Influence of temperature in thermal and oxidative stress responses in estuarine fish

Influence of temperature on the antioxidant responses and lipid peroxidation of two species of tadpoles (Rhinella schneideri and Physalaemus nattereri) exposed to the herbicide sulfentrazone (Boral 500SC®)

Amphibians can experience large temperature fluctuations in their habitats, especially during the larval stage, when tadpoles are restricted to small and ephemeral ponds. Changes in water temperature can alter development, metabolism and behaviour of cold-blooded animals but also the toxicokinetics of chemicals in the environment. In Brazil, pesticides application is intensified during the rainy season, which is the period of reproduction for many amphibian species. We evaluated here the influence of temperature (28, 32, and 36°C) on the toxicity of the herbicide sulfentrazone (Boral®SC) in tadpoles of Physalaemus nattereri and Rhinella schneideri, by analysis of oxidative stress biomarkers. Exposure of tadpoles to sulfentrazone altered the antioxidant enzymes activities and induced lipid peroxidation with temperature-associated responses. Catalase, superoxide dismutase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) were impaired by combined effect of temperature and sulfentrazone in both species. G6PDH was increased in most groups exposed to 36°C. Biotransformation enzyme glutathione-S-transferase had more evident alterations in P. nattereri at higher temperatures and changes in tGSH contents presented different patterns between the species. Lipid peroxidation was particularly induced in tadpoles of P. nattereri. Integrated biomarker response (IBR) index indicated a synergic effect of temperature and sulfentrazone for tadpoles of P. nattereri, while the IBR was mainly influenced by temperature in R. schneideri. Our study showed that temperature modulates biochemical responses in tadpoles exposed to sulfentrazone with a species-specific pattern. These findings imply that the effects of abiotic factors should be taken into account to evaluate the real risks of exposure of amphibians to commonly used pesticides.

Ecophysiological responses of juvenile seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) exposed to increased temperature and dietary methylmercury

The ecotoxicological effects of methylmercury (MeHg) exposure have been intensively described in literature. Yet, it is still unclear how marine biota will respond to the presence of MeHg under climate change, namely ocean warming. The present study aimed to investigate, for the first time, fish condition [Fulton's K index (K), hepatosomatic index (HIS) and brain-to-body mass ratio (BB-ratio)] and several stress-related responses in an ecologically and commercially important fish species (Dicentrachus labrax) exposed for 28days to dietary MeHg (8.0mg kg-1 dw) and temperature increase (+4°C). Results showed significant impairments on fish condition, i.e. up to 34% decrease on K, >100% increase on HIS and 44% decrease on BB-ratio, compared to control conditions. Significant changes on tissue biochemical responses were observed in fish exposed to both stressors, acting alone or combined, evidencing the relevance of assessing possible interactions between different environmental stressors in ecotoxicological studies. For instance, muscle showed to be the least affected tissue, only revealing significant alterations in GST activity of MeHg-enriched fish. On the other hand, liver exhibited a significant induction of GST (>100%) and CAT (up to 74%) in MeHg-enriched fish, regardless of temperature exposure, as well as decreased SOD activity (19%) and increased HSP70/HSC70 content (87%) in fish exposed to warming alone. Brain showed to be affected by temperature (69% of GST inhibition and >100% of increased CAT activity), MeHg (>100% of increased CAT activity, 47% of SOD inhibition and 55% of AChE inhibition), as well as by the combination of both (GST, SOD and AChE inhibition, 17%, 48% and 53%, respectively). Hence, our data provides evidences that the toxicological aspects of MeHg ca be potentiated by warmer temperatures, thus, evidencing the need for further research combining contaminants exposure and climate change effects, to better forecast ecological impacts in the ocean of tomorrow.

Influence of Green Tides in Coastal Nursery Grounds on the Habitat Selection and Individual Performance of Juvenile Fish

