 2. We have used demembranated rat caudal arterial smooth muscle strips and isolated chicken gizzard myofilaments in conjunction with the phosphatase inhibitor microcystin-LR to investigate the mechanism of Ca2+-independent phosphorylation of LC20 and contraction. 3. Treatment of Triton X-100-demembranated rat caudal arterial smooth muscle strips with microcystin at pCa 9 triggered a concentration-dependent contraction that was slower than that induced by pCa 4.5 or 6 but reached comparable steady-state levels of tension. 4. This Ca2+-independent, microcystin-induced contraction correlated with phosphorylation of LC20 at serine-19 and threonine-18. 5. Whereas Ca2+-dependent LC20 phosphorylation and contraction were inhibited by a synthetic peptide (AV25) based on the autoinhibitory domain of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), Ca2+-independent, microcystin-induced LC20 phosphorylation and contraction were resistant to AV25. 6. Ca2+-independent LC20 kinase activity was also detected in chicken gizzard smooth muscle myofilaments and catalysed phosphorylation of endogenous myosin LC20 at serine-19 and/or threonine-18. This is in contrast to MLCK which phosphorylates threonine-18 only after prior phosphorylation of serine-19. 7. Gizzard Ca2+-independent LC20 kinase could be separated from MLCK by differential extraction from myofilaments and by CaM affinity chromatography. Its activity was resistant to AV25. 8. We conclude that inhibition of smooth muscle myosin light chain phosphatase (MLCP) unmasks the activity of a Ca2+-independent LC20 kinase associated with the myofilaments and distinct from MLCK. This kinase, therefore, probably plays a role in Ca2+ sensitization and Ca2+-independent contraction of smooth muscle in response to stimuli that act via Ca2+-independent pathways, leading to inhibition of MLCP.

NH2-terminal fragments of the 130 kDa subunit of myosin phosphatase increase the Ca2+ sensitivity of porcine renal artery

1. The effects of the NH2-terminal fragments of M130, a 130 kDa regulatory subunit of smooth muscle myosin phosphatase, on contraction and myosin light chain phosphorylation were investigated in Triton X-100-permeabilized porcine renal artery. 2. Incubation of the permeabilized fibres with M1301-633 (a fragment containing amino acid residues 1-633) or M13044-633 enhanced the Ca2+-induced contraction and shifted the [Ca2+]i-force relationship to the left (EC50 of Ca2+: 330 nM, control, without fragment; 145 nM, M1301-633; 163 nM, M13044-633). Pre-incubation for 1-3 h was needed for these long constructs. 3. M1301-374, M130304-511 and M130297-374, i.e. relatively short constructs compared with M1301-633 and M13044-633, also induced leftward shifts of the [Ca2+]i-force relationship (EC50 of Ca2+: 65 nM, 72 nM and 180 nM, respectively). However, these required no pre-incubation. 4. Deletion of residues 304-374 from the most potent construct, M1301-374, abolished the Ca2+-sensitizing effect. 5. Wortmannin inhibited the enhancement of contraction induced by M130 fragments when added before contraction was initiated and partially inhibited the effects when added after steady-state contraction. 6. M1301-374 slowed the rate of relaxation in Ca2+-free medium. The time for 50 % relaxation with this fragment was 510 +/- 51 s, compared with 274 +/- 14 s for control. 7. The levels of myosin light chain phosphorylation (22.4 %) and force (34. 5 %) obtained with 300 nM Ca2+ were increased by 3 microM M1301-374 to 35.7 and 92.2 %, respectively. However, M1301-374 had no effect on the phosphorylation-force relationship. 8. In conclusion, the NH2-terminal M130 fragments containing residues 304-374 inhibited myosin phosphatase, increased myosin light chain phosphorylation and increased the Ca2+ sensitivity of the contractile apparatus in permeabilized porcine renal artery.

Effects of microcystins on phosphorylase-a binding to phosphatase-2A: kinetic analysis by surface plasmon resonance biosensor

