Tumor necrosis factor and cancer, buddies or foes?

PAD-2-mediated citrullination of nucleophosmin provides an effective target for tumor immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

The enzymatic conversion of arginine to citrulline is involved in gene and protein regulation and in alerting the immune system to stressed cells, including tumor cells. Nucleophosmin (NPM) is a nuclear protein that plays key roles in cellular metabolism including ribosome biogenesis, mRNA processing and chromatin remodeling and is regulated by citrullination. In this study, we explored if the same citrullinated arginines within NPM are involved in gene regulation and immune activation.

METHODS

HLA-DP4 and HLA-DR4 transgenic mice were immunized with 22 citrullinated NPM overlapping peptides and immune responses to the peptides were assessed by ex vivo ELISpot assays. Antitumor immunity of NPM targeted vaccination was assessed by challenging transgenic mice with B16F1 HHDII/iDP4, B16F1 HHDII/PAD2KOcDP4, B16F1 HHDII and Lewis lung carcinoma cells/cDP4 cells subcutaneously. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated from healthy donors were stimulated with NPM266-285cit peptides with/without CD45RO+memory cell depletion to assess if the responses in human were naïve or memory.

RESULTS

In contrast to NPM regulation, which is mediated by peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD4) citrullination of arginine at position 197, only citrullinated NPM266-285 peptide induced a citrulline-specific CD4 T cell response in transgenic mice models expressing human HLA-DP4 or HLA-DR4. Vaccinations with the NPM266-285cit peptide stimulated antitumor responses that resulted in dramatic tumor therapy, greatly improved survival, and protected against rechallenge without further vaccination. The antitumor response was lost if MHCII expression on the tumor cells was knocked out demonstrating direct presentation of the NPM266-285cit epitope in tumors. This antitumor response was lost in B16 tumors lacking PAD2 enzyme indicating NPM266cit is citrullinated by PAD2 in this model. Assessment of the T cell repertoire in healthy individuals and patients with lung cancer also showed CD4 T cells that respond to NPM266-285cit. The proliferative CD4 responses displayed a Th1 profile as they were accompanied with increased IFNγ and granzyme B expression. Depletion of CD45RO+ memory cells prior to stimulation suggested that responses originated from a naïve population in healthy donors.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates PAD2 can citrullinate the nuclear antigen NPM at position 277 which can be targeted by CD4 T cells for antitumor therapy. This is distinct from PAD4 citrullination of arginine 197 within NPM which results in its transport from the nucleoli to the nucleoplasm.

Reckoning apigenin and kaempferol as a potential multi-targeted inhibitor of EGFR/HER2-MEK pathway of metastatic colorectal cancer identified using rigorous computational workflow

In the past two decades, the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) has been revolutionized as multiple cytotoxic, biological, and targeted drugs are being approved. Unfortunately, tumors treated with single targeted agents or therapeutics usually develop resistance. According to pathway-oriented screens, mCRC cells evade EGFR inhibition by HER2 amplification and/or activating Kras-MEK downstream signaling. Therefore, treating mCRC patients with dual EGFR/HER2 inhibitors, MEK inhibitors, or the combination of the two drugs envisaged to prevent the resistance development which eventually improves the overall survival rate. In the present study, we aimed to screen potential phytochemical lead compounds that could multi-target EGFR, HER2, and MEK1 (Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase) using a computer-aided drug design approach that includes molecular docking, endpoint binding free energy calculation using MM-GBSA, ADMET, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Docking studies revealed that, unlike all other ligands, apigenin and kaempferol exhibit the highest docking score against all three targets. Details of ADMET analysis, MM/GBSA, and MD simulations helped us to conclusively determine apigenin and kaempferol as potentially an inhibitor of EGFR, HER2, and MEK1 apigenin and kaempferol against mCRC at a systemic level. Additionally, both apigenin and kaempferol elicited antiangiogenic properties in a dose-dependent manner. Collectively, these findings provide the rationale for drug development aimed at preventing CRC rather than intercepting resistance.

Amelioration of DMH-induced colon cancer by eupafolin through the reprogramming of apoptosis-associated p53/Bcl2/Bax signaling in rats

Introduction: Colorectal cancer is the third most common malignancy and the second most deadly cancer worldwide. In this present study, the effects of eupafolin on DMH-induced colon cancer in rats were assessed.