Coastal ecosystems, which provide numerous essential ecological functions for fish, are threatened by the proliferation of green macroalgae that significantly modify habitat conditions in intertidal areas. Understanding the influence of green tides on the nursery function of these ecosystems is essential to determine their potential effects on fish recruitment success. In this study, the influence of green tides on juvenile fish was examined in an intertidal sandy beach area, the Bay of Saint-Brieuc (Northwestern France), during two annual cycles of green tides with varying levels of intensity. The responses of three nursery-dependent fish species, the pelagic Sprattus sprattus (L.), the demersal Dicentrarchus labrax (L.) and the benthic Pleuronectes platessa L., were analysed to determine the effects of green tides according to species-specific habitat niche and behaviour. The responses to this perturbation were investigated based on habitat selection and a comparison of individual performance between a control and an impacted site. Several indices on different integrative scales were examined to evaluate these responses (antioxidant defence capacity, muscle total lipid, morphometric condition and growth). Based on these analyses, green tides affect juvenile fish differently according to macroalgal density and species-specific tolerance, which is linked to their capacity to move and to their distribution in the water column. A decreasing gradient of sensitivity was observed from benthic to demersal and pelagic fish species. At low densities of green macroalgae, the three species stayed at the impacted site and the growth of plaice was reduced. At medium macroalgal densities, plaice disappeared from the impacted site and the growth of sea bass and the muscle total lipid content of sprat were reduced. Finally, when high macroalgal densities were reached, none of the studied species were captured at the impacted site. Hence, sites affected by green tides are less favourable nursery grounds for all the studied species, with species-specific effects related to macroalgal density.

Salinity stress response in estuarine fishes from the Murray Estuary and Coorong, South Australia

Estuaries are unstable ecosystems and can be changed by the environmental and anthropogenic impact. The Murray Estuary and Coorong were degraded by drought and low freshwater input in the last decade and therefore transformed into the largest hyper-saline lagoon in Australia. This study evaluates the physiological stress of two estuarine fish species (small-mouthed hardyhead Atherinosoma microstoma and Tamar goby Afurcagobius tamarensis) to the induced salinity change in captivity. The test fishes were collected from the Coorong and transported to the laboratory in the water from the Coorong. Each fish species was exposed to different levels of salinity, and a number of enzymes were assessed to measure the stress response of fish to salinity change. The activity of reactive oxygen species was significantly increased with the salinity change in both fish species compared with the fish in the control. Significant salinity effect on superoxide dismutase activity was observed on Tamar goby but not on small-mouthed hardyhead. Conversely, the impact of salinity on catalase activity was detected on small-mouthed hardyhead but not on Tamar goby. The study reveals that the induction of physical stress by salinity changes occurred in both Tamar goby and small-mouthed hardyhead despite the varying response of antioxidant enzymes between fish species. The study provides an insight into the understanding of physiological adaptation in estuarine fish to salinity change. The results could improve our knowledge on stress response and resilience of estuarine fish to hypo- and hyper-salinity stress.

Comparing biomarker responses during thermal acclimation: A lethal vs non-lethal approach in a tropical reef clownfish

Knowledge of thermal stress biology for most tropical fish species in reef ecosystems under climate change is still quite limited. Thus, the objective of this study was to measure the time-course changes of thermal stress biomarkers in the commercially exploited coral reef fish Amphiprion ocellaris, during a laboratory simulated event of increased temperature. Heat shock protein 70kDa (Hsp70) and total ubiquitin (Ub) were determined in the muscle (lethal method) and in the fin (non-lethal alternative method) under two temperature treatments (control - 26°C and elevated temperature - 30°C) throughout one month with weekly samplings. Results suggest that biomarker basal levels are tissue-specific and influence the degree of response under temperature exposure. Responses were highly inducible in the muscle but not in fin tissue, indicating that the latter is not reliable for monitoring purposes. Thermal stress was observed in the muscle after one week of exposure (both biomarkers increased significantly) and Ub levels then decreased, suggesting the animals were able to acclimate by maintaining high levels of Hsp70 and through an effective protein turnover. In addition, the results show that mortality rates did not differ between treatments. This indicates that A. ocellaris is capable of displaying a plastic response to elevated temperature by adjusting the protein quality control system to protect cell functions, without decreasing survival. Thus, this coral reef fish species presents a significant acclimation potential under ocean warming scenarios of +4°C. Monitoring of thermal stress through a non-lethal method, fin-clipping, although desirable proved to be inadequate for this species.