Cyclic heptapeptide microcystins are a group of hepatoxicants which exert the cytotoxic effects by inhibiting the catalytic activities of phosphatase-2A (PP-2A) and phosphatase-1 (PP-1) and thus disrupt the normal signal transduction pathways. Microcystins interact with PP-2A and PP-1 by a two-step mechanism involving rapid binding and inactivation of protein phosphatase catalytic subunit, followed by a slower covalent interaction. It was proposed that inactivation of PP-2A/PP-1 catalytic activity by microcystins precedes covalent adduct formation. In this study, we used a biosensor based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to examine the effects of three microcystins, MCLR, MCRR and MCYR, on the binding between PP-2A and its substrate, phosphorylase-a (PL-a), during the first step of the interaction. The SPR biosensor provides real-time information on the association and dissociation kinetics of PL-a with immobilized PP-2A in the absence and presence of microcystins. It was found that the affinity of PL-a to microcystin-bound PP-2A was four times smaller compared to unbound PP-2A, due to 50% decreases in the association rates and two-fold increases in dissociation rates of PL-a binding to PP-2A. The results suggest that the rapid binding of microcystins to the PP-2A catalytic site leads to the formation of a noncovalent microcystin/PP-2A adduct. While the adduct formation fully inhibits the catalytic activity of PP-2A, it only results in partial inhibition of the substrate binding. The similar effects of the three microcystins on PP-2A suggest that the toxins bind to PP-2A at the same site and cause similar conformational changes. The present work also demonstrates the potential application of biosensor technology in environmental toxicological research.

The Croonian Lecture 1998. Identification of a protein kinase cascade of major importance in insulin signal transduction

Diabetes affects 3% of the European population and 140 million people worldwide, and is largely a disease of insulin resistance in which the tissues fail to respond to this hormone. This emphasizes the importance of understanding how insulin signals to the cell's interior. We have recently dissected a protein kinase cascade that is triggered by the formation of the insulin 'second messenger' phosphatidylinositide (3,4,5) trisphosphate (PtdIns (3,4,5)P3) and which appears to mediate many of the metabolic actions of this hormone. The first enzyme in the cascade is termed 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase-1 (PDK1), because it only activates protein kinase B (PKB), the next enzyme in the pathway, in the presence of PtdIns (3,4,5)P3. PKB then inactivates glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3). PDK1, PKB and GSK3 regulate many physiological events by phosphorylating a variety of intracellular proteins. In addition, PKB plays an important role in mediating protection against apoptosis by survival factors, such as insulin-like growth factor-1.

Nuclear organisation of NIPP1, a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 1 that associates with pre-mRNA splicing factors

Protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) is complexed to many proteins that target it to particular subcellular locations and regulate its activity. Here, we show that ‘nuclear inhibitor of PP1’ (NIPP1), a major nuclear PP1-binding protein, shows a speckled nucleoplasmic distribution where it is colocalised with pre-mRNA splicing factors. One of these factors (Sm) is also shown to be complexed to NIPP1 in nuclear extracts. Immunodepletion of NIPP1 from nuclear extracts, or addition of a ‘dominant negative’ mutant lacking a functional PP1 binding site, greatly reduces pre-mRNA splicing activity in vitro. These findings implicate the NIPP1-PP1 complex in the control of pre-mRNA splicing.

Rapid identification of the new anabaenopeptin G from Planktothrix agardhii HUB 011 using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Toxic water blooms from cyanobacteria in lakes and rivers are a worldwide phenomenon. A new technique is presented for the rapid detection of toxic and nontoxic blooms. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOFMS) was employed to identify mainly peptide metabolites (microcystins, anabaenopeptins, cyanopeptolins, microviridins, microginins and aeruginosins) from microgram quantities of prepared cells within minutes. The spectra show the presence of peptides in strains or water blooms simultaneously. A new compound has been identified using the post source decay (PSD) and collision induced dissociation (CID) mode. This new compound has been defined as anabaenoeptin G. The potential of the method for screening of various secondary metabolite producers for defined products including antibiotics is discussed.

Identification of the separate domains in the hepatic glycogen-targeting subunit of protein phosphatase 1 that interact with phosphorylase a, glycogen and protein phosphatase 1

Deletion and mutational analyses of the rat liver glycogen-targeting subunit (GL) of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) have identified three separate domains that are responsible for binding of PP1, glycogen and phosphorylase a. The glycogen-binding domain spans the centre of GL between residues 144 and 231 and appears to be distinct from the glycogen-binding (storage) site of phosphorylase. The regulatory high-affinity binding site for phosphorylase a lies in the 16 amino acids at the C-terminus of GL. The PP1-binding domain is deduced to comprise the -RVXF- motif [Egloff, Johnson, Moorhead, Cohen and Barford (1997) EMBO J. 16, 1876-1887] located at residues 61-64 of GL and preceding lysine residues at positions 56, 57 and 59. A possible approach for increasing glycogen synthesis in certain disorders is discussed.

