151
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Jensen K, Møller BL. Plant NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductases. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2010; 71:132-41. [PMID: 19931102 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2009] [Accepted: 10/21/2009] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CPR) serves as the electron donor to almost all eukaryotic cytochromes P450. It belongs to a small family of diflavin proteins and is built of cofactor binding domains with high structural homology to those of bacterial flavodoxins and to ferredoxin-NADP(+) oxidoreductases. CPR shuttles electrons from NADPH through the FAD and FMN-cofactors into the central heme-group of the P450s. Mobile domains in CPR are essential for electron transfer between FAD and FMN and for P450 interaction. Blast searches identified 54 full-length gene sequences encoding CPR derived from a total of 35 different plant species. CPRs from vascular plants cluster into two major phylogenetic groups. Depending on the species, plants contain one, two or three paralogs of which one is inducible. The nature of the CPR-P450 interacting domains is well conserved as demonstrated by the ability of CPRs from different species or even from different kingdoms to at least partially complement each other functionally. This makes CPR an ideal bio-brick in synthetic biology approaches to re-design or develop entirely different combinations of existing biological systems to gain improved or completely altered functionalities based on the "share your parts" principle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Jensen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
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152
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Abstract
Cytochrome P450 enzyme system consists of P450 and its NAD(P)H-linked reductase or reducing system, and catalyses monooxygenation reactions. The most prevalent type in eukaryotic organisms is 'microsomes type', which consists of membrane-bound P450 and NADPH-P450 reductase. The second type is 'mitochondria type', in which P450 is bound to the inner membrane while the reducing system consisting of an NADPH-linked flavoprotein and a ferredoxin-type iron-sulphur protein is soluble in the matrix space. The third type is 'bacteria type', in which both P450 and the reducing system are soluble in the cytoplasm. In addition to these three types, several forms of P450-reductase fusion proteins have been found in prokaryotic organisms. On the other hand, some P450s catalyse the re-arrangement of the oxygen atoms in the substrate molecules that does not require the supply of reducing equivalents for the reaction. A peculiar P450, P450nor, receives electrons directly from NADH for the reduction of nitric oxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuneo Omura
- Kyushu University, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Fukuoka 811-8582, Japan.
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153
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Yang CQ, Lu S, Mao YB, Wang LJ, Chen XY. Characterization of two NADPH: cytochrome P450 reductases from cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2010; 71:27-35. [PMID: 19883924 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2009] [Revised: 09/17/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) are commonly involved in biosynthesis of endogenous compounds and catabolism of xenobiotics, and their activities rely on a partner enzyme, cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR, E.C.1.6.2.4). Two CPR cDNAs, GhCPR1 and GhCPR2, were isolated from cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). They are 71% identical to each other at the amino acid sequence level and belong to the Class I and II of dicotyledonous CPRs, respectively. The recombinant enzymes reduced cytochrome c, ferricyanide and dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) in an NADPH-dependent manner, and supported the activity of CYP73A25, a cinnamate 4-hydroxylase of cotton. Both GhCPR genes were widely expressed in cotton tissues, with a reduced expression level of GhCPR2 in the glandless cotton cultivar. Expression of GhCPR2, but not GhCPR1, was inducible by mechanical wounding and elicitation, indicating that the GhCPR2 is more related to defense reactions, including biosynthesis of secondary metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Qing Yang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 300 Fenglin Road, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
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154
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Paquette SM, Jensen K, Bak S. A web-based resource for the Arabidopsis P450, cytochromes b5, NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductases, and family 1 glycosyltransferases (http://www.P450.kvl.dk). PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2009; 70:1940-7. [PMID: 19818975 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2009] [Accepted: 08/12/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Gene and genome duplication is a key driving force in evolution of plant diversity. This has resulted in a number of large multi-gene families. Two of the largest multi-gene families in plants are the cytochromes P450 (P450s) and family 1 glycosyltransferases (UGTs). These two families are key players in evolution, especially of plant secondary metabolism, and in adaption to abiotic and biotic stress. In the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana there are 246 and 112 cytochromes P450 and UGTs, respectively. The Arabidopsis P450, cytochromes b(5), NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductases, and family 1 glycosyltransferases website (http://www.P450.kvl.dk) is a sequence repository of manually curated sequences, multiple sequence alignments, phylogenetic trees, sequence motif logos, 3D structures, intron-exon maps, and customized BLAST datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M Paquette
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, HSB G-520/Box 357420, Seattle, WA 98195-7420, USA
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155
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Han J, Clement JM, Li J, King A, Ng S, Jaworski JG. The cytochrome P450 CYP86A22 is a fatty acyl-CoA omega-hydroxylase essential for Estolide synthesis in the stigma of Petunia hybrida. J Biol Chem 2009; 285:3986-3996. [PMID: 19940120 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.050765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The stigmatic estolide is a lipid-based polyester constituting the major component of exudate in solanaceous plants. Although the exudate is believed to play important roles in the pollination process, the biosynthetic pathway of stigmatic estolide, including genes encoding the key enzymes, remains unknown. Here we report the cloning and characterization of the cytochrome P450 gene CYP86A22, which encodes a fatty acyl-CoA omega-hydroxylase involved in estolide biosynthesis in the stigma of Petunia hybrida. A CYP86A22 cDNA was isolated from a developing stigma cDNA library, and the corresponding gene was shown to express predominantly in the developing stigma. Among six P450 genes isolated from this library, only CYP86A22 was implicated in omega-hydroxylation following RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated suppression. Unlike wild-type plants in which omega-hydroxy fatty acids (mainly in the form of 18-hydroxy oleic acid and 18-hydroxy linoleic acid) compose 96% of total stigma fatty acids, the omega-hydroxy fatty acids were essentially absent in the stigmas from 18 of 46 CYP86A22-RNAi transgenic plants and had varying levels of suppression in the remaining 28 plants. Furthermore, lipids in the 18 CYP86A22-RNAi stigmas were predominantly triacylglycerols and diacylglycerols instead of the estolides, which characterize the wild-type stigma. Analyses of recombinant CYP86A22 conclusively demonstrated that this P450 is a omega-hydroxylase with a substrate preference for both saturated and unsaturated acyl-CoAs rather than free fatty acids. We conclude that the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP86A22 is the key fatty acyl-CoA omega-hydroxylase essential for the production of omega-hydroxy fatty acids and the biosynthesis of triacylglycerol-/diacylglycerol-based estolide polyesters in the petunia stigma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jixiang Han
- From the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132
| | - Joel M Clement
- From the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132
| | - Jia Li
- From the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132
| | - Andrew King
- From the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132
| | - Shirley Ng
- From the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132
| | - Jan G Jaworski
- From the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132.
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156
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Swaminathan S, Morrone D, Wang Q, Fulton DB, Peters RJ. CYP76M7 is an ent-cassadiene C11alpha-hydroxylase defining a second multifunctional diterpenoid biosynthetic gene cluster in rice. THE PLANT CELL 2009; 21:3315-25. [PMID: 19825834 PMCID: PMC2782285 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.108.063677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2008] [Revised: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 09/30/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Biosynthetic gene clusters are common in microbial organisms, but rare in plants, raising questions regarding the evolutionary forces that drive their assembly in multicellular eukaryotes. Here, we characterize the biochemical function of a rice (Oryza sativa) cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, CYP76M7, which seems to act in the production of antifungal phytocassanes and defines a second diterpenoid biosynthetic gene cluster in rice. This cluster is uniquely multifunctional, containing enzymatic genes involved in the production of two distinct sets of phytoalexins, the antifungal phytocassanes and antibacterial oryzalides/oryzadiones, with the corresponding genes being subject to distinct transcriptional regulation. The lack of uniform coregulation of the genes within this multifunctional cluster suggests that this was not a primary driving force in its assembly. However, the cluster is dedicated to specialized metabolism, as all genes in the cluster are involved in phytoalexin metabolism. We hypothesize that this dedication to specialized metabolism led to the assembly of the corresponding biosynthetic gene cluster. Consistent with this hypothesis, molecular phylogenetic comparison demonstrates that the two rice diterpenoid biosynthetic gene clusters have undergone independent elaboration to their present-day forms, indicating continued evolutionary pressure for coclustering of enzymatic genes encoding components of related biosynthetic pathways.
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157
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Dobritsa AA, Shrestha J, Morant M, Pinot F, Matsuno M, Swanson R, Møller BL, Preuss D. CYP704B1 is a long-chain fatty acid omega-hydroxylase essential for sporopollenin synthesis in pollen of Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 151:574-89. [PMID: 19700560 PMCID: PMC2754625 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.144469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2009] [Accepted: 08/18/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Sporopollenin is the major component of the outer pollen wall (exine). Fatty acid derivatives and phenolics are thought to be its monomeric building blocks, but the precise structure, biosynthetic route, and genetics of sporopollenin are poorly understood. Based on a phenotypic mutant screen in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), we identified a cytochrome P450, designated CYP704B1, as being essential for exine development. CYP704B1 is expressed in the developing anthers. Mutations in CYP704B1 result in impaired pollen walls that lack a normal exine layer and exhibit a characteristic striped surface, termed zebra phenotype. Heterologous expression of CYP704B1 in yeast cells demonstrated that it catalyzes omega-hydroxylation of long-chain fatty acids, implicating these molecules in sporopollenin synthesis. Recently, an anther-specific cytochrome P450, denoted CYP703A2, that catalyzes in-chain hydroxylation of lauric acid was also shown to be involved in sporopollenin synthesis. This shows that different classes of hydroxylated fatty acids serve as essential compounds for sporopollenin formation. The genetic relationships between CYP704B1, CYP703A2, and another exine gene, MALE STERILITY2, which encodes a fatty acyl reductase, were explored. Mutations in all three genes resulted in pollen with remarkably similar zebra phenotypes, distinct from those of other known exine mutants. The double and triple mutant combinations did not result in the appearance of novel phenotypes or enhancement of single mutant phenotypes. This implies that each of the three genes is required to provide an indispensable subset of fatty acid-derived components within the sporopollenin biosynthesis framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Dobritsa
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA.