Insight into the heat resistance of fish via blood: Effects of heat stress on metabolism, oxidative stress and antioxidant response of olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus and turbot Scophthalmus maximus

High temperature has direct confinement on fish survival and growth, especially under the background of global warming. Selection of fish line with heat resistance is an important means to address this problem. In the present study, we analyzed the difference in heat resistance between families of olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus and turbot Scophthalmus maximus, two flatfish species occupying slightly different thermal niches. Then the chosen families were tested to determine their differential response to heat stress (ΔT = +8 °C and +12 °C) in blood, including anaerobic metabolism (lactate), oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation) and antioxidant enzymes. Results showed a difference in heat resistance between families of the two species. Among the chosen parameters, growth traits had a significant effect on contents of lactate and malondialdehyd (MDA), and activities of catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferase in flounder (P < 0.05), and on MDA content and CAT activity in turbot (P < 0.05). In comparison with heat-sensitive family of each species, levels of all studied parameters were lower and more stable in heat-resistant families after heat stress. What's more, heat resistance of fish significantly influenced contents of lactate and MDA and activity of CAT in flounder (P < 0.05), as well as contents of lactate, MDA and carbonyl and activity of superoxide dismutate (SOD) in turbot (P < 0.05). These results demonstrated that such physiological phenotypes as anaerobic metabolism, oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes are good biomarkers of fish heat-resistance, being potentially valuable in fish breeding. However, these markers should be applied with more caution when there is a growth discrepancy between fish families.

Combined effects of temperature and metal exposure on the fatty acid composition of cell membranes, antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation in yellow perch (Perca flavescens)

The aim of this study was to investigate the combined effects of temperature and metal contamination (cadmium and nickel) on phospholipid fatty acid composition, antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation in fish. Yellow perch were acclimated to two different temperatures (9°C and 28°C) and exposed either to Cd or Ni (respectively 4μg/L and 600μg/L) for seven weeks. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase activities and glutathione concentration were measured as indicators of antioxidant capacities, while malondialdehyde concentration was used as an indicator of lipid peroxidation. Poikilotherms including fish counteract the effects of temperature on phospholipid fatty acid ordering by remodelling their composition to maintain optimal fluidity. Accordingly, in our study, the fatty acid composition of yellow perch muscle at 9°C was enhanced in monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) compared to fish maintained at 28°C, in agreement with the theory of homeoviscous adaptation. Using ratios of various fatty acids as surrogates for desaturase and elongase activities, our data suggests that modification of the activity of these enzymes is responsible for the thermal acclimation of phospholipid fatty acid profiles. However, this response was altered under Ni and Cd exposure: PUFA decreased (specifically n-6 PUFA) while the proportion of saturated fatty acids increased at 9°C, whereas at 28°C, PUFA increased to proportions exceeding those observed at 9°C. Lipid peroxidation could be observed under all experimental conditions. Both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense systems acted cooperatively to cope with oxidative stress leading to lipid peroxidation, which was not affected by temperature acclimation as indicated by malondialdehyde concentration, in spite of a higher polyinsaturation in cold-acclimated fish which would be predicted to increase their vulnerability to peroxidation. However, in warm-acclimated, Ni-exposed fish, in which the highest proportion of PUFA was observed, lower concentrations of malondialdehyde were measured, suggesting an overcompensation of antioxidant mechanisms in these fish which could represent a substantial metabolic cost and explain their lower condition.

Effects of multigenerational exposure to elevated temperature on reproduction, oxidative stress, and Cu toxicity in Daphnia magna

This study evaluated the effect of temperature (20 and 25°C) on reproduction, oxidative stress, and copper (Cu) toxicity in Daphnia magna across three generations (F0, F1, and F2). Exposing D. magna to elevated temperature significantly decreased the number of offspring per female per day, the time to first brood, and body length compared to exposure to the optimal temperature (p<0.05). In addition, elevated temperature induced a significantly higher production of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation (p<0.05). These findings suggest that D. magna likely responded to thermal stress by investing more energy into defense mechanisms, rather than growth and reproduction. In addition, oxidative stress at the elevated temperature gradually increased with each generation, possibly owing to the reduced fitness of the offspring. Exposing D. magna to 25°C (EC50=34±3µgL(-1)) substantially increased the median effective concentration of Cu in all generations compared to exposure to 20°C (EC50=25±3µgL(-1)), indicating a decrease in acute toxicity at elevated temperature. However, elevated temperature significantly increased the oxidative stress induced by a sublethal concentration of Cu (10µgL(-1)). The interaction between elevated temperature and Cu exposure appears to be synergistic; however, this needs to be confirmed using multiple generations in a long-term experiment.