Identification of an enzymatically formed glutathione conjugate of the cyanobacterial hepatotoxin microcystin-LR: the first step of detoxication

Cyanobacterial toxins have adverse effects on mammals, birds and fish and are being increasingly recognised as a potent stress factor and health hazard factor in aquatic ecosystems. Microcystins, cyclic heptapeptides and a main group of the cyanotoxins are mainly retained within the producer cells during cyanobacterial bloom development. However, these toxins are released into the surrounding medium by senescence and lysis of the blooms. Any toxin present could then come into contact with a wide range of aquatic organisms including phytoplankton grazers, invertebrates, fish and aquatic plants. Recent studies showed the conversion of microcystin in animal liver to a more polar compound in correlation with a depletion of the glutathione pool of the cell. The present study shows the existence of a microcystin-LR glutathione conjugate formed enzymatically via soluble glutathione S-transferase in various aquatic organisms ranging from plants (Ceratophyllum demersum), invertebrates (Dreissena polymorpha, Daphnia magna) up to fish eggs and fish (Danio rerio). The main derived conjugate was characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry yielding a mass of m/z 1302, which is equivalent to the mass assumed for a glutathione microcystin-LR conjugate. This conjugate appears to be the first step in the detoxication of a cyanobacterial toxin in aquatic organisms.

Regulation of endosome sorting by a specific PP2A isoform

The regulated sorting of proteins within the trans-Golgi network (TGN)/endosomal system is a key determinant of their biological activity in vivo. For example, the endoprotease furin activates of a wide range of proproteins in multiple compartments within the TGN/endosomal system. Phosphorylation of its cytosolic domain by casein kinase II (CKII) promotes the localization of furin to the TGN and early endosomes whereas dephosphorylation is required for efficient transport between these compartments (Jones, B.G., L. Thomas, S.S. Molloy, C.D. Thulin, M.D. Fry, K.A. Walsh, and G. Thomas. 1995. EMBO [Eur. Mol. Biol. Organ.] J. 14:5869-5883). Here we show that phosphorylated furin molecules internalized from the cell surface are retained in a local cycling loop between early endosomes and the plasma membrane. This cycling loop requires the phosphorylation state-dependent furin-sorting protein PACS-1, and mirrors the trafficking pathway described recently for the TGN localization of furin (Wan, L., S.S. Molloy, L. Thomas, G. Liu, Y. Xiang, S.L. Ryback, and G. Thomas. 1998. Cell. 94:205-216). We also demonstrate a novel role for protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) in regulating protein localization in the TGN/endosomal system. Using baculovirus recombinants expressing individual PP2A subunits, we show that the dephosphorylation of furin in vitro requires heterotrimeric phosphatase containing B family regulatory subunits. The importance of this PP2A isoform in directing the routing of furin from early endosomes to the TGN was established using SV-40 small t antigen as a diagnostic tool in vivo. The role of both CKII and PP2A in controlling multiple sorting steps in the TGN/endosomal system indicates that the distribution of itinerant membrane proteins may be acutely regulated via signal transduction pathways.

The toxicology of microcystins

Microcystins are a family of more than 50 structurally similar hepatotoxins produced by species of freshwater cyanobacteria, primarily Microcystis aeruginosa. They are monocyclic heptapeptides, characterised by some invariant amino acids, including one of unusual structure which is essential for expression of toxicity. Microcystins are chemically stable, but suffer biodegradation in reservoir waters. The most common member of the family, microcystin-LR (L and R identifying the 2 variable amino acids, in this case leucine and arginine respectively) has an LD50 in mice and rats of 36-122 microg/kg by various routes, including aerosol inhalation. Although human illnesses attributed to microcystins include gastroenteritis and allergic/irritation reactions, the primary target of the toxin is the liver, where disruption of the cytoskeleton, consequent on inhibition of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, causes massive hepatic haemorrhage. Microcystins are tight-binding inhibitors of these protein phosphatases, with inhibition constants in the nanomolar range or lower. Uptake of microcystins into the liver occurs via a carrier-mediated transport system, and several inhibitors of uptake can antagonise the toxic effects of microcystins. The most effective of these is the antibiotic rifampin (a drug approved for clinical use), which protects mice and rats against microcystin-induced lethality when given prophylactically and, in some cases, therapeutically.

Conversion of SB 203580-insensitive MAP kinase family members to drug-sensitive forms by a single amino-acid substitution

BACKGROUND

Specific inhibitors of protein kinases have great therapeutic potential, but the molecular basis underlying their specificity is only poorly understood. We have investigated the drug SB 203580 which belongs to a class of pyridinyl imidazoles that inhibits the stress-activated protein (SAP) kinases SAPK2a/p38 and SAPK2b/p38 beta 2 but not other mitogen-activated protein kinase family members. Like inhibitors of other protein kinases, SB 203580 binds in the ATP-binding pocket of SAPK2a/p38.