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158
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Gesell A, Rolf M, Ziegler J, Díaz Chávez ML, Huang FC, Kutchan TM. CYP719B1 is salutaridine synthase, the C-C phenol-coupling enzyme of morphine biosynthesis in opium poppy. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:24432-42. [PMID: 19567876 PMCID: PMC2782036 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.033373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Revised: 06/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Morphine is a powerful analgesic natural product produced by the opium poppy Papaver somniferum. Although formal syntheses of this alkaloid have been reported, the morphine molecule contains five stereocenters and a C-C phenol linkage that to date render a total synthesis of morphine commercially unfeasible. The C-C phenol-coupling reaction along the biosynthetic pathway to morphine in opium poppy is catalyzed by the cytochrome P450-dependent oxygenase salutaridine synthase. We report herein on the identification of salutaridine synthase as a member of the CYP719 family of cytochromes P450 during a screen of recombinant cytochromes P450 of opium poppy functionally expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cells. Recombinant CYP719B1 is a highly stereo- and regioselective enzyme; of forty-one compounds tested as potential substrates, only (R)-reticuline and (R)-norreticuline resulted in formation of a product (salutaridine and norsalutaridine, respectively). To date, CYP719s have been characterized catalyzing only the formation of a methylenedioxy bridge in berberine biosynthesis (canadine synthase, CYP719A1) and in benzo[c]phenanthridine biosynthesis (stylopine synthase, CYP719A14). Previously identified phenol-coupling enzymes of plant alkaloid biosynthesis belong only to the CYP80 family of cytochromes. CYP719B1 therefore is the prototype for a new family of plant cytochromes P450 that catalyze formation of a phenol-couple.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Gesell
- From the Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Megan Rolf
- the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, and
| | - Jörg Ziegler
- From the Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - María Luisa Díaz Chávez
- From the Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
- the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, and
| | - Fong-Chin Huang
- the Laboratorium für Molekulare Biologie, Universität München, Karlstrasse 29, D-80333 München, Germany
| | - Toni M. Kutchan
- From the Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie, Weinberg 3, D-06120 Halle (Saale), Germany
- the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, and
- the Laboratorium für Molekulare Biologie, Universität München, Karlstrasse 29, D-80333 München, Germany
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159
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Pan Y, Michael TP, Hudson ME, Kay SA, Chory J, Schuler MA. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases as reporters for circadian-regulated pathways. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 150:858-78. [PMID: 19386812 PMCID: PMC2689971 DOI: 10.1104/pp.108.130757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2008] [Accepted: 04/06/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) play important roles in the synthesis of diverse secondary compounds in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Comparison of four data sets analyzing seedlings harvested over a 2-d period of constant conditions after growth with varying photoperiods and thermocycles recorded a total of 98 P450 loci as circadian regulated for at least one of the four conditions. Here, we further describe the circadian-regulated pathways using, as reporters, individual P450 loci that are likely to be rate limiting in secondary metabolic pathways. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction gel blot analyses have confirmed circadian regulation of P450s in phenylpropanoid, carotenoid, oxylipin, glucosinolate, and brassinosteroid biosyntheses and have shown that both P450 and non-P450 genes in the many branches of the phenylpropanoid pathway have similar circadian patterns of expression. In silico analyses of the subsets of coregulated promoters have identified overrepresented promoter elements in various biosynthetic pathway genes, including MYB and MYB4 elements that are significantly more abundant in promoters for the core and lignin sections of phenylpropanoid metabolism. Interactions with these elements important for circadian regulation do not involve the MYB transcription factor PAP1, as previously proposed, since the expression patterns of circadian-regulated P450s are the same in pap1-D mutant seedlings as in wild-type seedlings. Further analysis of circadian-regulated promoters in other biochemical pathways provides us with the opportunity to identify novel promoter motifs that might be important in P450 circadian regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghong Pan
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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160
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Moglia A, Comino C, Portis E, Acquadro A, De Vos RCH, Beekwilder J, Lanteri S. Isolation and mapping of a C3'H gene (CYP98A49) from globe artichoke, and its expression upon UV-C stress. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2009; 28:963-74. [PMID: 19301010 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-009-0695-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2009] [Revised: 02/10/2009] [Accepted: 03/01/2009] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Globe artichoke represents a natural source of phenolic compounds with dicaffeoylquinic acids along with their biosynthetic precursor chlorogenic acid (5-caffeoylquinic acid) as the predominant molecules. We report the isolation and characterization of a full-length cDNA and promoter of a globe artichoke p-coumaroyl ester 3'-hydroxylase (CYP98A49), which is involved in both chlorogenic acid and lignin biosynthesis. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that this gene belongs to the CYP98 family. CYP98A49 was also heterologously expressed in yeast, in order to perform an enzymatic assay with p-coumaroylshikimate and p-coumaroylquinate as substrates. Real Time quantitative PCR analysis revealed that CYP98A49 expression is induced upon exposure to UV-C radiation. A single nucleotide polymorphism in the CYP98A49 gene sequence of two globe artichoke varieties used for genetic mapping allowed the localization of this gene to linkage group 10 within the previously developed maps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Moglia
- DiVaPRA, Plant Genetics and Breeding, University of Torino, via L. da Vinci 44, 10095, Grugliasco (TO), Italy
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161
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Schwarz H, Liu B, Peters S, Barillas W, Beerhues L. Purification, cDNA cloning and functional expression of NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase from Centaurium erythraea cell cultures. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2009; 11:300-306. [PMID: 19470102 DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2008.00137.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Solubilised NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) was purified from the microsomal fraction of centaury (Centaurium erythraea) cell cultures by Q-anion exchange chromatography and affinity chromatography on adenosine 2',5'-diphosphate agarose. SDS-PAGE demonstrated the presence of three CPR isoforms with molecular masses of 77, 79 and 81 kDa. The 79- and 81-kDa isoforms were identified as glycoproteins when blotted following SDS-PAGE and subjected to a sugar detection procedure. A homology-based approach led to the isolation of a CPR cDNA encoding the 77-kDa isoform. The enzyme was a class I CPR, possessing a short N-terminus upstream of the membrane anchor. The amino acid sequence contained a putative N-glycosylation site, indicating that the two major isoforms of 77 and 79 kDa are related through attachment of an oligosaccharide chain. This glycosylation process was also found upon heterologous expression in yeast. When co-expressed in yeast together with centaury coniferyl alcohol 5-hydroxylase, CPR efficiently supported the activity of the P450 enzyme. The genome of C. erythraea was found to contain a second CPR gene. RT-PCR experiments using gene-specific primers revealed differential regulation of the two CPR genes. While CPR 2 mRNA was strongly induced by the addition of methyl jasmonate to the cell cultures, the CPR 1 expression level did not change after this elicitation.
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MESH Headings
- Acetates/metabolism
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Cell Culture Techniques
- Centaurium/enzymology
- Centaurium/genetics
- Chromatography, Affinity
- Chromatography, Ion Exchange
- Cloning, Molecular
- Cyclopentanes/metabolism
- Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System
- DNA, Complementary
- Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
- Gene Expression
- Gene Expression Regulation, Plant
- Genes, Plant
- Genome, Plant
- Glycoproteins/genetics
- Glycoproteins/isolation & purification
- Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Glycosylation
- Microsomes
- Molecular Sequence Data
- NADPH-Ferrihemoprotein Reductase/genetics
- NADPH-Ferrihemoprotein Reductase/isolation & purification
- NADPH-Ferrihemoprotein Reductase/metabolism
- Open Reading Frames
- Oxylipins/metabolism
- Plant Proteins/genetics
- Plant Proteins/isolation & purification
- Plant Proteins/metabolism
- Protein Isoforms
- Protein Processing, Post-Translational
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Sequence Alignment
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
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Affiliation(s)
- H Schwarz
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
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162
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Eberle D, Ullmann P, Werck-Reichhart D, Petersen M. cDNA cloning and functional characterisation of CYP98A14 and NADPH:cytochrome P450 reductase from Coleus blumei involved in rosmarinic acid biosynthesis. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 69:239-53. [PMID: 18982412 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-008-9420-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2008] [Accepted: 10/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The final reactions of rosmarinic acid biosynthesis, the introduction of the aromatic 3- and 3'-hydroxyl groups, are catalysed by cytochrome P450-dependent hydroxylases. The cDNAs encoding CYP98A14 as well as a NADPH:cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) were isolated from Coleus blumei and actively expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The CYP98A14-cDNA showed an open reading frame of 1521 nucleotides with high similarities to 4-coumaroylshikimate/quinate 3-hydroxylases. Yeast microsomes harbouring the CYP98A14 protein catalysed the 3-hydroxylation of 4-coumaroyl-3',4'-dihydroxyphenyllactate and the 3'-hydroxylation of caffeoyl-4'-hydroxyphenyllactate, in both cases forming rosmarinic acid. Apparent K (m)-values for 4-coumaroyl-3',4'-dihydroxyphenyllactate and caffeoyl-4'-hydroxyphenyllactate were determined to be at 5 microM and 40 microM, respectively. CYP98A14 differs from CYP98s from other plants, since 4-coumaroylshikimate or -quinate were not accepted as substrates. Coexpression of the Coleus blumei CPR and CYP98A14 in the same yeast cells increased the hydroxylation activity up to sevenfold. CYP98A14 from Coleus blumei is a novel bifunctional cytochrome P450 specialised for rosmarinic acid biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Eberle
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Deutschhausstr. 17A, 35037, Marburg, Germany
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163
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Production of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nat Chem Biol 2008; 4:564-73. [PMID: 18690217 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2008] [Accepted: 07/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) are a diverse class of metabolites that exhibit a broad range of pharmacological activities and are synthesized through plant biosynthetic pathways comprised of complex enzyme activities and regulatory strategies. We have engineered yeast to produce the key intermediate reticuline and downstream BIA metabolites from a commercially available substrate. An enzyme tuning strategy was implemented that identified activity differences between variants from different plants and determined optimal expression levels. By synthesizing both stereoisomer forms of reticuline and integrating enzyme activities from three plant sources and humans, we demonstrated the synthesis of metabolites in the sanguinarine/berberine and morphinan branches. We also demonstrated that a human P450 enzyme exhibits a novel activity in the conversion of (R)-reticuline to the morphinan alkaloid salutaridine. Our engineered microbial hosts offer access to a rich group of BIA molecules and associated activities that will be further expanded through synthetic chemistry and biology approaches.