Effects of different light wavelengths from LEDs on oxidative stress and apoptosis in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) at high water temperatures

We investigated how different light spectra affect thermal stress in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus), using light emitting diodes (LEDs; blue, 450 nm; green, 530 nm; red, 630 nm) at two intensities (0.3 and 0.5 W/m(2)) at relatively high water temperatures (25 and 30 °C, compared to a control condition of 20 °C). We measured the expression and activity of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), and the levels of plasma hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and lipid peroxidation (LPO). Furthermore, the levels and mRNA expression of caspase-3 were measured, and terminal transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assays of liver and comet assays were performed. The expression and activity of antioxidant enzymes, as well as plasma H2O2 and LPO levels were significantly higher after exposure to high temperatures, and significantly lower after exposure to green and blue light. Caspase-3 levels and mRNA expression showed a similar pattern. The TUNEL assay showed that apoptosis markedly increased at higher water temperatures, compared with the 20 °C control. In contrast, green light irradiation decreased apoptosis rate. Furthermore, the comet assays showed that nuclear DNA damage was caused by thermal stress, and that green light irradiation played a role in partially preventing this damage. Overall, these results suggest that light with green and blue wavelengths can reduce both high temperature-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis, and that particularly green light is efficient for this. Therefore, green light can play a role in protecting in olive flounder from thermal stress damage.

Feeding Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice) and Astragalus membranaceus (AM) alters innate immune and physiological responses in yellow perch (Perca flavescens)

The current work assessed the potential immunomodulatory and growth-promoting effects of Astragalus membranaceus (AM) and Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice) in Yellow perch (Perca flavescens). In this regard, fish with an average weight of 31 ± 1.0 g were divided into five groups, and fed daily with an additive-free basal diet (control); 1, 2, and 3% (w/w) Glycyrrhiza glabra, and the fifth diet was incorporated with a combination of 1% G. glabra-AM for a four-week period. Immunological, biochemical and growth parameters were measured; and sub-groups of fish were exposed to 1-week starvation. The results showed that incorporating AM and liquorice in the diet significantly improved Immunological [superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), Lipid peroxidase (LPx) and lysozyme activities], biochemical [Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) and Alanine Transaminase (ALT) activities; and glucose and cortisol concentrations] and growth performance parameters [body mass gain (BMG), specific growth rate (SGR), length, condition factor (K) and feed conversion ratio (FCR)]. In addition, markedly up-regulated the expression of related genes [Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1), Serum amyloid A (SAA), Complement Component C3 (CCC3), Alpha 2 Macroglobulin (A2M), SOD and GPx] in treated fish groups compared to the control. Conclusively, feeding AM and liquorice diets significantly increased (P < 0.05) growth performance, antioxidant and immune response profiles throughout the entire experiment, suggesting their beneficial rule as natural anti-stress agents.

Ocean warming alters cellular metabolism and induces mortality in fish early life stages: A proteomic approach

Climate change has pervasive effects on marine ecosystems, altering biodiversity patterns, abundance and distribution of species, biological interactions, phenology, and organisms' physiology, performance and fitness. Fish early life stages have narrow thermal windows and are thus more vulnerable to further changes in water temperature. The aim of this study was to address the sensitivity and underlying molecular changes of larvae of a key fisheries species, the sea bream Sparus aurata, towards ocean warming. Larvae were exposed to three temperatures: 18°C (control), 24°C (warm) and 30°C (heat wave) for seven days. At the end of the assay, i) survival curves were plotted for each temperature treatment and ii) entire larvae were collected for proteomic analysis via 2D gel electrophoresis, image analysis and mass spectrometry. Survival decreased with increasing temperature, with no larvae surviving at 30°C. Therefore, proteomic analysis was only carried out for 18°C and 24°C. Larvae up-regulated protein folding and degradation, cytoskeletal re-organization, transcriptional regulation and the growth hormone while mostly down-regulating cargo transporting and porphyrin metabolism upon exposure to heat stress. No changes were detected in proteins related to energetic metabolism suggesting that larval fish may not have the energetic plasticity needed to sustain cellular protection in the long-term. These results indicate that despite proteome modulation, S. aurata larvae do not seem able to fully acclimate to higher temperatures as shown by the low survival rates. Consequently, elevated temperatures seem to have bottleneck effects during fish early life stages, and future ocean warming can potentially compromise recruitment's success of key fisheries species.