RESULTS

The SAP kinases SAPK1 gamma/JNK1, SAPK3 and SAPK4 are not inhibited by SB 203580, because they have methionine in the position equivalent to Thr106 in the ATP-binding region of SAPK2a/p38 and SAPK2b/p38 beta 2. Using site-directed mutagenesis of five SAP kinases and the type I and type II TGF beta receptors, we have established that for a protein kinase to be inhibited by SB 203580, the sidechain of this residue must be no larger than that of threonine. Sensitivity to inhibition by SB 203580 is greatly enhanced when the sidechain is even smaller, as in serine, alanine or glycine. Thus, the type I TGF beta receptor, which has serine at the position equivalent to Thr106 of SAPK2a/p38 and SAPK2b/p38 beta 2, is inhibited by SB 203580.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings explain how drugs that target the ATP-binding site can inhibit protein kinases specifically, and show that the presence of threonine or a smaller amino acid at the position equivalent to Thr106 of SAPK2a/p38 and SAPK2b/p38 beta 2 is diagnostic of whether a protein kinase is sensitive to the pyridinyl imidazole class of inhibitor.

Immunohistochemical localization of microcystin-LR in the liver of mice: a study on the pathogenesis of microcystin-LR-induced hepatotoxicity

The relationship between the intralobular sites of hepatotoxic injury and the distribution of microcystin-LR (MCLR), an inhibitor of protein phosphatases 1 (PP1) and 2A (PP2A), was examined using an immunohistochemical method with a monoclonal antibody specific to MCLR on the livers of mice receiving a single i.p. injection of the MCLR. Immunoblotting and high-performance liquid chromatography analyses of liver extracts were also performed to determine the binding form of MCLR to PP1 and PP2A (MCLR-PP1/PP2A adducts) and free MCLR. Immunohistochemistry revealed a discernible intensity of staining in the centrilobular regions where hemorrhage and apoptosis occurred. In these regions, immunopositivity was evident in the cytoplasm and nuclei of the hepatocytes; some apoptotic cells were also immunopositive. In contrast, coagulative necrosis, which was mainly evident in the midlobular regions, was completely negative. Analysis of liver extracts demonstrated MCLR-PP1/PP2A adducts, but free MCLR was below detection limit. These results suggest that the immunohistochemical localization of MCLR in centrilobular hepatocytes is closely associated with the onset of hemorrhage and apoptosis and is related to adduct formation. The occurrence of coagulative necrosis however might also be related to other factors such as ischemia/hypoxia.

Identification of regulatory phosphorylation sites in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-activated protein kinase-1a/p90rsk that are inducible by MAPK

Mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase-1 (MAPKAP-K1; also known as p90rsk) contains two protein kinase domains in a single polypeptide. The N-terminal kinase domain is necessary for the phosphorylation of peptide substrates, whereas the C-terminal kinase domain is required for full activation of the N-terminal domain. Here we identify six sites in MAPKAP-K1a that become phosphorylated in transfected COS-1 cells. The inactive form of MAPKAP-K1a in unstimulated cells is partially phosphorylated at Ser222 and Ser733. Stimulation with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate induces the phosphorylation of Thr360, Ser364, Thr574, and Ser381 and increases the phosphorylation of Ser222 and Ser733. Our data indicate that mitogen-activated protein kinase activates the C-terminal kinase domain by phosphorylating Thr574 and contributes to the activation of the N-terminal kinase domain by phosphorylating Ser364. The activated C-terminal domain phosphorylates Ser381, which, together with phosphorylation of Ser364, activates the N-terminal kinase domain. The phosphorylation of Ser222 and Ser733, which can be catalyzed by the N-terminal domain, does not activate MAPKAP-K1a per se, but Ser222 phosphorylation appears to be required for activation. Ser222, Ser364, and Ser381 are situated in analogous positions to phosphorylation sites in protein kinase B, protein kinase C, and p70S6K, suggesting a common mechanism of activation for these growth factor-stimulated protein kinases.

Identification of protein phosphatase 1 as a mitotic lamin phosphatase

At the onset of mitosis, the nuclear lamins are hyperphosphorylated leading to nuclear lamina disassembly, a process required for nuclear envelope breakdown and entry into mitosis. Multiple lamin kinases have been identified, including protein kinase C, that mediate mitotic lamin phosphorylation and mitotic nuclear lamina disassembly. Conversely, lamin dephosphorylation is required for nuclear lamina reassembly at the completion of mitosis. However, the protein phosphatase(s) responsible for the removal of mitotic phosphates from the lamins is unknown. In this study, we use human lamin B phosphorylated at mitosis-specific sites as a substrate to identify and characterize a lamin phosphatase activity from mitotic human cells. Several lines of evidence demonstrate that the mitotic lamin phosphatase corresponds to type 1 protein phosphatase (PP1). First, mitotic lamin phosphatase activity is inhibited by high nanomolar concentrations of okadaic acid and the specific PP1 peptide inhibitor, inhibitor-2. Second, mitotic lamin phosphatase activity cofractionates with PP1 after ion exchange chromatography. Third, microcystin-agarose depletes mitotic extracts of both PP1 and lamin phosphatase activity. Our results demonstrate that PP1 is the major mitotic lamin phosphatase responsible for removal of mitotic phosphates from lamin B, a process required for nuclear lamina reassembly.