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164
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Endler A, Martens S, Wellmann F, Matern U. Unusually divergent 4-coumarate:CoA-ligases from Ruta graveolens L. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 67:335-346. [PMID: 18379886 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-008-9323-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2007] [Accepted: 03/19/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Most angiosperms encode a small family of 4-coumarate:CoA-ligases (4CLs) activating hydroxycinnamic acids for lignin and flavonoid pathways. The common rue, Ruta graveolens L., additionally produces coumarins by cyclization of the 4-coumaroyl moiety, possibly involving the CoA-ester, as well as acridone and furoquinoline alkaloids relying on (N-methyl)anthraniloyl-CoA as the starter substrate for polyketide synthase condensation. The accumulation of alkaloids and coumarins, but not flavonoids, was enhanced in Ruta graveolens suspension cultures upon the addition of fungal elicitor. Total RNA of elicitor-treated Ruta cells was used as template for RT-PCR amplification with degenerate oligonucleotide primers inferred from conserved motifs in AMP-binding proteins, and two full-size cDNAs were generated through RACE and identified as 4-coumarate:CoA-ligases, Rg4CL1 and Rg4CL2, by functional expression in yeast cells. The recombinant enzymes differed considerably in their preferential affinities to cinnamate (Rg4CL1) or ferulate (RgCL2) besides 4-coumarate, but did not activate hydroxybenzoic or (N-methyl)anthranilic acid. Most notably, the Rg4CL1 polypeptide included an N-terminal extension suggesting a chloroplast transit peptide. The genes were cloned and revealed four exons, separated by 1056, 94 and 54 bp introns for RgCL1, while Rg4CL2 was composed of five exons interupted by four introns from 113 to 350 bp, and the divergent heritage of these genes was substantiated by phylogenetic analysis. Both genes were expressed in shoot, leaf and flower tissues of adult Ruta plants with preference in shoot and flower, whereas negligible expression occurred in the root. However, Rg4CL1 was expressed much stronger in the flower, while Rg4CL2 was expressed mostly in the shoot. Furthermore, considerable transient induction of only Rg4CL1 was observed upon elicitation of Ruta cells, which seems to support a role of Rg4CL1 in coumarin biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Endler
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
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165
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Production of phenylpropanoid compounds by recombinant microorganisms expressing plant-specific biosynthesis genes. Process Biochem 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2008.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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166
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Ehlting J, Sauveplane V, Olry A, Ginglinger JF, Provart NJ, Werck-Reichhart D. An extensive (co-)expression analysis tool for the cytochrome P450 superfamily in Arabidopsis thaliana. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2008; 8:47. [PMID: 18433503 PMCID: PMC2383897 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-8-47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2008] [Accepted: 04/23/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sequencing of the first plant genomes has revealed that cytochromes P450 have evolved to become the largest family of enzymes in secondary metabolism. The proportion of P450 enzymes with characterized biochemical function(s) is however very small. If P450 diversification mirrors evolution of chemical diversity, this points to an unexpectedly poor understanding of plant metabolism. We assumed that extensive analysis of gene expression might guide towards the function of P450 enzymes, and highlight overlooked aspects of plant metabolism. RESULTS We have created a comprehensive database, 'CYPedia', describing P450 gene expression in four data sets: organs and tissues, stress response, hormone response, and mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana, based on public Affymetrix ATH1 microarray expression data. P450 expression was then combined with the expression of 4,130 re-annotated genes, predicted to act in plant metabolism, for co-expression analyses. Based on the annotation of co-expressed genes from diverse pathway annotation databases, co-expressed pathways were identified. Predictions were validated for most P450s with known functions. As examples, co-expression results for P450s related to plastidial functions/photosynthesis, and to phenylpropanoid, triterpenoid and jasmonate metabolism are highlighted here. CONCLUSION The large scale hypothesis generation tools presented here provide leads to new pathways, unexpected functions, and regulatory networks for many P450s in plant metabolism. These can now be exploited by the community to validate the proposed functions experimentally using reverse genetics, biochemistry, and metabolic profiling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Ehlting
- Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UPR 2357, Université Louis Pasteur, 28 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Vincent Sauveplane
- Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UPR 2357, Université Louis Pasteur, 28 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Alexandre Olry
- Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UPR 2357, Université Louis Pasteur, 28 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-François Ginglinger
- Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UPR 2357, Université Louis Pasteur, 28 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicholas J Provart
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Danièle Werck-Reichhart
- Institute of Plant Molecular Biology, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UPR 2357, Université Louis Pasteur, 28 rue Goethe, 67000 Strasbourg, France
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167
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Rontein D, Onillon S, Herbette G, Lesot A, Werck-Reichhart D, Sallaud C, Tissier A. CYP725A4 from yew catalyzes complex structural rearrangement of taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene into the cyclic ether 5(12)-oxa-3(11)-cyclotaxane. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:6067-75. [PMID: 18167342 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m708950200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene is the first committed precursor of functionalized taxanes such as paclitaxel, a successful anticancer drug. Biosynthesis of taxanes in yew involves several oxidations, a number of which have been shown to be catalyzed by cytochrome P-450 oxygenases. Hydroxylation of the C-5alpha of taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene is believed to be the first of these oxidations, and a gene encoding a taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene 5alpha-hydroxylase (CYP725A4) was recently described (Jennewein, S., Long, R. M., Williams, R. M., and Croteau, R. (2004) Chem. Biol. 11, 379-387). In an attempt to produce the early components of the paclitaxel pathway by a metabolic engineering approach, cDNAs encoding taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene synthase and CYP725A4 were introduced in Nicotiana sylvestris for specific expression in trichome cells. Their co-expression did not lead to the production of the expected 5alpha-hydroxytaxa-4(20),11(12)-diene. Instead, taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene was quantitatively converted to a novel taxane that was purified and characterized. Its structure was determined by NMR analysis and found to be that of 5(12)-oxa-3(11)-cyclotaxane (OCT) in which the eight-carbon B-ring from taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene is divided into two fused five-carbon rings. In addition, OCT contains an ether bridge linking C-5 and C-12 from opposite sides of the molecule. OCT was also the sole major product obtained after incubation of taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene with NADPH and microsomes prepared from recombinant yeast expressing CYP725A4. The rearrangement of the taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene ring system is thus mediated by CYP725A4 only and does not rely on additional enzymes or factors present in the plant. The complex structure of OCT led us to propose a reaction mechanism involving a sequence of events so far unknown in P-450 catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Rontein
- Librophyt, Centre de Cadarache, 13115 St. Paul-Lez-Durance, France, Spectropole, Campus Scientifique de Saint Jérôme, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille cedex 20, France.