Astragalus membranaceus (AM) enhances growth performance and antioxidant stress profiles in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus)

This study was designed to assess the potential effects of Astragalus membranaceus (AM) on the growth performance and antioxidative stress response in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) exposed to challenging cold water temperature conditions. In this regard, fish with an average weight of 43 ± 1 g were divided into four groups and fed daily with an AM-free diet (control), and 1.5, 3, and 4.5 % (w/w) AM-incorporated diets for an 8-week period. Oxidative stress response, biochemical, and growth parameters were measured, and subgroups of fish were exposed to the outside challenging cold pond water temperature (1.6-9.9 °C) with an average of 7.0 ± 0.1 °C beyond the optimal temperature. The results showed that incorporating AM in the diet significantly improved growth performance parameters (body mass gain, specific growth rate, length, condition factor, and feed conversion ratio) and biochemicals (aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase activities, and glucose and cortisol concentrations). In addition, markedly up-regulated superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase activities were observed in AM-treated fish groups over the control. Conclusively, feeding AM diets significantly increased (P < 0.05) growth performance and antioxidative stress profiles throughout the entire experiment, and this increase was much more pronounced at 8 weeks after the water temperature began to rise, which can be related to the nature of Bluegill fish as it is known to be a warm water fish. These findings are considered to be of great importance for sustainable aquaculture.

The effect of hyperthermia on liver histology, oxidative stress and disease resistance of the Wuchang bream, Megalobrama amblycephala

This study aimed to investigate the effects of hyperthermia on serum hormones, hepatic oxidization indices, hepatic heat shock protein (HSP60, 70, and 90) mRNA expression levels and liver cell ultrastructure in Megalobrama amblycephala before and after high temperature stress. Fish were exposed to the optimal temperature (25 ± 1 °C) or high temperature (32 ± 1 °C) and then challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila. The results showed that hyperthermic stress significantly increased serum adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) at 0.5 and 2 d, serum cortisol (COR) at 0.5, 14, and 21 d and serum 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) at 1, 14, and 21 d after stress. Additionally, hyperthermia led to oxidative stress, as evidenced by a significant decrease in the hepatic anti-superoxide anion free radical concentration (ASAFER) at 1, 2, 7, and 21 d and in hepatic superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity at 1, 2, 14 and 21 d after stress; however, hepatic malondialdehyde content (MDA) increased at 1, 2, and 7 d after stress. Moreover, the expression of HSP60 at 1 d, HSP70 at 1 and 2 d, and HSP90 at 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2 d after stress was higher in the stress group compared with the control group. The histological results clearly showed that hyperthermia resulted in fat and glycogen accumulation and structural alterations of the hepatocytes, mitochondria, and nuclei. The cumulative mortality increased in the high temperature stress group at 1 d after acute stress and at 2 and 7 d after chronic stress compared with the control group. Overall, 1 d or 2 d after hyperthermia stress damaged the hepatic ultrastructure and impaired mitochondrial bioenergetics. Dysfunction of the mitochondria subsequently mediated oxidative stress and improved HSP expression modulated the cellular anti-stress response, which in turn led to reduced efficacy of the immune system and increased mortality from Aeromonas hydrophila infection in Megalobrama amblycephala.

Effect of temperature on oxidative stress parameters and enzyme activity in tissues of Cape River crab (Potamanautes perlatus) following exposure to silver nanoparticles (AgNP)

Biomarkers of oxidative stress have been widely used in environmental assessments to evaluate the effects of exposure of aquatic organisms to contaminants from various anthropogenic sources. Silver nanoparticles (AgNP), the most produced NP worldwide and used in several consumer products, are known to produce oxidative stress in aquatic organisms. Similarly, temperature is also known to affect reactive oxygen species (ROS) by influencing the inputs of contaminants into the environment, as well as altering behavior, fate, and transport. Aquatic ecosystems are affected by both anthropogenic releases of contaminants and increased temperature. To test this hypothesis, the influence of AgNP and temperature in the response to multiple biomarkers of oxidative stress was studied in the gills and hepatopancreas of the Cape River crab Potamonautes perlatus. Responses were assessed through activities of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and the nonenzymatic antioxidant glutathione S-transferase (GST). The response of the oxidative stress biomarkers analyzed was always higher in hepatopancreas than in gills. Elevated temperatures (28°C) induced oxidative stress by increasing SOD, CAT, and GST activities, particularly at 100 µg/ml AgNP. These data indicate that AgNP-mediated toxicity to P. perlatus is modulated by elevated temperatures, but this relationship is not linear. Co-effects of AgNP and temperature are reported for the first time in P. perlatus.