Bioaccumulation and clearance of microcystins from salt water mussels, Mytilus edulis, and in vivo evidence for covalently bound microcystins in mussel tissues

Over a period of 3 days saltwater mussels, Mytilus edulis, were fed a cyanobacteria, Microcystis aeruginosa, that contained a high concentration of microcystins. The mussels were killed on a periodic basis over the course of 2 months. Mussels were also collected at two sites were high levels of microcystins in tissues had been noted. A strategy based on the chemically unique nature of the C20 beta-amino acid, (2S,3S,8S,9S)-3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6- dienoic acid (Adda), portion of the microcystins was used in conjunction with a protein phosphatase (PPase) assay to analyse for both covalently bound microcystins and free microcystins in the mussel tissues. The mussel PPase assay results were compared with the Lemieux oxidation gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) analysis. Less than 0.1% of the total microcystin burden in the mussel tissue was found to be extractable with MeOH. Thus, direct evidence was provided for the existence of covalently bound microcystins in mussel tissues in vivo. The mussels rapidly cleared the covalently bound microcystins when transferred to untreated seawater. Within 4 days the total microcystin burden dropped from a high of 336.9 (+/- 45.8) micrograms/g wet tissue to 11.3 (+/- 2.6) micrograms/g. After 4 days postexposure until completion of the experiment the total levels remained below the detection limits of the GCMS method. The levels of free microcystins, extracted with MeOH and detected by the PPase assay, fell from 204 ng/g wet tissue to a residual 14 ng/g over a 53 day postexposure period. Presumably the bound microcystin present in the mussel tissue exists as a covalent complex with the PP-1 and PP-2A enzymes. We conclude that in any shellfish monitoring program it is the total tissue microcystin burden that needs to be considered.

Rapid typing and elucidation of new secondary metabolites of intact cyanobacteria using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry

Toxic cyanobacterial blooms are a threat because of secondary metabolite production. We used matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry to identify intact microorganisms. Microgram quantities of prepared cells, including solvent (acetonitrile and ethanol) and alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid matrix, display spectra showing predominantly the secondary metabolites including known microcystins, micropeptin, and anabaenopeptolin. A new cyclic anabaenopeptolin has been identified using the Post-Source-Decay mode. Strains of various origins can easily be typed according to their cyclic peptide production, and toxic and nontoxic algal blooms can be differentiated within minutes.

Neoplastic nodular formation in mouse liver induced by repeated intraperitoneal injections of microcystin-LR

Neoplastic nodules were observed in mice liver treated with microcystin-LR (MCLR) by the intraperitoneal (i.p.) route over 28 weeks. After 100 i.p. injections of a sublethal dose (20 micrograms/kg) of MCLR, neoplastic nodules were observed without the use of an initiator. Multiple neoplastic nodules up to 5 mm in diameter were observed in the liver of mice in both groups, i.e. those injected 100 times i.p. and those injected 100 times with a 2 month withdrawal. The cysteine conjugate of MCLR was detected mainly in the affected livers. In contrast, when 80 micrograms/kg was orally administered 100 times, characteristic chronic injuries such as fibrous changes and nodule formation were not observed.

14C-labeled microcystin-LR administered to Atlantic salmon via intraperitoneal injection provides in vivo evidence for covalent binding of microcystin-LR in salmon livers

The tissue distribution and clearance of radiolabeled microcystin-LR administered to Atlantic salmon via i.p. injection has been re-examined using uniformly 14C-labeled toxin. Significant differences were found to exist between these results and those obtained when fish received an i.p. injection of tritium-labeled dihydromicrocystin-LR. In addition, MeOH liver extracts were assayed by both phosphatase assay and 14C counts and the results compared with the total levels of incorporation determined by digestion and subsequent 14C counting of the same live tissues. An attempt to investigate the metabolism and to document the putative products was also undertaken. It was found that microcystin-LR was extensively metabolized to compounds that are more polar than the parent compound.