Methods: The acute and sub-acute oral toxicity study in the balb/c mice was performed to evaluate the LD50 dose and the chemotherapeutic doses of eupafolin. The colon cancer was induced in the animals through a single intraperitoneal injection (i.p) of 30 mg/kg of dimethylhydrazine followed by 2% DSS for 7 days in the drinking water in male Wistar rats. The rats were treated with eupafolin (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) through oral route for 18 weeks. The animals were sacrificed and colon tissues were subsequently investigated for aberrant crypt foci (ACF), in vivo antioxidant studies, histology and immunohistochemical analysis, and apoptosis by TUNNEL technique after 18 weeks of eupafolin therapy.

Results: The acute oral toxicity data represented the LD50 dose of eupafolin which was found to be 500 mg/kg body weight. Along with that, the sub-acute toxicity study suggested the chemotherapeutic doses of eupafolin, that is, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight. Eupafolin therapy inhibits ACF development in rat colon mucosa efficiently. Additionally, eupafolin has improved the colonic lesions and the structural integrity of the colonic mucosa. Eupafolin therapy causes anti-oxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione to increase as well. Increased levels of P53, BAX, and PCNA and a simultaneous decrease in Bcl2 and IL-6 expressions show eupafolin therapy successfully regulated these biological markers in colorectal cancer. Eupafolin also induced apoptosis efficiently in the rat colon mucous membrane.

Conclusion: These results show that eupafolin can improve colon cancer by modulating the p53, Bcl2, BAX, and IL-6 pathways in rats.

Anticancer Effects of New Ceramides Isolated from the Red Sea Red Algae Hypnea musciformis in a Model of Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma: LC-HRMS Analysis Profile and Molecular Modeling

Different classes of phytochemicals were previously isolated from the Red Sea algae Hypnea musciformis as sterols, ketosteroids, fatty acids, and terpenoids. Herein, we report the isolation of three fatty acids-docosanoic acid 4, hexadecenoic acid 5, and alpha hydroxy octadecanoic acid 6-as well as three ceramides-A (1), B (2), and C (3)-with 9-methyl-sphinga-4,8-dienes and phytosphingosine bases. Additionally, different phytochemicals were determined using the liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-HRMS) technique. Ceramides A (1) and B (2) exhibited promising in vitro cytotoxic activity against the human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cell line when compared with doxorubicin as a positive control. Further in vivo study and biochemical estimation in a mouse model of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) revealed that both ceramides A (1) and B (2) at doses of 1 and 2 mg/kg, respectively, significantly decreased the tumor size in mice inoculated with EAC cells. The higher dose (2 mg/kg) of ceramide B (2) particularly expressed the most pronounced decrease in serum levels of vascular endothelial growth factor -B (VEGF-B) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) markers, as well as the expression levels of the growth factor midkine in tumor tissue relative to the EAC control group. The highest expression of apoptotic factors, p53, Bax, and caspase 3 was observed in the same group that received 2 mg/kg of ceramide B (2). Molecular docking simulations suggested that ceramides A (1) and B (2) could bind in the deep grove between the H2 helix and the Ser240-P250 loop of p53, preventing its interaction with MDM2 and leading to its accumulation. In conclusion, this study reports the cytotoxic, apoptotic, and antiangiogenic effects of ceramides isolated from the Red Sea algae Hypnea musciformis in an experimental model of EAC.

Assisted laparoscopic splenectomy: current concept for treatment of splenic hemangiosarcoma in dogs

BACKGROUND

Hemangiosarcoma (HSA) is a common devastating malignant splenic tumor with high mortalities in dogs. Laparoscopic splenectomy (LS) is safe and gold standard technique for diseases required splenectomy. However, LS operation is a sensitive approach, which requires a restricted control for the vascular sealing procedures.

AIMS

We modified the LS technique through the application of hemostatic clips assisted-LS as an improved approach for the treatment of splenic HSA.

METHODS

Twelve dogs were admitted to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Zagazig University, Egypt for investigation of splenic HSA. Abdominal ultrasonography reveals the presence of large hypoechoic splenic masses with no further abnormalities within the peritoneal cavity. Thoracic radiographs, hematological assays, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and histopathological investigations were done.

RESULTS

Hemostatic clips assisted-LS showed no major intra or post-operative complications. Laboratory analysis revealed anemia with an increase in TNF-α. Significant increase in platelets count with a slight increase in TNF-α was detected post-operative.