Effects of ammonia exposure on apoptosis, oxidative stress and immune response in pufferfish (Takifugu obscurus)

Ammonia is one of major environmental pollutants in the freshwater aquatic system that affects the survival and growth of organisms. In the present study, we investigated the effects of ammonia exposure on apoptosis, oxidative stress and immune response in pufferfish (Takifugu obscurus). Fish were exposed to various concentrations of ammonia (0, 1.43, 3.57, 7.14mM) for 72h. The date showed that ammonia exposure could induce intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), interrupt intracellular Ca(2+) (cf-Ca(2+)) homeostasis, and subsequently lead to DNA damage and cell apoptosis. To test the apoptotic pathway, the expression patterns of some key apoptotic related genes including P53, Bax Bcl2, Caspase 9, Caspase 8 and Caspase 3 in the liver were examined. The results showed that ammonia stress could change these genes transcription, associated with increasing of cell apoptosis, suggesting that the P53-Bax-Bcl2 pathway and caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway could be involved in cell apoptosis induced by ammonia stress. In addition, ammonia stress could induced up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines (BAFF, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-12) transcription, indicating that innate immune system play important roles in ammonia-induced toxicity in fish. Furthermore, the gene expressions of antioxidant enzymes (Mn-SOD, CAT, GPx, and GR) and heat shock proteins (HSP90 and HSP70) in the liver were induced by ammonia stress, suggesting that antioxidant system and heat shock proteins tried to protect cells from oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by ammonia stress. Our results will be helpful to understand the mechanism of aquatic toxicology induced by ammonia in fish.

Anti-oxidative responses of zebrafish (Danio rerio) gill, liver and brain tissues upon acute cold shock

The present study seeks to detect oxidative damage and to compare anti-oxidative responses among liver, gills and brain of adult zebrafish that were cooled from 28 °C (control) to 12 °C (treatment) for 0-24 h. The lipid peroxidation of liver, gill and brain tissues significantly increased at 1h after transfer, but reactive oxygen species in the treatment group increased significantly after 24 h as compared to the control. The fish were found to develop a cascading anti-oxidative mechanism beginning with an increase in Cu/Zn-SOD levels, followed by increased CAT and GPx mRNA expressions in the three tissue types. Both smtB and mt2 mRNAs increased in the hepatic and brain tissues following 1h of cold stress, but only smtB exhibited a significant increase in the gills at 1 h and 6 h after transfer to 12 °C. Furthermore, cellular apoptosis in the brain was not evident after cold shock, but liver and gills showed cellular apoptosis at 1-3 h, with another peak in the liver at 6 h after cold shock. The results suggest that the cold shock induced oxidative stress, and the enzymatic (SOD, GPx and CAT) and non-enzymatic (mt-2 and smt-B) mRNA expressions all play a role in the resulting anti-oxidation within 1-6 h of cold shock. A functional comparison showed that the brain had the most powerful antioxidant defense system of the three tissue types since it had the highest smtB mRNA expression and a lower level of cell apoptosis than the liver and gills after exposure to cold stress.

Effect of warming rate on the critical thermal maxima of crabs, shrimp and fish

The threat of global warming has prompted numerous recent studies on the thermal tolerance of marine species. A widely used method to determine the upper thermal limit has been the Critical Thermal Maximum (CTMax), a dynamic method, meaning that temperature is increased gradually until a critical point is reached. This method presents several advantages over static methods, however, there is one main issue that hinders interpretation and comparison of CTMax results: the rate at which the temperature is increased. This rate varies widely among published protocols. The aim of the present work was to determine the effect of warming rate on CTMax values, using different animal groups. The influence of the thermal niche occupied by each species (intertidal vs subtidal) and habitat (intertidal vs subtidal) was also investigated. CTMax were estimated at three different rates: 1°Cmin(-1), 1°C30min(-1) and 1°Ch(-1), in two species of crab, Eurypanopeus abbreviatus and Menippe nodifrons, shrimp Palaemon northropi and Hippolyte obliquimanus and fish Bathygobius soporator and Parablennius marmoreus. While there were significant differences in the effect of warming rates for some species, for other species warming rate produced no significant differences (H. obliquimanus and B. soporator). While in some species slower warming rates lead to lower CTMax values (P. northropi and P. marmoreus) in other species the opposite occurred (E. abbreviatus and M. nodifrons). Biological group has a significant effect with crabs' CTMax increasing at slower warming rates, which did not happen for shrimp and fish. Subtidal species presented lower CTMax, at all warming rates tested. This study highlights the importance of estimating CTMax values at realistic rates that species encounter in their environment and thus have an ecological value.