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168
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Purnapatre K, Khattar SK, Saini KS. Cytochrome P450s in the development of target-based anticancer drugs. Cancer Lett 2008; 259:1-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2007.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2007] [Revised: 10/16/2007] [Accepted: 10/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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169
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Ververidis F, Trantas E, Douglas C, Vollmer G, Kretzschmar G, Panopoulos N. Biotechnology of flavonoids and other phenylpropanoid-derived natural products. Part I: Chemical diversity, impacts on plant biology and human health. Biotechnol J 2007; 2:1214-34. [PMID: 17935117 DOI: 10.1002/biot.200700084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Plant natural products derived from phenylalanine and the phenylpropanoid pathway are impressive in their chemical diversity and are the result of plant evolution, which has selected for the acquisition of large repertoires of pigments, structural and defensive compounds, all derived from a phenylpropanoid backbone via the plant-specific phenylpropanoid pathway. These compounds are important in plant growth, development and responses to environmental stresses and thus can have large impacts on agricultural productivity. While plant-based medicines containing phenylpropanoid-derived active components have long been used by humans, the benefits of specific flavonoids and other phenylpropanoid-derived compounds to human health and their potential for long-term health benefits have been only recognized more recently. In this part of the review, we discuss the diversity and biosynthetic origins of phenylpropanoids and particularly of the flavonoid and stilbenoid natural products. We then review data pertaining to the modes of action and biological properties of these compounds, referring on their effects on human health and physiology and their roles as plant defense and antimicrobial compounds. This review continues in Part II discussing the use of biotechnological tools targeting the rational reconstruction of multienzyme pathways in order to modify the production of such compounds in plants and model microbial systems for the benefit of agriculture and forestry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippos Ververidis
- Laboratory of Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Department of Plant Sciences, Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
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170
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Hamann T, Møller BL. Improved cloning and expression of cytochrome P450s and cytochrome P450 reductase in yeast. Protein Expr Purif 2007; 56:121-7. [PMID: 17826178 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2007.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2007] [Accepted: 06/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Combination of the pYeDP60 yeast expression system with a modified version of the improved uracil-excision (USER) cloning technique provides a new powerful tool for high-throughput expression of eukaryotic cytochrome P450s. The vector presented is designed to obtain an optimal 5' untranslated sequence region for yeast (Kozak consensus sequence), and has been tested to produce active P450s and NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CPR) after 5' end silent codon optimization of the cDNA sequences. Expression of two plant cytochrome P450s, Sorghum bicolor CYP79A1 and CYP71E1, and S. bicolor CPR2 using the modified pYeDP60 vector in all three cases produced high amounts of active protein. High-throughput functional expression of cytochrome P450s have long been a troublesome task due to the workload involved in cloning of each individual P450 into a suitable expression vector. The redesigned yeast P450 expression vector (pYeDP60u) offers major improvements in cloning efficiency, speed, fidelity, and simplicity. The modified version of the USER cloning system provides great potential for further development of other yeast vectors, transforming these into powerful high-throughput expression vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hamann
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant Biology and Center for Molecular Plant Physiology (PlaCe), Faculty of Life Science, University of Copenhagen, 40 Thorvaldsensvej, DK-1871 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark
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171
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Takahashi S, Yeo YS, Zhao Y, O’Maille PE, Greenhagen BT, Noel JP, Coates RM, Chappell J. Functional characterization of premnaspirodiene oxygenase, a cytochrome P450 catalyzing regio- and stereo-specific hydroxylations of diverse sesquiterpene substrates. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:31744-54. [PMID: 17715131 PMCID: PMC2695360 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m703378200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Solavetivone, a potent antifungal phytoalexin, is derived from a vetispirane-type sesquiterpene, premnaspirodiene, by a putative regio- and stereo-specific hydroxylation, followed by a second oxidation to yield the alpha,beta-unsaturated ketone. Mechanistically, these reactions could occur via a single, multifunctional cytochrome P450 or some combination of cytochrome P450s and a dehydrogenase. We report here the characterization of a single cytochrome P450 enzyme, Hyoscyamus muticus premnaspirodiene oxygenase (HPO), that catalyzes these successive reactions at carbon 2 (C-2) of the spirane substrate. HPO also catalyzes the equivalent regio-specific (C-2) hydroxylation of several eremophilane-type (decalin ring system) sesquiterpenes, such as with 5-epi-aristolochene. Moreover, HPO displays interesting comparisons to other sesquiterpene hydroxylases. 5-Epi-aristolochene di-hydroxylase (EAH) differs catalytically from HPO by introducing hydroxyl groups first at C-1, then C-3 of 5-epi-aristolochene. HPO and EAH also differ from one another by 91-amino acid differences, with four of these differences mapping to putative substrate recognition regions 5 and 6. These four positions were mutagenized alone and in various combinations in both HPO and EAH and the mutant enzymes were characterized for changes in substrate selectivity, reaction product specificity, and kinetic properties. These mutations did not alter the regio- or stereo-specificity of either HPO or EAH, but specific combinations of the mutations did improve the catalytic efficiencies 10-15-fold. Molecular models and comparisons between HPO and EAH provide insights into the catalytic properties of these enzymes of specialized metabolism in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunji Takahashi
- Plant Biology Program, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0312
| | - Yun-Soo Yeo
- Plant Biology Program, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0312
| | - Yuxin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Paul E. O’Maille
- The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Bryan T. Greenhagen
- Plant Biology Program, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0312
| | - Joseph P. Noel
- The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Robert M. Coates
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Joe Chappell
- Plant Biology Program, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0312
- To whom correspondence should be addressed: 1405 Veterans Dr., Lexington, KY 40546-0312. Tel.: 859-257-5020 (ext. 80775); Fax: 859-257-7125; E-mail:
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172
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Takahashi S, Yeo Y, Greenhagen BT, McMullin T, Song L, Maurina-Brunker J, Rosson R, Noel JP, Chappell J. Metabolic engineering of sesquiterpene metabolism in yeast. Biotechnol Bioeng 2007; 97:170-81. [PMID: 17013941 PMCID: PMC2859293 DOI: 10.1002/bit.21216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Terpenes are structurally diverse compounds that are of interest because of their biological activities and industrial value. These compounds consist of chirally rich hydrocarbon backbones derived from terpene synthases, which are subsequently decorated with hydroxyl substituents catalyzed by terpene hydroxylases. Availability of these compounds is, however, limited by intractable synthetic means and because they are produced in low amounts and as complex mixtures by natural sources. We engineered yeast for sesquiterpene accumulation by introducing genetic modifications that enable the yeast to accumulate high levels of the key intermediate farnesyl diphosphate (FPP). Co-expression of terpene synthase genes diverted the enlarged FPP pool to greater than 80 mg/L of sesquiterpene. Efficient coupling of terpene production with hydroxylation was also demonstrated by coordinate expression of terpene hydroxylase activity, yielding 50 mg/L each of hydrocarbon and hydroxylated products. These yeast now provide a convenient format for investigating catalytic coupling between terpene synthases and hydroxylases, as well as a platform for the industrial production of high value, single-entity and stereochemically unique terpenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunji Takahashi
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0312, USA.
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173
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Zhang J, Subramanian S, Zhang Y, Yu O. Flavone synthases from Medicago truncatula are flavanone-2-hydroxylases and are important for nodulation. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 144:741-51. [PMID: 17434990 PMCID: PMC1914186 DOI: 10.1104/pp.106.095018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Flavones are important copigments found in the flowers of many higher plants and play a variety of roles in plant adaptation to stress. In Medicago species, flavones also act as signal molecules during symbiotic interaction with the diazotropic bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti. They are the most potent nod gene inducers found in root exudates. However, flavone synthase II (FNS II), the key enzyme responsible for flavone biosynthesis, has not been characterized in Medicago species. We cloned two FNS II genes from Medicago truncatula using known FNS II sequences from other species and named them MtFNSII-1 and MtFNSII-2. Functional assays in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) suggested that the catalytic mechanisms of both cytochrome P450 monooxygenases were similar to the other known legume FNS II from licorice (Glycyrrhiza echinata). MtFNSII converted flavanones to 2-hydroxyflavanones instead of flavones whereas FNS II from the nonlegume Gerbera hybrida, converted flavanones to flavones directly. The two MtFNSII genes had distinct tissue-specific expression patterns. MtFNSII-1 was highly expressed in roots and seeds whereas MtFNSII-2 was highly expressed in flowers and siliques. In addition, MtFNSII-2 was inducible by S. meliloti and methyl jasmonate treatment, whereas MtFNSII-1 was not. Histochemical staining of transgenic hairy roots carrying the promoter-reporter constructs indicated that the MtFNSII-2 induction was tissue specific, mostly localized to vascular tissues and root hairs. RNA interference-mediated suppression of MtFNSII genes resulted in flavone depleted roots and led to significantly reduced nodulation when inoculated with S. meliloti. Our results provide genetic evidence supporting that flavones are important for nodulation in M. truncatula.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Zhang
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, USA
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174
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Nagai S, Koide M, Takahashi S, Kikuta A, Aono M, Sasaki-Sekimoto Y, Ohta H, Takamiya KI, Masuda T. Induction of isoforms of tetrapyrrole biosynthetic enzymes, AtHEMA2 and AtFC1, under stress conditions and their physiological functions in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 144:1039-51. [PMID: 17416636 PMCID: PMC1914178 DOI: 10.1104/pp.107.100065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway, isoforms of glutamyl-tRNA reductase (HEMA2) and ferrochelatase1 (FC1) are mainly expressed in nonphotosynthetic tissues. Here, using promoter-beta-glucuronidase constructs, we showed that the expressions of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) HEMA2 (AtHEMA2) and FC1 (AtFC1) were induced in photosynthetic tissues by oxidative stresses such as wounding. Transcript levels and beta-glucronidase activity were rapidly induced within 30 min, specifically in the wound area in a jasmonate-independent manner. Transcriptome analysis of wound-specific early inducible genes showed that AtHEMA2 and AtFC1 were coinduced with hemoproteins outside plastids, which are related to defense responses. Ozone fumigation or reagents generating reactive oxygen species induced the expression of both genes in photosynthetic tissues, suggesting that reactive oxygen species is involved in the induction. Since cycloheximide or puromycin induced the expression of both genes, inhibition of cytosolic protein synthesis is involved in the induction of these genes in photosynthetic tissues. The physiological functions of AtHEMA2 and AtFC1 were investigated using insertional knockout mutants of each gene. Heme contents of the roots of both mutants were about half of that of the respective wild types. In wild-type plants, heme contents were increased by ozone exposure. In both mutants, reduction of the ozone-induced increase in heme content was observed. These results suggest the existence of the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway controlled by AtHEMA2 and AtFC1, which normally functions for heme biosynthesis in nonphotosynthetic tissues, but is induced in photosynthetic tissues under oxidative conditions to supply heme for defensive hemoproteins outside plastids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Nagai
- Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
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175
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Chen H, Jiang H, Morgan JA. Non-natural cinnamic acid derivatives as substrates of cinnamate 4-hydroxylase. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2007; 68:306-11. [PMID: 17141284 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2005] [Revised: 09/19/2006] [Accepted: 10/21/2006] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), a monooxygenase in the plant phenylpropanoid pathway, was assayed for its ability to hydroxylate 29 substrate analogues. Nine of the tested analogues with various aromatic side chains, including 3-coumaric acid, were metabolized by C4H. Seven products from these reactive analogues were characterized using LC/MS, 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopic analysis. For example, caffeic acid was the product of 3-coumaric acid. The products 4-hydroxy-2-chlorocinnamic acid and 4-hydroxy-2-ethoxycinnamic acid are novel compounds that have not been previously reported. The kinetic parameters of C4H towards these analogues were determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University, 1055 FRNY Hall, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1283, USA
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176
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Lindahl AL, Olsson ME, Mercke P, Tollbom O, Schelin J, Brodelius M, Brodelius PE. Production of the artemisinin precursor amorpha-4,11-diene by engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biotechnol Lett 2006; 28:571-80. [PMID: 16614895 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-006-0015-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2005] [Accepted: 01/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The gene encoding for amorpha-4,11-diene synthase from Artemisia annua was transformed into yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in two fundamentally different ways. First, the gene was subcloned into the galactose-inducible, high-copy number yeast expression vector pYeDP60 and used to transform the Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain CEN.PK113-5D. Secondly, amorpha-4,11-diene synthase gene, regulated by the same promoter, was introduced into the yeast genome by homologous recombination. In protein extracts from galactose-induced yeast cells, a higher activity was observed for yeast expressing the enzyme from the plasmid. The genome-transformed yeast grows at the same rate as wild-type yeast while plasmid-carrying yeast grows somewhat slower than the wild-type yeast. The plasmid and genome-transformed yeasts produced 600 and 100 microg/l of the artemisinin precursor amorpha-4,11-diene, respectively, during 16-days' batch cultivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Louise Lindahl
- Department of Chemistry and Biomedical Science, University of Kalmar, SE-39182, Kalmar, Sweden
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177
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Yang SH, Zeevaart JAD. Expression of ABA 8'-hydroxylases in relation to leaf water relations and seed development in bean. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 47:675-86. [PMID: 16856981 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2006.02815.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In plants, the level of abscisic acid (ABA) is determined by synthesis and catabolism. Hydroxylation of ABA at the 8' position is the key step in ABA catabolism. This reaction is catalyzed by ABA 8'-hydroxylase, a cytochrome P450 (CYP). The cDNAs of PvCYP707A1 and PvCYP707A2 were isolated from bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) axes treated with (+)-ABA and that of PvCYP707A3 from dehydrated bean leaves. The recombinant PvCYP707A proteins expressed in yeast were biochemically characterized. Yeast strains over-expressing any of the three PvCYP707As were able to convert ABA to phaseic acid (PA). The microsomal fractions from these yeast strains also exhibited ABA 8'-hydroxylase activity. Expression of PvCYP707A3 in primary leaves was strongly increased by water stress, whereas PvCYP707A1 and PvCYP707A2 mRNA levels were rapidly increased by rehydration of water-stressed leaves. Northern blot analysis of PvCYP707As in bean showed a high level of expression in the mature fruits, senescent leaves, roots, seed coats and axes. All three PvCYP707As were expressed at varying intensities throughout seed development. Imbibed seeds also had high PvCYP707A mRNA levels. Thus, expression of PvCYP707As is both environmentally and developmentally regulated. Transgenic Nicotiana sylvestris plants over-expressing PvCYP707As displayed a wilty phenotype, and had reduced ABA levels and increased PA levels. These results demonstrate that expression of PvCYP707As is the major mechanism by which ABA catabolism is regulated in bean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Hwan Yang
- Department of Energy, Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1312, USA
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178
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179
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Watts KT, Lee PC, Schmidt-Dannert C. Biosynthesis of plant-specific stilbene polyketides in metabolically engineered Escherichia coli. BMC Biotechnol 2006; 6:22. [PMID: 16551366 PMCID: PMC1435877 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6750-6-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2005] [Accepted: 03/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phenylpropanoids are the precursors to a range of important plant metabolites such as the cell wall constituent lignin and the secondary metabolites belonging to the flavonoid/stilbene class of compounds. The latter class of plant natural products has been shown to function in a wide range of biological activities. During the last few years an increasing number of health benefits have been associated with these compounds. In particular, they demonstrate potent antioxidant activity and the ability to selectively inhibit certain tyrosine kinases. Biosynthesis of many medicinally important plant secondary metabolites, including stilbenes, is frequently not very well understood and under tight spatial and temporal control, limiting their availability from plant sources. As an alternative, we sought to develop an approach for the biosynthesis of diverse stilbenes by engineered recombinant microbial cells. RESULTS A pathway for stilbene biosynthesis was constructed in Escherichia coli with 4-coumaroyl CoA ligase 1 4CL1) from Arabidopsis thaliana and stilbene synthase (STS) cloned from Arachis hypogaea. E. coli cultures expressing these enzymes together converted the phenylpropionic acid precursor 4-coumaric acid, added to the growth medium, to the stilbene resveratrol (>100 mg/L). Caffeic acid, added in the same way, resulted in the production of the expected dihydroxylated stilbene, piceatannol (>10 mg/L). Ferulic acid, however, was not converted to the expected stilbene product, isorhapontigenin. Substitution of 4CL1 with a homologous enzyme, 4CL4, with a preference for ferulic acid over 4-coumaric acid, had no effect on the conversion of ferulic acid. Accumulation of tri- and tetraketide lactones from ferulic acid, regardless of the CoA-ligase expressed in E. coli, suggests that STS cannot properly accommodate and fold the tetraketide intermediate to the corresponding stilbene structure. CONCLUSION Phenylpropionic acids, such as 4-coumaric acid and caffeic acid, can be efficiently converted to stilbene compounds by recombinant E. coli cells expressing plant biosynthetic genes. Optimization of precursor conversion and cyclization of the bulky ferulic acid precursor by host metabolic engineering and protein engineering may afford the synthesis of even more structurally diverse stilbene compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T Watts
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Pyung C Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Claudia Schmidt-Dannert
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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180
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Wellmann F, Griesser M, Schwab W, Martens S, Eisenreich W, Matern U, Lukacin R. Anthocyanidin synthase fromGerbera hybridacatalyzes the conversion of (+)-catechin to cyanidin and a novel procyanidin. FEBS Lett 2006; 580:1642-8. [PMID: 16494872 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2006] [Revised: 02/07/2006] [Accepted: 02/08/2006] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Anthocyanidins were proposed to derive from (+)-naringenin via (2R,3R)-dihydroflavonol(s) and (2R,3S,4S)-leucocyanidin(s) which are eventually oxidized by anthocyanidin synthase (ANS). Recently, the role of ANS has been put into question, because the recombinant enzyme from Arabidopsis exhibited primarily flavonol synthase (FLS) activity with negligible ANS activity. This and other studies led to the proposal that ANS as well as FLS may select for dihydroflavonoid substrates carrying a "beta-face" C-3 hydroxyl group and initially form the 3-geminal diol by "alpha-face" hydroxylation. Assays with recombinant ANS from Gerbera hybrida fully supported the proposal and were extended to catechin and epicatechin isomers as potential substrates to delineate the enzyme specificity. Gerbera ANS converted (+)-catechin to two major and one minor product, whereas ent(-)-catechin (2S,3R-trans-catechin), (-)-epicatechin, ent(+)-epicatechin (2S,3S-cis-epicatechin) and (-)-gallocatechin were not accepted. The K(m) value for (+)-catechin was determined at 175 microM, and the products were identified by LC-MS(n) and NMR as the 4,4-dimer of oxidized (+)-catechin (93%), cyanidin (7%) and quercetin (trace). When these incubations were repeated in the presence of UDP-glucose:flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase from Fragariaxananassa (FaGT1), the product ratio shifted to cyanidin 3-O-glucoside (60%), cyanidin (14%) and dimeric oxidized (+)-catechin (26%) at an overall equivalent rate of conversion. The data appear to identify (+)-catechin as another substrate of ANS in vivo and shed new light on the mechanism of its catalysis. Moreover, the enzymatic dimerization of catechin monomers is reported for the first time suggesting a role for ANS beyond the oxidation of leucocyanidins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Wellmann
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Deutschhausstrasse 17 A, D-35037 Marburg, Germany
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181
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Kim DH, Kim BG, Lee HJ, Lim Y, Hur HG, Ahn JH. Enhancement of isoflavone synthase activity by co-expression of P450 reductase from rice. Biotechnol Lett 2006; 27:1291-4. [PMID: 16215827 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-005-0221-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2005] [Accepted: 06/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Plant cytochrome P450s interact with a flavoprotein, NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR), to transfer electrons from NADPH. The gene for rice P450 reductase (RCPR) was cloned and expressed in Saccaromyces cerevisiae, where the specific activity of the expressed RPCR was 0.91 U/mg protein. When isoflavone synthase gene (IFS) from red clover, used as a model system of plant cytochrome P450, was co-expressed with RCPR in yeast, the production of genistein from naringein increased about 4.3-fold, indicating that the RCPR efficiently interacts with cytochrome P450 to transfer electrons from NADPH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dae Hwan Kim
- Bio/Molecular Informatics Center, Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Konkuk University, 143-701, Seoul, Korea
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182
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Jennewein S, Park H, DeJong JM, Long RM, Bollon AP, Croteau RB. Coexpression in yeast of Taxus cytochrome P450 reductase with cytochrome P450 oxygenases involved in Taxol biosynthesis. Biotechnol Bioeng 2005; 89:588-98. [PMID: 15672381 DOI: 10.1002/bit.20390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
To maximize redox coupling efficiency with recombinant cytochrome P450 hydroxylases from yew (Taxus) species installed in yeast for the production of the anticancer drug Taxol, a cDNA encoding NADPH:cytochrome P450 reductase from T. cuspidata was isolated. This single-copy gene (2,154 bp encoding a protein of 717 amino acids) resembles more closely other reductases from gymnosperms (approximately 90% similarity) than those from angiosperms (<80% similarity). The recombinant reductase was characterized and compared to other reductases by heterologous expression in insect cells and was shown to support reconstituted taxoid 10beta-hydroxylase activity with an efficiency comparable to that of other plant-derived reductases. Coexpression in yeast of the reductase along with T. cuspidata taxoid 10beta-hydroxylase, which catalyzes an early step of taxoid biosynthesis, demonstrated significant enhancement of hydroxylase activity compared to that supported by the endogenous yeast reductase alone. Functional transgenic coupling of the Taxus reductase with a homologous cytochrome P450 taxoid hydroxylase represents an important initial step in reconstructing Taxol biosynthesis in a microbial host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Jennewein