CONCLUSION

Application of the improved hemostatic clips-assisted-LS is cost effective, with shorter operative time, feasible method for vessel sealing, as well as having few complications during the HAS treatment in dogs.

Cytokine Interaction With Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Esophageal Cancer

Esophageal cancer (EC) is a highly aggressive cancer with poor outcomes under current treatment regimens. More recent findings suggest stroma elements, specifically cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), play a role in disease occurrence and progression. Cancer-associated fibroblasts are largely the product of converted fibroblasts, but a variety of other local cell types including epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and mesenchymal cells have also been shown to transform to CAFs under the correct conditions. Cancer-associated fibroblasts primarily function in the communication between the tumor microenvironment and cancer cells via cytokine and chemokine secretions that accentuate immunosuppression and cancer growth. Cancer-associated fibroblasts also pose issues for EC treatment by contributing to resistance of current chemotherapeutics like cisplatin. Targeting this cell type directly proves difficult given the heterogeneity between CAFs subpopulations, but emerging research provides hope that treatment is on the horizon. This review aims to unravel some of the complexities surrounding CAFs’ impact on EC growth and therapy.

OUP accepted manuscript

Adipose-derived stem or stromal cells (ASCs) possess promising potential in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their secretory activity, their multilineage differentiation potential, their easy harvest, and their rich yield compared to other stem cell sources. After the first identification of ASCs in humans in 2001, the knowledge of their cell biology and cell characteristics have advanced, and respective therapeutic options were determined. Nowadays, ASC-based therapies are on the verge of translation into clinical practice. However, conflicting evidence emerged in recent years about the safety profile of ASC applications as they may induce tumor progression and invasion. Numerous in-vitro and in-vivo studies demonstrate a potential pro-oncogenic effect of ASCs on various cancer entities. This raises questions about the safety profile of ASCs and their broad handling and administration. However, these findings spark controversy as in clinical studies ASC application did not elevate tumor incidence rates, and other experimental studies reported an inhibitory effect of ASCs on different cancer cell types. This comprehensive review aims at providing up-to-date information about ASCs and cancer cell interactions, and their potential carcinogenesis and tumor tropism. The extracellular signaling activity of ASCs, the interaction of ASCs with the tumor microenvironment, and 3 major organ systems (the breast, the skin, and genitourinary system) will be presented with regard to cancer formation and progression.

The effect of COVID-19 derived cytokine storm on cancer cells progression: double-edged sword

OBJECTIVE

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV2) was first detected in Wuhan, China in December, 2019. The emerging virus causes a respiratory illness, that can trigger a cytokine storm in the body.

METHOD

Cytokine storm in patient's body is associated with severe forms of disease. It is one of the main complications of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19), in which immune cells play a major role. Studies have shown immune cells in the tumor environment can be effective to induce resistance to chemotherapy in cancer patients.

RESULT

Therefore, considering the role of immune cells to induce cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients, and their role to cause resistance to chemotherapy, they are effective on disease progression and creation of severe form of disease.

CONCLUSION

By examining the signaling pathways and inducing resistance to chemotherapy in tumor cells and the cells affect them, it is possible to prevent the occurrence of severe forms of the disease in cancer patients with COVID-19; it is applicable using target therapy and other subsequent treatment strategies.

A Molecular Analysis of Cytokine Content across Extracellular Vesicles, Secretions, and Intracellular Space from Different Site-Specific Adipose-Derived Stem Cells

Cytokines are multifunctional small proteins that have a vital influence on inflammatory states of tissues and play a role in signalling and cellular control mechanisms. Cytokine expression has primarily been viewed as a form of direct secretion of molecules through an active transportation; however, other forms of active transport such as extracellular vesicles are at play. This is particularly important in stem cells where signalling molecules are key to communication managing the levels of proliferation, migration, and differentiation into mature cells. This study investigated cytokines from intracellular content, direct cellular secretions, and extracellular vesicles from adult adipose-derived stem cells isolated from three distinct anatomical locations: abdomen, thigh, and chin. The cells were cultured investigated using live cell microscopy, cytokine assays, and bioinformatics analysis. The cytokines quantified and examined from each sample type showed a distinct difference between niche areas and sample types. The varying levels of TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-8 cytokines were shown to play a crucial role in signalling pathways such as MAPK, ERK1/2 and JAK-STAT in cells. On the other hand, the chemotactic cytokines IL-1rn, Eotaxin, IP-10 and MCP-1 showed the most prominent changes across extracellular vesicles with roles in noncanonical signalling. By examining the local and tangential roles of cytokines in stem cells, their roles in signalling and in regenerative mechanisms may be further understood.