Histological and enzymatic responses of Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) and its hybrids (P. olivaceus ♀ × P. dentatus ♂) to chronic heat stress

This study investigated the effects of long-term heat exposure on Japanese flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) and its hybrids (P. olivaceus ♀ × summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus ♂). From 24 ± 0.5°C, temperature was increased by 1 ± 0.5°C in a day and was kept at that temperature for 5 days before next rise. Cumulative survival rate (CSR), cumulative survival rate under different temperature (CSR-T), histological alteration, and related enzyme activities were investigated. In P. olivaceus, mass mortality occurred at 29 and 32 °C (the CSR-T dropped to 42.39%), and serious gill damages appeared at 30 and 32°C. Meanwhile, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), lysozyme (LZM), and pyruvate kinase (PK) declined around 29 and 32°C (except for CAT). In comparison with P. olivaceus, the CSR of the hybrids was higher, the gill kept a better structural integrity, and the activities of SOD, CAT, LZM, and PK showed tiny fluctuations. The results suggested that during the process of chronic heat stress, P. olivaceus seemed to be more sensitive to 29 and 32°C, and the manifestations in survival, histology, and enzyme activity were generally consistent. For the hybrids, the comparatively insensitivity to high temperature might imply its better heat tolerance.

Effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of metallic compounds on the flatfish Scophthalmus maximus: biomarkers of neurotoxicity, oxidative stress and metabolism

Flatfish species, such as the turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), are common targets for toxic effects, since they are exposed through the food chain (ingestion of contaminated preys) and are in direct contact with the waterborne contaminant and sediments. Furthermore, these fish species live in close proximity to interstitial water that frequently dissolves high amounts of contaminants, including metals. Despite this significant set of characteristics, the present knowledge concerning flatfish contamination and toxicity by metals is still scarce. To attain the objective of assessing the effects of metals on a flatfish species, S. maximus specimens were chronically exposed to lead, copper and zinc, at ecologically relevant concentrations, and biochemical (oxidative stress: catalase and glutathione S-transferases activities, and lipid peroxidation; neurotoxicity: cholinesterase activity) parameters were assessed on selected tissues (gills and liver). Copper had no significant effects on all tested parameters; lead was causative of significant increases in liver GSTs activities and also in lipoperoxidation of gill tissue; exposure to zinc caused a significant increase in catalase activity of gill tissue. None of the tested metals elicited noteworthy effects in terms of neurotoxicity. The obtained results showed that only the metal lead is of some environmental importance, since it was able to cause deleterious modifications of oxidative nature at relevant concentrations.

Effect of increasing temperature in the differential activity of oxidative stress biomarkers in various tissues of the Rock goby, Gobius paganellus

Oxidative stress biomarkers have been widely used in the development of ecological indices and in the assessment of exposure of aquatic organisms to contaminants from agricultural, industrial and urban pollution. However, temperature is known to also have a significant effect on oxidative stress biomarkers. This way, temperature is a confounding factor that may result in difficulties in the interpretation of oxidative stress biomarkers response patterns. Since climate change is expected to result in more frequent and intense heat wave events it is pertinent to investigate the effect of increasing temperature in the oxidative stress response of common aquatic organisms. It is also important to assess the differential response of different body tissues, given that they are differently exposed to temperature depending on their location and physiological function. This study investigates the effect of increasing temperature (20 °C-34 °C) in the response of multiple biomarkers of oxidative stress: lipid peroxidation, glutathione-S-transferase, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, in the muscle, liver and gills of a common coastal fish, the Rock goby, Gobius paganellus. The response of the oxidative stress biomarkers analysed were always higher in the gills than in the other tissues. Muscle generally presented the lower levels of any of the biomarkers tested when compared to other tissues. Nevertheless, muscle tissue always responded significantly to temperature, as did the liver, while the gills were unresponsive in terms of lipid peroxidation and glutathione-S-transferase. Unresponsive tissues to temperature may be particularly interesting as indicators of pollution, given that temperature will not be a confounding variable in their oxidative stress response.