A molecular basis for different interactions of marine toxins with protein phosphatase-1. Molecular models for bound motuporin, microcystins, okadaic acid, and calyculin A

The hepatotoxic cyclic heptapeptide microcystins and cyclic pentapeptide nodularins are powerful liver tumor promoters and potent inhibitors of the catalytic subunits of protein phosphatase-1 and -2A (PP-1c and PP-2Ac). In marked contrast to microcystins, which interact covalently with PP-1 and PP-2A, the nodularins do not bind covalently to PP-1 and PP-2A and may additionally possess unique carcinogenic properties. The conformation of microcystin-LR has been determined in solution and bound to PP-1c. We show here that the free NMR solution structures of two distinct microcystin structural congeners (microcystin-LR and -LL) are remarkably similar to the bound crystal structure of microcystin-LR. We have exploited this finding by using Metropolis Monte Carlo modeling to dock the solution structures of microcystin-LL and the marine toxin motuporin (nodularin-V) onto the crystal structure of PP-1c. Both of these toxins occupy a position similar to that of microcystin-LR when bound to PP-1c. However, although there are relatively minor differences in the structural orientation of microcystin-LL compared with microcystin-LR, there is a striking difference in the position of the N-methyldehydrobutyrine residue in motuporin relative to the comparable N-methyldehydroalanine residue in microcystin-LR. We propose that this difference in orientation provides a molecular explanation for why nodularins are incapable of forming a covalent linkage with PP-1c. Furthermore, the predicted position of N-methyldehydrobutyrine in motuporin is at the surface of the PP-1c-toxin complex, which may thus facilitate chemical interaction with a further macromolecule(s) possibly relating to its carcinogenic properties. PP-1c and PP-2Ac are also targets for other marine toxins such as okadaic acid and calyculin A. It was therefore of interest to use Metropolis Monte Carlo modeling to dock the known free crystal structures of okadaic acid and calyculin A to the crystal structure of PP-1c. These experiments predict that both okadaic acid and calyculin A are strikingly similar to microcystins and motuporin in their tertiary structure and relative PP-1c binding position.

Protein phosphatases maintain the organization and structural interactions of hepatic keratin intermediate filaments

The importance of protein phosphatases in the maintenance of cytoskeletal structure is supported by the serious liver injury caused by microcystin-LR, a hepatotoxic inhibitor of type-1 and type-2A serine/threonine protein phosphatases. We used the microcystin-LR-induced cell injury as a model to study the roles of protein dephosphorylation in maintaining cytoskeletal structure and cellular interactions in primary rat hepatocyte cultures. Confocal microscopy revealed that the first visible effect of microcystin-LR is disruption of desmoplakin organization at the cell surface, indicating dissociation of desmosomes. This effect is followed by a dramatic reorganization of both the intermediate filament (keratins 8 and 18) and microfilament networks, resulting in a merged structure in which the intermediate filaments are organized around a condensed actin core. Keratin 8, keratin 18 and desmoplakin I/II are the major cytoskeleton-associated targets for microcystin-LR-induced phosphorylation. Hyperphosphorylation of keratin 8 and 18 is accompanied by an increased keratin solubility, which correlates with the observed morphological effects. Phosphopeptide mapping shows that four specific tryptic phosphopeptides are highly phosphorylated predominantly in the soluble pool of keratin 18, whereas keratin 8 shows no indications of such assembly state-specific sites. Phosphopeptide maps of keratins phosphorylated in vivo and in vitro indicate that Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase may be involved in regulating the serine-specific phosphorylation of both keratin 8 and keratin 18, while cAMP-dependent protein kinase does not seem to play a major role in this context. Taken together, our results show that the interactions between keratin intermediate filaments and desmosomes as well as the assembly states of their main constituent proteins, are directly regulated by serine/threonine kinase/phosphatase equilibria.

Identification of protein phosphatase-1-binding proteins by microcystin-biotin affinity chromatography

Biotinylated microcystin was used to affinity purify over avidin-Sepharose the entire cellular content of active forms of protein phosphatase (PP) 1 and 2A holoenzymes present in three subcellular fractions of skeletal muscle. Biotinylated microcystin displayed IC50 values in the nM range against PP-1C (1.58 +/- 0.6 nM S.E., n = 3), PP-2AC (0.63 +/- 0.2 nM S.E., n = 3) and SMPP-1M (5.9 +/- 1.3 S.E., n = 3). Subsequent anion-exchange chromatography and SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the microcystin-biotin eluates of the three fractions revealed a complex pattern of proteins associated with PP-1C and PP-2AC. Far Western analysis and the rebinding interaction with recombinant PP-1C distinguished proteins in the eluates that bound PP-1C from those that bound PP-2AC. In Far Western analysis, 29 distinct proteins were identified to bind PP-1C. Significantly, these same proteins, plus seven others, were also recovered from the isothiocyanate eluates from microcystin-Sepharose by a rebinding interaction with PP-1C-microcystin-biotin. The number of proteins and range of novel molecular masses (18-125 kDa) identified to interact with PP-1C by these two techniques cannot be accounted for by the previously characterized subunits of PP-1. Our findings further support the concept that PP-1C is regulated in vivo by multiple and distinct substrate-targeting subunits.