Resveratrol and its nanocrystals: A promising approach for cancer therapy?

There has been a significant research interest in nanocrystals as a promising technology for improving the therapeutic efficacy of poorly water-soluble drugs, such as resveratrol. Little is known about the interaction of nanocrystals with biological tissue. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential use of resveratrol (RSV) and its nanocrystals (NANO-RSV) as antitumor agents in Ehrlich ascites tumour (EAT)-bearing mice and the interaction of nanocrystals with biological tissue through biochemical and histological changes of kidney, liver and EAT cells. After intraperitoneal injection of 2.5 × 10⁶ cells into the abdominal cavity of mice, treatment of animals was started next day by injecting RSV or NANO-RSV at a dose of either 25 or 50 mg/kg every other day for 14 days. The results show that the administration of resveratrol and its nanocrystals lead to significant reductions in the proliferation of tumour cells in the abdominal cavity, and a reduction of the number of blood vessels in the peritoneum, with low systemic toxicity. In histopathological examinations, greater hepatocellular necrosis and apoptosis, hepatic fibrosis around the central vein and degeneration with minor fatty change were observed with RSV than with NANO-RSV. Inflammation with proximal tubular necrosis and renal glomerulus swelling were also observed, together with slight elevation of several biochemical parameters in both the RSV and NANO-RSV groups. In order to increase the beneficial effects and reduce risks associated with resveratrol nanocrystals, additional factors such as dose, genetic factors, health status, and the nature of the target cells should also be considered.

Oxyresveratrol Inhibits TNF-α-Stimulated Cell Proliferation in Human Immortalized Keratinocytes (HaCaT) by Suppressing AKT Activation

Psoriasis is a complex inflammatory disease characterized by hyperproliferative keratinocyte caused by active PI3K/AKT signaling. TNF-α concentrated in the psoriatic lesions stimulates AKT activation. We previously discovered that oxyresveratrol inhibited inflammation via suppressing AKT phosphorylation, therefore oxyresveratrol may possess a conserved property to block AKT activation and proliferation in keratinocyte in response to TNF-α. Our current study proved that oxyresveratrol exhibited potent anti-proliferative effects against TNF-α. These effects are explained by the findings that oxyresveratrol could potentially inhibit TNF-α-stimulated AKT and GSK3-β activation in a dose-dependent manner, and its inhibitory pattern was comparable to that of a specific PI3K inhibitor. Results from immunofluorescence supported that oxyresveratrol effectively inhibited AKT and GSK3-β activation in individual cells upon TNF-α stimulation. Furthermore, functional assay confirmed that oxyresveratrol repressed the expansion of the HaCaT colony over 3 days, and this was caused by the ability of oxyresveratrol to induce cell cycle arrest at S and G2/M phases and the reduction in the expression of a proliferative marker (Ki-67) and a survival marker (MCL-1). Given the importance of TNF-α and the PI3K/AKT pathway in the psoriatic phenotype, we anticipate that oxyresveratrol, which targets the TNF-α-stimulated PI3K/AKT pathway, would represent a promising psoriasis therapy in the near future.

The other side to the use of active targeting ligands; the case of folic acid in the targeting of breast cancer

Due to its overexpression in cancer cells, the folate receptor (FR) is heavily exploited in the active targeting of nanoparticles (NPs). Its ligand, folic acid (FA) is as a consequence widely used as a NP targeting ligand. Although rather popular and successful in principle, recent data has shown that FA may result in breast cancer initiation and progression, which questions the suitability of FA as NP cancer targeting ligand. In this work, intravenous administration of free FA to healthy female mice resulted in breast tissue dysplasia, hyperplasia and in the increased expression of human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2), folate receptor (FR), cancer antigen 15-3 (CA15.3), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and the pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β. In addition to the reduction in IL2. To evaluate the suitability and safety of FA as NP targeting ligand in breast cancer, small (≈ 150 nm) and large (≈ 500 nm) chitosan NPs were formulated and decorated with two densities of FA. The success of active targeting by FA was confirmed in two breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells) in comparison to HEK293 cells. FA modified NPs that demonstrated successful active targeting in-vitro were assessed in-vivo. Upon intravenous administration, large NPs modified with a high density of FA accumulated in the breast tissue and resulted in similar effects as those observed with free FA. These results therefore question the suitability of FA as a targeting ligand in breast cancer and shed light on the importance of considering the activity (other than targeting) of the ligands used in NP active targeting.