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164-6340, USA
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183
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Turk EM, Fujioka S, Seto H, Shimada Y, Takatsuto S, Yoshida S, Wang H, Torres QI, Ward JM, Murthy G, Zhang J, Walker JC, Neff MM. BAS1 and SOB7 act redundantly to modulate Arabidopsis photomorphogenesis via unique brassinosteroid inactivation mechanisms. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 42:23-34. [PMID: 15773851 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2005.02358.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Active brassinosteroids (BRs), such as brassinolide (BL) and castasterone (CS), are growth-promoting plant hormones. An Arabidopsis cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CYP734A1, formerly CYP72B1), encoded by the BAS1 gene, inactivates BRs and modulates photomorphogenesis. BAS1 was identified as the overexpressed gene responsible for a dominant, BR-deficient mutant, bas1-D. This mutant was isolated in an activation-tagged screen designed to identify redundant genes that might not be identified in classic loss-of-function screens. Here we report the isolation of a second activation-tagged mutant with a BR-deficient phenotype. The mutant phenotype is caused by the overexpression of SOB7 (CYP72C1), a homolog of BAS1. We generated single and double null-mutants of BAS1 and SOB7 to test the hypothesis that these two genes act redundantly to modulate photomorphogenesis. BAS1 and SOB7 act redundantly with respect to light promotion of cotyledon expansion, repression of hypocotyl elongation and flowering time in addition to other phenotypes not regulated by light. We also provide biochemical evidence to suggest that BAS1 and SOB7 act redundantly to reduce the level of active BRs, but have unique mechanisms. Overexpression of SOB7 results in a dramatic reduction in endogenous CS levels, and although single null-mutants of BAS1 and SOB7 have the same level of CS as the wild type, the double null-mutant has twice the amount. Application of BL to overexpression lines of BAS1 or SOB7 results in enhanced metabolism of BL, though only BAS1 overexpression lines confer enhanced conversion to 26-OHBL, suggesting that SOB7 and BAS1 convert BL and CS into unique products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M Turk
- Department of Biology, Washington University, Campus Box 1137, One Brookings Drive, St Louis, MO 63130, USA
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184
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Ralston L, Subramanian S, Matsuno M, Yu O. Partial reconstruction of flavonoid and isoflavonoid biosynthesis in yeast using soybean type I and type II chalcone isomerases. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 137:1375-88. [PMID: 15778463 PMCID: PMC1088328 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.054502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2004] [Revised: 01/25/2005] [Accepted: 01/30/2005] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Flavonoids and isoflavonoids are major plant secondary metabolites that mediate diverse biological functions and exert significant ecological impacts. These compounds play important roles in many essential physiological processes. In addition, flavonoids and isoflavonoids have direct but complex effects on human health, ranging from reducing cholesterol levels and preventing certain cancers to improving women's health. In this study, we cloned and functionally characterized five soybean (Glycine max) chalcone isomerases (CHIs), key enzymes in the phenylpropanoid pathway that produces flavonoids and isoflavonoids. Gene expression and kinetics analysis suggest that the soybean type I CHI, which uses naringenin chalcone as substrate, is coordinately regulated with other flavonoid-specific genes, while the type II CHIs, which use a variety of chalcone substrates, are coordinately regulated with an isoflavonoid-specific gene and specifically activated by nodulation signals. Furthermore, we found that some of the newly identified soybean CHIs do not require the 4'-hydroxy moiety on the substrate for high enzyme activity. We then engineered yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to produce flavonoid and isoflavonoid compounds. When one of the type II CHIs was coexpressed with an isoflavone synthase, the enzyme catalyzing the first committed step of isoflavonoid biosynthesis, various chalcone substrates added to the culture media were converted to an assortment of isoflavanones and isoflavones. We also reconstructed the flavonoid pathway by coexpressing CHI with either flavanone 3beta-hydroxylase or flavone synthase II. The in vivo reconstruction of the flavonoid and isoflavonoid pathways in yeast provides a unique platform to study enzyme interactions and metabolic flux.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyle Ralston
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, USA
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185
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Kim GT, Fujioka S, Kozuka T, Tax FE, Takatsuto S, Yoshida S, Tsukaya H. CYP90C1 and CYP90D1 are involved in different steps in the brassinosteroid biosynthesis pathway in Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 41:710-21. [PMID: 15703058 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2004.02330.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Brassinosteroids (BRs) are plant hormones that are essential for a wide range of developmental processes in plants. Many of the genes responsible for the early reactions in the biosynthesis of BRs have recently been identified. However, several genes for enzymes that catalyze late steps in the biosynthesis pathways of BRs remain to be identified, and only a few genes responsible for the reactions that produce bioactive BRs have been identified. We found that the ROTUNDIFOLIA3 (ROT3) gene, encoding the enzyme CYP90C1, which was specifically involved in the regulation of leaf length in Arabidopsis thaliana, was required for the late steps in the BR biosynthesis pathway. ROT3 appears to be required for the conversion of typhasterol to castasterone, an activation step in the BR pathway. We also analyzed the gene most closely related to ROT3, CYP90D1, and found that double mutants for ROT3 and CYP90D1 had a severe dwarf phenotype, whereas cyp90d1 single knockout mutants did not. BR profiling in these mutants revealed that CYP90D1 was also involved in BR biosynthesis pathways. ROT3 and CYP90D1 were expressed differentially in leaves of A. thaliana, and the mutants for these two genes differed in their defects in elongation of hypocotyls under light conditions. The expression of CYP90D1 was strongly induced in leaf petioles in the dark. The results of the present study provide evidence that the two cytochrome P450s, CYP90C1 and CYP90D1, play distinct roles in organ-specific environmental regulation of the biosynthesis of BRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gyung-Tae Kim
- Faculty of Plant Biotechnology, Dong-A University, Pusan 604-714, Korea.
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186
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Takahashi S, Zhao Y, O’Maille PE, Greenhagen BT, Noel JP, Coates RM, Chappell J. Kinetic and molecular analysis of 5-epiaristolochene 1,3-dihydroxylase, a cytochrome P450 enzyme catalyzing successive hydroxylations of sesquiterpenes. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:3686-96. [PMID: 15522862 PMCID: PMC2859954 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m411870200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The final step of capsidiol biosynthesis is catalyzed by 5-epiaristolochene dihydroxylase (EAH), a cytochrome P450 enzyme that catalyzes the regio- and stereospecific insertion of two hydroxyl moieties into the bicyclic sesquiterpene 5-epiaristolochene (EA). Detailed kinetic studies using EA and the two possible monohydroxylated intermediates demonstrated the release of 1beta-hydroxy-EA ((OH)EA) at high EA concentrations and a 10-fold catalytic preference for 1beta(OH)EA versus 3alpha(OH)EA, indicative of a preferred reaction order of hydroxylation at C-1, followed by that at C-3. Sequence alignments and homology modeling identified active-site residues tested for their contribution to substrate specificity and overall enzymatic activity. Mutants EAH-S368C and EAH-S368V exhibited wild-type catalytic efficiencies for 1beta(OH)EA biosynthesis, but were devoid of the successive hydroxylation activity for capsidiol biosynthesis. In contrast to EAH-S368C, EAH-S368V catalyzed the relative equal biosynthesis of 1beta(OH)EA, 2beta(OH)EA, and 3beta(OH)EA from EA with wild-type efficiency. Moreover, EAH-S368V converted approximately 1.5% of these monohydroxylated products to their respective ketone forms. Alanine and threonine mutations at position 368 were significantly compromised in their conversion rates of EA to capsidiol and correlated with 3.6- and 5.7-fold increases in their Km values for the 1beta(OH)EA intermediate, respectively. A role for Ile486 in the successive hydroxylations of EA was also suggested by the EAH-I468A mutant, which produced significant amounts 1beta(OH)EA, but negligible amounts of capsidiol from EA. The altered product profile of the EAH-I486A mutant correlated with a 3.6-fold higher Km for EA and a 4.4-fold slower turnover rate (kcat) for 1beta(OH)EA. These kinetic and mutational studies were correlated with substrate docking predictions to suggest how Ser368 and Ile486 might contribute to active-site topology, substrate binding, and substrate presentation to the oxo-Fe-heme reaction center.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunji Takahashi
- Plant Physiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Biology Program, Agronomy Department, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546-0312
| | - Yuxin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Paul E. O’Maille
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Bryan T. Greenhagen
- Plant Physiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Biology Program, Agronomy Department, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546-0312
| | - Joseph P. Noel
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037
| | - Robert M. Coates
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
| | - Joe Chappell
- Plant Physiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Biology Program, Agronomy Department, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, 40546-0312
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187
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Cauffiez C, Klinzig F, Rat E, Tournel G, Allorge D, Chevalier D, Pottier N, Lovecchio T, Colombel JF, Lhermitte M, Lo-Guidice JM, Broly F. Human CYP4F12 genetic polymorphism: identification and functional characterization of seven variant allozymes. Biochem Pharmacol 2004; 68:2417-25. [PMID: 15548388 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2004.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2004] [Accepted: 08/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The human cytochrome CYP4F12 has been shown to be metabolically active toward inflammatory mediators and exogenous compounds such as antihistaminic drugs. We recently identified a genetic polymorphism within the promoter region, associated with a decreased level of enzyme expression. In the present study, we report the further identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the coding sequence of the CYP4F12 gene. A polymerase chain reaction-single strand conformational polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) analysis of DNA samples from 53 unrelated French Caucasians, allowed the identification of ten mutations, comprising seven missense mutations, 31C>T (Leu11Phe), 38C>T (Pro13Leu), 47C>T (Met16Thr), 4759G>A (Asp76Asn), 4801G>A (Val90Leu), 8896C>T (Arg188Cys) and 23545G>A (Gly522Ser). Their functional impact toward ebastine hydroxylation was evaluated using heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells of site-directed mutated cDNA variants. Five out seven variants did not exhibit any significant difference in CYP4F12 catalytic activity, whereas two variants, Val90Ile and Arg188Cys, displayed significant changes in their Michaelis-Menten (Km, Vm) parameters. These data on CYP4F12 genetic polymorphism provide tools for further studies of association with pathological processes involving an inflammatory component and with variations in anti-histaminic drug response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Cauffiez
- Equipe d'accueil 2679, Faculté de Médecine de Lille, Pôle Recherche, Lille, France.
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188
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Mittler R, Vanderauwera S, Gollery M, Van Breusegem F. Reactive oxygen gene network of plants. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2004; 9:490-8. [PMID: 15465684 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2004.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2809] [Impact Index Per Article: 140.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ron Mittler
- Department of Biochemistry, Mail Stop 200, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA.