Molecular mechanisms of the protein serine/threonine phosphatases

The dephosphorylation of proteins on their serine, threonine and tyrosine residues is catalysed by three families of protein phosphatases that regulate numerous intracellular processes. Diversity of structure within a family is generated by targeting and regulatory subunits and domains. Structural studies of these enzymes have revealed that although the two families of protein Ser/Thr phosphatases are unrelated in sequence, the architecture of their catalytic domains is remarkably similar and distinct from the protein tyrosine phosphatases. Insights into the molecular mechanisms of catalysis and regulation of these enzymes have been obtained.

The involvement of protein phosphatases in the activation of ICE/CED-3 protease, intracellular acidification, DNA digestion, and apoptosis

Many events in apoptosis have been identified but their temporal relationships remain obscure. Apoptosis in human ML-1 cells induced by etoposide is characterized by intracellular acidification, enhanced Hoechst 33342 fluorescence, DNA digestion, chromatin condensation, and proteolysis of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. This proteolysis is a marker for the action of ICE/CED-3 proteases, which are critical activators of apoptosis. We observed that three serine/threonine protein phosphatase inhibitors, okadaic acid, calyculin A, and cantharidin, prevented all of these apoptotic characteristics. To determine which protein phosphatase was involved, we investigated the dephosphorylation of the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein Rb, a substrate for protein phosphatase 1 but not protein phosphatase 2A. Rb was dephosphorylated during apoptosis, and each inhibitor prevented this dephosphorylation at the same concentrations that prevented apoptosis. No increase in protein phosphatase 1 activity was observed in apoptotic cells suggesting that dephosphorylation of Rb may result from loss of Rb kinase activity in the presence of a constant level of protein phosphatase activity. Long term inhibition of protein phosphatase 1 (>8 h) also led to the appearance of dephosphorylated Rb, cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and apoptosis, suggesting these events are not solely dependent upon protein phosphatase 1. Rb dephosphorylation was also observed in several other models of apoptosis. Hence, an imbalance between protein phosphatase 1 and Rb kinase may be a common means to activate ICE/CED-3 proteases resulting in the subsequent events of apoptosis.

Regions of the 110-kDa regulatory subunit M110 required for regulation of myosin-light-chain-phosphatase activity in smooth muscle

To characterize the in situ interactions between the subunits (regulatory 110 kDa, M110; 21-kDa, M21 and catalytic, 37-kDa, PP1c) of smooth muscle myosin phosphatase (SMPP-1M), we determined, in Triton-X-100-permeabilized rabbit portal vein contracted with microcystin-LR, the ability of the following fragments of M110 to regulate relaxation induced by exogenous PP1c: (a) M110 purified from pig bladder; (b) the 72.5-kDa N-terminal fragment expressed from rat kidney cDNA [glutathione-S-transferase-M110-(11-612)-peptide]; (c) a 58-kDa fragment, the N-terminal degradation product of M110 (M58); (d) two fragments expressed from rat aorta cDNA [M110-(1-309)-peptide and M110-(39-309)-peptide]; a synthetic fragment of M110 [M110-(1-38)-peptide]. The M110/M21 complex accelerated approximately 1.6-fold the rate of dephosphorylation of the myosin P-light chain and also relaxation induced by PP1c. The glutathione-S-transferase-M110-(11-612)-peptide and the M58 fragments, as well as the M110-(1-309)-peptide and, at higher concentration, M110-(1-38)-peptide, had similar effects that did not require the M21 subunit. Arachidonic acid, known to dissociate PP1c from the native holoenzyme and inhibit SMPP-1M activity, inhibited the regulatory action of the M110/M21 complex on PP1c activity and, to a lesser extent that of the glutathione-S-transferase-M110-(11-612)-peptide, but not that of the M58 fragment or of the shorter peptides. We conclude that, consistent with in vitro studies [8], the N-terminal sequence (1-309) of the M110 subunit is also sufficient to enhance the activity of PP1c for myosin in muscle. However, its C-terminal half (downstream from the M58 fragment) is required for inhibition by arachidonic acid. In contrast to the effect of the M110 subunit and its fragments, a peptide, corresponding to part of the PP1c-binding site of the regulatory glycogen-binding subunit from skeletal muscle GM [GM-(63-93)-peptide], specifically slowed the relaxation, induced by flash photolysis of diazo-2, of Triton X-100-permeabilized femoral artery strips, and inhibited the holoenzyme-induced relaxation in the portal vein, suggesting that the GM subunit can compete with the regulatory effect of M110 on PP1c in smooth muscle.

Solution structure of nodularin. An inhibitor of serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatases

The three-dimensional solution structure of nodularin was studied by NMR and molecular dynamics simulations. The conformation in water was determined from the distance and dihedral data by distance geometry and refined by iterative relaxation matrix analysis. The cyclic backbone adopts a well defined conformation but the remote parts of the side chains of arginine as well as the amino acid derivative Adda have a large spatial dispersion. For the unusual amino acids the partial charges were calculated and nodularin was subjected to molecular dynamic simulations in water. A good agreement was found between experimental and computational data with hydrogen bonds, solvent accessibility, molecular motion, and conformational exchange. The three-dimensional structure resembles very closely that of microcystin-LR in the chemically equivalent segment. Therefore, it is expected that the binding of both microcystins and nodularins to serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatases is similar on an atomic level.

Molecular mechanisms underlying he interaction of motuporin and microcystins with type-1 and type-2A protein phosphatases

Heptapeptide microcystin and pentapeptide motuporin (nodularin-V) are equipotent inhibitors of type-1 and type-2A protein phosphatase catalytic subunits (PP-1c and PP-2Ac). Herein we describe elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in the interaction of these structurally similar hepatotoxins with PP-1c/PP-2Ac and identification of an important functional difference between their mode of interaction with these enzymes. Microcystin-LR, microcystin-LA, and microcystin-LL were found to interact with PP-2Ac and PP-1c by a two-step mechanism involving rapid binding and inactivation of the protein phosphatase (PPase) catalytic subunit, followed by a slower covalent interaction (within hours). Covalent adducts comprising PPase-toxin complexes were separated from free PPase by C-18 reverse-phase liquid chromatography, thus allowing the time course of covalent adduct formation to be quantitated. In contrast to microcystins, motuporin (nodularin-V) and nodularin-R were unable to form covalent complexes with either PP-1c or PP-2Ac even after 96 h incubation. Specific reduction of microcystin-LA to dihydromicrocystin-LA abolished the ability of the toxin to form a covalent adduct with PP-2Ac. Specific methyl esterification of the single Glu residue in microcystin-LR rendered this toxin inactive as a PPase inhibitor and abolished subsequent formation of a covalent adduct. Our data indicate that inactivation of PP-2Ac/PP-1c by microcystins precedes covalent modification of the PPases via a Michael addition reaction between a nucleophilic phosphatase residue and Mdha in the heptapeptide toxin. In contrast, following rapid inactivation of PP-2Ac/PP-1c by motuporin, the equivalent N-methyldehydrobutyrine residue in this toxin is unreactive and does not form a covalent bond with the PPases. These results are consistent with structural data for (i) the NMR solution structures of microcystin-LR and motuporin, which indicate a striking difference in the relative positions of their corresponding dehydroamino acids in the toxin peptide backbone, and (ii) X-ray crystallographic data on an inactive complex between PP-1c and microcystin-LR, which show a covalent bond between Cys-273 and the bound toxin.

Protein phosphatases

Protein phosphatases are signal transducing enzymes that dephosphorylate cellular phosphoproteins. The recently determined crystal structures of protein tyrosine and serine/threonine phosphatases reveal that these proteins adopt distinct structures and catalyze dephosphorylation reactions by means of different enzymatic mechanisms. Insights into the basis for substrate specificity and enzyme regulation can also be gained from these crystal structures.

Comparison of the specificities of p70 S6 kinase and MAPKAP kinase-1 identifies a relatively specific substrate for p70 S6 kinase: the N-terminal kinase domain of MAPKAP kinase-1 is essential for peptide phosphorylation

xxR/KxRxxSxx sequences were phosphorylated with high efficiency by both p70 S6 kinase (p70S6K) and MAPKAP kinase-1. The best substrate for MAPKAP kinase-1 (KKKNRTLSVA) was phosphorylated with a Km of 0.17 microM, and the best substrate for p70S6K (KKRNRTLSVA) with a Km of 1.5 microM. The requirement of both enzymes for Arg/Lys at position n-5 could be partially replaced by inserting basic residues at other positions, especially by an Arg at n-2 or n-4. MAPKAP kinase-1 (but not p70S6K) tolerated lack of any residue at n-5 if Arg was present at n-2 and n-3. p70S6K (but not p90S6K) tolerated Thr at position n and absence of any residue at n + 2. The peptide KKRNRTLTV, which combined these features, was relatively selective for p70S6K having a 50-fold higher Vmax/Km than MAPKAP kinase-1. Inactivation of the N-terminal kinase domain of MAPKAP kinase-1, which is 60% identical to p70S6K, abolished activity towards all peptides tested, but the enzyme retained 30-40% of its activity if the C-terminal kinase domain was inactivated.