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189
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Humphreys JM, Chapple C. Immunodetection and quantification of cytochromes P450 using epitope tagging: immunological, spectroscopic, and kinetic analysis of cinnamate 4-hydroxylase. J Immunol Methods 2004; 292:97-107. [PMID: 15350515 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2004.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2003] [Revised: 06/02/2004] [Accepted: 06/08/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases (P450s) are integral membrane proteins typically expressed at low levels both in vivo and by heterologous expression systems, often making quantification of these enzymes challenging. Since the time of their discovery, P450s have typically been quantified by their carbon monoxide (CO) difference spectra. Although this technique is reliable, it requires quantities of enzyme that are sometimes difficult to obtain, and spectroscopic instruments and expertise frequently unavailable in laboratories whose primary focus is genetics or molecular biology. We have developed a method for quantifying recombinant FLAG epitope-tagged proteins using fluorescence detection of a chromophore-labeled anti-FLAG monoclonal antibody and well-established immunoblot technology. The utility of this technique was tested using cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), one of the best-studied plant P450s. No substantial differences in the stability or kinetic properties were observed between the native and FLAG-tagged enzymes. Immunochemical quantification of epitope-tagged C4H reported slightly lower P450 concentrations than conventional methods but has a limit of quantification 400-fold lower than carbon monoxide difference spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Humphreys
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, 175 South University Street, West Lafayette, 47907-2063, Indiana
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190
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Takei K, Yamaya T, Sakakibara H. Arabidopsis CYP735A1 and CYP735A2 encode cytokinin hydroxylases that catalyze the biosynthesis of trans-Zeatin. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:41866-72. [PMID: 15280363 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m406337200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs), a group of phytohormones, are adenine derivatives that carry either an isoprene-derived or an aromatic side chain at the N(6) terminus. trans-Zeatin (tZ), an isoprenoid CK, is assumed to play a central physiological role because of its general occurrence and high activity in bioassays. Although hydroxylation of isopentenyladenine-type CKs is a key step of tZ biosynthesis, the catalyzing enzyme has not been characterized yet. Here we demonstrate that CYP735A1 and CYP735A2 are cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) that catalyze the biosynthesis of tZ. We identified the genes from Arabidopsis using an adenosine phosphate-isopentenyltransferase (AtIPT4)/P450 co-expression system in yeast. Co-expression of AtIPT4 and CYP735A enabled yeast to excrete tZ and the nucleosides to the culture medium. In vitro, both CYP735As preferentially utilized isopentenyladenine nucleotides rather than the nucleoside and free base forms and produced tZ nucleotides but not the cis-isomer. The expression of CYP735A1 and CYP735A2 was differentially regulated in terms of organ specificity and response to CK. Root-specific induction of CYP735A2 expression by CK suggests that the trans-hydroxylation is involved in the regulation of CK metabolism and signaling in roots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Takei
- Plant Science Center, RIKEN, Suehiro 1-7-22, Tsurumi, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan
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191
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Kim TW, Chang SC, Lee JS, Takatsuto S, Yokota T, Kim SK. Novel biosynthetic pathway of castasterone from cholesterol in tomato. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2004; 135:1231-42. [PMID: 15247383 PMCID: PMC519043 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.043588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2004] [Revised: 03/29/2004] [Accepted: 03/29/2004] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous brassinosteroids (BRs) in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) seedlings are known to be composed of C27- and C28-BRs. The biosynthetic pathways of C27-BRs were examined using a cell-free enzyme solution prepared from tomato seedlings that yielded the biosynthetic sequences cholesterol --> cholestanol and 6-deoxo-28-norteasterone <--> 6-deoxo-28-nor-3-dehydroteasterone <--> 6-deoxo-28-nortyphasterol --> 6-deoxo-28-norcastasterone --> 28-norcastasterone (28-norCS). Arabidopsis CYP85A1 that was heterologously expressed in yeast mediated the conversion of 6-deoxo-28-norCS to 28-norCS. The same reaction was catalyzed by an enzyme solution from wild-type tomato but not by an extract derived from a tomato dwarf mutant with a defect in CYP85. Furthermore, exogenously applied 28-norCS restored the abnormal growth of the dwarf mutant. These findings indicate that the C-6 oxidation of 6-deoxo-28-norCS to 28-norCS in tomato seedlings is catalyzed by CYP85, just as in the conversion of 6-deoxoCS to CS. Additionally, the cell-free solution also catalyzed the C-24 methylation of 28-norCS to CS in the presence of NADPH and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), a reaction that was clearly retarded in the absence of NADPH and SAM. Thus it seems that C27-BRs, in addition to C28-BRs, are important in the production of more active C28-BRs and CS, where a SAM-dependent sterol methyltransferase appears to biosynthetically connect C27-BRs to C28-BRs. Moreover, the tomato cell-free solution converted CS to 26-norCS and [2H6]CS to [2H3]28-norCS, suggesting that C-28 demethylation is an artifact due to an isotope effect. Although previous feeding experiments employing [2H6]CS suggested that 28-norCS was synthesized from CS in certain plant species, this is not supported in planta. Altogether, this study demonstrated for the first time, to our knowledge, that 28-norCS is not synthesized from CS but from cholesterol. In addition, CS and [2H6]CS were not converted into BL and [2H6]BL, respectively, confirming an earlier finding that the active BR in tomato seedlings is not BL but CS. In conclusion, the biosynthesis of 28-norBRs appears to play a physiologically important role in maintaining homeostatic levels of CS in tomato seedlings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Wuk Kim
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Korea
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192
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Murataliev MB, Feyereisen R, Walker FA. Electron transfer by diflavin reductases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2004; 1698:1-26. [PMID: 15063311 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2003.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2003] [Revised: 08/20/2003] [Accepted: 10/14/2003] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Diflavin reductases are enzymes which emerged as a gene fusion of ferredoxin (flavodoxin) reductase and flavodoxin. The enzymes of this family tightly bind two flavin cofactors, FAD and FMN, and catalyze transfer of the reducing equivalents from the two-electron donor NADPH to a variety of one-electron acceptors. Cytochrome P450 reductase (P450R), a flavoprotein subunit of sulfite reductase (SiR), and flavoprotein domains of naturally occurring flavocytochrome fusion enzymes like nitric oxide synthases (NOS) and the fatty acid hydroxylase from Bacillus megaterium are some of the enzymes of this family. In this review the results of the last decade of research are summarized, and some earlier results are reevaluated as well. The kinetic mechanism of cytochrome c reduction is analyzed in light of other results on flavoprotein interactions with nucleotides and cytochromes. The roles of the binding sites of the isoalloxazine rings of the flavin cofactors and conformational changes of the protein in electron transfer are discussed. It is proposed that minor conformational changes during catalysis can potentiate properties of the redox centers during the catalytic turnover. A function of the aromatic residue that shields the isoalloxazine ring of the FAD is also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marat B Murataliev
- Department of Chemistry, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210041, Tucson, AZ 85721-0041, USA
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193
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Duan H, Civjan NR, Sligar SG, Schuler MA. Co-incorporation of heterologously expressed Arabidopsis cytochrome P450 and P450 reductase into soluble nanoscale lipid bilayers. Arch Biochem Biophys 2004; 424:141-53. [PMID: 15047186 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2004.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2003] [Revised: 02/03/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Heterologous expression of CYP73A5, an Arabidopsis cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, in baculovirus-infected insect cells yields correctly configured P450 detectable by reduced CO spectral analysis in microsomes and cell lysates. Co-expression of a housefly NADPH P450 reductase substantially increases the ability of this P450 to hydroxylate trans-cinnamic acid, its natural phenylpropanoid substrate. For development of high-throughput P450 substrate profiling procedures, membrane proteins derived from cells overexpressing CYP73A5 and/or NADPH P450 reductase were incorporated into soluble His(6)-tagged nanoscale lipid bilayers (Nanodiscs) using a simple self-assembly process. Biochemical characterizations of nickel affinity-purified and size-fractionated Nanodiscs indicate that CYP73A5 protein assembled into Nanodiscs in the absence of NADPH P450 reductase maintains its ability to bind its t-cinnamic acid substrate. CYP73A5 protein co-assembled with P450 reductase into Nanodiscs hydroxylates t-cinnamic acid using reduced pyridine nucleotide as an electron source. These data indicate that baculovirus-expressed P450s assembled in Nanodiscs can be used to define the chemical binding profiles and enzymatic activities of these monooxygenases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Duan
- Department of Cell and Structural Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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194
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Watts KT, Lee PC, Schmidt-Dannert C. Exploring Recombinant Flavonoid Biosynthesis in Metabolically Engineered Escherichia coli. Chembiochem 2004; 5:500-7. [PMID: 15185374 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200300783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Flavonoids are important plant-specific secondary metabolites synthesized from 4-coumaroyl coenzyme A (CoA), derived from the general phenylpropanoid pathway, and three malonyl-CoAs. The synthesis involves a plant type III polyketide synthase, chalcone synthase. We report the cloning and coexpression in Escherichia coli of phenylalanine ammonia lyase, cinnamate-4-hydroxylase, 4-coumarate:CoA ligase, and chalcone synthase from the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Simultaneous expression of all four genes resulted in a blockage after the first enzymatic step caused by the presence of nonfunctional cinnamate-4-hydroxylase. To overcome this problem we fed exogenous 4-coumaric acid to induced cultures. We observed high-level production of the flavanone naringenin as a result. We were also able to produce phloretin by feeding cultures with 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propionic acid. Feeding with ferulic or caffeic acid did not yield the corresponding flavanones. We have also cloned and partially characterized a new tyrosine ammonia lyase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Tyrosine ammonia lyase was substituted for phenylalanine ammonia lyase and cinnamate-4-hydroxylase in our E. coli clones and three different growth media were tested. After 48 h induction, high-level production (20.8 mg L(-1)) of naringenin in metabolically engineered E. coli was observed for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T Watts
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, 1479 Gortner Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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195
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Kushiro T, Okamoto M, Nakabayashi K, Yamagishi K, Kitamura S, Asami T, Hirai N, Koshiba T, Kamiya Y, Nambara E. The Arabidopsis cytochrome P450 CYP707A encodes ABA 8'-hydroxylases: key enzymes in ABA catabolism. EMBO J 2004; 23:1647-56. [PMID: 15044947 PMCID: PMC391058 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7600121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 575] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2003] [Accepted: 01/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The hormonal action of abscisic acid (ABA) in plants is controlled by the precise balance between its biosynthesis and catabolism. In plants, ABA 8'-hydroxylation is thought to play a predominant role in ABA catabolism. ABA 8'-hydroxylase was shown to be a cytochrome P450 (P450); however, its corresponding gene had not been identified. Through phylogenetic and DNA microarray analyses during seed imbibition, the candidate genes for this enzyme were narrowed down from 272 Arabidopsis P450 genes. These candidate genes were functionally expressed in yeast to reveal that members of the CYP707A family, CYP707A1-CYP707A4, encode ABA 8'-hydroxylases. Expression analyses revealed that CYP707A2 is responsible for the rapid decrease in ABA level during seed imbibition. During drought stress conditions, all CYP707A genes were upregulated, and upon rehydration a significant increase in mRNA level was observed. Consistent with the expression analyses, cyp707a2 mutants exhibited hyperdormancy in seeds and accumulated six-fold greater ABA content than wild type. These results demonstrate that CYP707A family genes play a major regulatory role in controlling the level of ABA in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Masanori Okamoto
- Plant Science Center, RIKEN, Yokohama, Japan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji-shi, Japan
| | | | | | | | - Tadao Asami
- Plant Functions Laboratory, RIKEN, Wako, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Hirai
- International Innovation Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Koshiba
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji-shi, Japan
| | - Yuji Kamiya
- Plant Science Center, RIKEN, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Eiji Nambara
- Plant Science Center, RIKEN, Yokohama, Japan
- Lab for Reproductive Growth Regulation, Plant Science Center, RIKEN, 1-7-22 Suehiro-cho, Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama 230-0045, Japan. Tel.: +81 45 503 9666; Fax: +81 45 503 9665; E-mail:
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196
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Malonek S, Rojas MC, Hedden P, Gaskin P, Hopkins P, Tudzynski B. The NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase gene from Gibberella fujikuroi is essential for gibberellin biosynthesis. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:25075-84. [PMID: 15037621 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m308517200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The fungus Gibberella fujikuroi is used for the commercial production of gibberellins (GAs), which it produces in very large quantities. Four of the seven GA biosynthetic genes in this species encode cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, which function in association with NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductases (CPRs) that mediate the transfer of electrons from NADPH to the P450 monooxygenases. Only one cpr gene (cpr-Gf) was found in G. fujikuroi and cloned by a PCR approach. The encoded protein contains the conserved CPR functional domains, including the FAD, FMN, and NADPH binding motifs. cpr-Gf disruption mutants were viable but showed a reduced growth rate. Furthermore, disruption resulted in total loss of GA(3), GA(4), and GA(7) production, but low levels of non-hydroxylated C(20)-GAs (GA(15) and GA(24)) were still detected. In addition, the knock-out mutants were much more sensitive to benzoate than the wild type due to loss of activity of another P450 monooxygenase, the detoxifying enzyme, benzoate p-hydroxylase. The UV-induced mutant of G. fujikuroi, SG138, which was shown to be blocked at most of the GA biosynthetic steps catalyzed by P450 monooxygenases, displayed the same phenotype. Sequence analysis of the mutant cpr allele in SG138 revealed a nonsense mutation at amino acid position 627. The mutant was complemented with the cpr-Gf and the Aspergillus niger cprA genes, both genes fully restoring the ability to produce GAs. Northern blot analysis revealed co-regulated expression of the cpr-Gf gene and the GA biosynthetic genes P450-1, P450-2, P450-4 under GA production conditions (nitrogen starvation). In addition, expression of cpr-Gf is induced by benzoate. These results indicate that CPR-Gf is the main but not the only electron donor for several P450 monooxygenases from primary and secondary metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Malonek
- Institut für Botanik der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Schlossgarten 3, D-48149 Münster, Germany
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197
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Davidson SE, Smith JJ, Helliwell CA, Poole AT, Reid JB. The pea gene LH encodes ent-kaurene oxidase. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2004; 134:1123-34. [PMID: 14988475 PMCID: PMC389936 DOI: 10.1104/pp.103.032706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2003] [Revised: 10/03/2003] [Accepted: 12/03/2003] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The pea (Pisum sativum) homolog, PsKO1, of the Arabidopsis GA3 gene was isolated. It codes for a cytochrome P450 from the CYP701A subfamily and has ent-kaurene oxidase (KO) activity, catalyzing the three step oxidation of ent-kaurene to ent-kaurenoic acid in the gibberellin (GA) biosynthetic pathway when expressed in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). PsKO1 is encoded by the LH gene because in three independent mutant alleles, lh-1, lh-2, and lh-3, PsKO1 has altered sequence, and the lh-1 allele, when expressed in yeast, failed to metabolize ent-kaurene. The lh mutants of pea are GA deficient and have reduced internode elongation and root growth. One mutant (lh-2) also causes a large increase in seed abortion. PsKO1 (LH) is expressed in all tissues examined, including stems, roots, and seeds, and appears to be a single-copy gene. Differences in sensitivity to the GA synthesis inhibitor, paclobutrazol, between the mutants appear to result from the distinct nature of the genetic lesions. These differences may also explain the tissue-specific differences between the mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra E Davidson
- School of Plant Science, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 55, Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
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198
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Kelly SL, Lamb DC, Jackson CJ, Warrilow AG, Kelly DE. The biodiversity of microbial cytochromes P450. Adv Microb Physiol 2003; 47:131-86. [PMID: 14560664 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2911(03)47003-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The cytochrome P450 (CYP) superfamily of genes and proteins are well known for their involvement in pharmacology and toxicology, but also increasingly for their importance and diversity in microbes. The extent of diversity has only recently become apparent with the emergence of data from whole genome sequencing projects and the coming years will reveal even more information on the diversity in microbial eukaryotes. This review seeks to describe the historical development of these studies and to highlight the importance of the genes and proteins. CYPs are deeply involved in the development of strategies for deterrence and attraction as well as detoxification. As such, there is intense interest in pathways of secondary metabolism that include CYPs in oxidative tailoring of antibiotics, sometimes influencing potency as bioactive compounds. Further to this is interest in CYPs in metabolism of xenobiotics for use as carbon sources for microbial growth and as biotransformation agents or in bioremediation. CYPs are also current and potential drug targets; compounds inhibiting CYP are antifungal and anti-protozoan agents, and potentially similar compounds may be useful against some bacterial diseases such as tuberculosis. Of note is the diversity of CYP requirements within an organism, ranging from Escherichia coli that has no CYPs as in many bacteria, to Mycobacterium smegmatis that has 40 representing 1% of coding genes. The basidiomycete fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium surprised all when it was found to contain a hundred or more CYPs. The functional genomic investigation of these orphan CYPs is a major challenge for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven L Kelly
- Wolfson Laboratory of P450 Biodiversity, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Wales Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, Wales, UK
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199
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Raes J, Rohde A, Christensen JH, Van de Peer Y, Boerjan W. Genome-wide characterization of the lignification toolbox in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2003; 133:1051-71. [PMID: 14612585 PMCID: PMC523881 DOI: 10.1104/pp.103.026484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 478] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Lignin, one of the most abundant terrestrial biopolymers, is indispensable for plant structure and defense. With the availability of the full genome sequence, large collections of insertion mutants, and functional genomics tools, Arabidopsis constitutes an excellent model system to profoundly unravel the monolignol biosynthetic pathway. In a genome-wide bioinformatics survey of the Arabidopsis genome, 34 candidate genes were annotated that encode genes homologous to the 10 presently known enzymes of the monolignol biosynthesis pathway, nine of which have not been described before. By combining evolutionary analysis of these 10 gene families with in silico promoter analysis and expression data (from a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis on an extensive tissue panel, mining of expressed sequence tags from publicly available resources, and assembling expression data from literature), 12 genes could be pinpointed as the most likely candidates for a role in vascular lignification. Furthermore, a possible novel link was detected between the presence of the AC regulatory promoter element and the biosynthesis of G lignin during vascular development. Together, these data describe the full complement of monolignol biosynthesis genes in Arabidopsis, provide a unified nomenclature, and serve as a basis for further functional studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen Raes
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Interuniversity Institute for Biotechnology, Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, B-9052 Gent, Belgium
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200
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Martens S, Forkmann G, Britsch L, Wellmann F, Matern U, Lukacin R. Divergent evolution of flavonoid 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases in parsley. FEBS Lett 2003; 544:93-8. [PMID: 12782296 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(03)00479-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Flavone synthases (FNSs) catalyze the oxidation of flavanones to flavones, i.e. the formation of apigenin from (2S)-naringenin. While many plants express a microsomal-type FNS II, the soluble FNS I appears to be confined to a few species of the Apiaceae and was cloned recently from parsley plants. FNS I belongs to the Fe(II)/2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases characterized by short conserved sequence elements for cofactor binding, and its evolutionary context and mode of action are under investigation. Using a homology-based reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction approach, two additional flavonoid-specific dioxygenases were cloned from immature parsley leaflets, which were identified as flavanone 3beta-hydroxylase (FHT) and flavonol synthase (FLS) after expression in yeast cells. Sequence alignments revealed marginal differences among the parsley FNS I and FHT polypeptides of only 6%, while much less identity (about 29%) was observed with the parsley FLS. Analogous to FNS I, FLS oxidizes the flavonoid gamma-pyrone by introducing a C2, C3 double bond, and (2R,3S)-dihydrokaempferol (cis-dihydrokaempferol) was proposed recently as the most likely intermediate in both FNS I and FLS catalysis. Incubation of either FNS I or FLS with cis-dihydrokaempferol exclusively produced kaempferol and confirmed the assumption that flavonol formation occurs via hydroxylation at C3 followed by dehydratation. However, the lack of apigenin in these incubations ruled out cis-dihydrokaempferol as a free intermediate in FNS I catalysis. Furthermore, neither (+)-trans-dihydrokaempferol nor unnatural (-)-trans-dihydrokaempferol and 2-hydroxynaringenin served as a substrate for FNS I. Overall, the data suggest that FNS I has evolved uniquely in some Apiaceae as a paraphyletic gene from FHT, irrespective of the fact that FNS I and FLS catalyze equivalent desaturation reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Martens
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Biologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Deutschhausstrasse 17 A, Germany
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