Peripheral Cytokine Levels as a Prognostic Indicator in Gastric Cancer: A Review of Existing Literature

Although strong connections exist between the carcinogenesis of gastric cancer and chronic inflammation, gastric cancer is unique in that the chronic gastritis which frequently precedes carcinogenesis is strongly associated with H. pylori infection. The interplay between H. pylori virulence factors and host immune cells is complex but culminates in the activation of inflammatory pathways and transcription factors such as NF-κB, STAT3, and AP-1, all of which upregulate cytokine production. Due to the key role of cytokines in modulating the immune response against tumour cells as well as possibly stimulating tumour growth and proliferation, different patterns of cytokine secretion may be associated with varying patient outcomes. In relation to gastric cancer, interleukin-6, 8, 10, 17A, TNF, and IFN-γ may have pro-tumour properties, although interleukin-10, TNF, and IFN-γ may have anti-tumour effects. However, due to the lack of studies investigating patient outcomes, only a link between higher interleukin-6 levels and poorer prognosis has been demonstrated. Further investigations which link peripheral cytokine levels to patient prognosis may elucidate important pathological mechanisms in gastric cancer which adversely impact patient survival and allow treatments targeting these processes to be developed.

Evaluation of the cytotoxic anticancer effect of polysaccharide of Nepeta septemcrenata

Background

Promoting cancer cells apoptosis is one of the effective methods to treat cancer. Human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) and colorectal cancer (HCT-116) cell lines were used in the present study to evaluate the cytotoxic and anticancer properties of Nepeta septemcrenata Polysaccharide (NSP).

Result

Treatment of the two examined cells with NSP displayed a significant cytotoxicity towards HepG2 in a dose-dependent manner; meanwhile, its effect on HCT-116 was obtained under the influence of low doses. The quantitative real- time PCR (QRT-PCR) investigation revealed that NSP significantly up-regulated the expression levels of p53, p16, Fas, Fas-L, Bax, caspases-3, caspase-9, and TNF-α in association with down-regulation of cyclin D1, TERT, and BCL2. These findings declare the apoptotic characteristic of NSP.NSP, can also inhibit the development of cancer cells through the down-regulation of TGF-β and VEGF.

Conclusions

Our results suggested that the polysaccharides isolated from N. septemcrenata possess anticancer properties that could be explored for the development of novel anticancer agents.

Therapeutic Influence on Important Targets Associated with Chronic Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Cancer Treatment

Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress are the interconnected pathological processes, which lead to cancer initiation and progression. The growing level of oxidative and inflammatory damage was shown to increase cancer severity and contribute to tumor spread. The overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is associated with the reduced capacity of the endogenous cell defense mechanisms and/or metabolic imbalance, is the main contributor to oxidative stress. An abnormal level of ROS was defined as a predisposing factor for the cell transformation that could trigger pro-oncogenic signaling pathways, induce changes in gene expression, and facilitate accumulation of mutations, DNA damage, and genomic instability. Additionally, the activation of transcription factors caused by a prolonged oxidative stress, including NF-κB, p53, HIF1α, etc., leads to the expression of several genes responsible for inflammation. The resulting hyperactivation of inflammatory mediators, including TNFα, TGF-β, interleukins, and prostaglandins can contribute to the development of neoplasia. Pro-inflammatory cytokines were shown to trigger adaptive reactions and the acquisition of resistance by tumor cells to apoptosis, while promoting proliferation, invasion, and angiogenesis. Moreover, the chronic inflammatory response leads to the excessive production of free radicals, which further aggravate the initiated reactions. This review summarizes the recent data and progress in the discovery of mechanisms that associate oxidative stress and chronic inflammation with cancer onset and metastasis. In addition, the review provides insights for the development of therapeutic approaches and the discovery of natural substances that will be able to simultaneously inhibit several key oncological and inflammation-related targets.

Impact of immune cells on the hallmarks of cancer: A literature review

Tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) are critical players in the tumor microenvironment, modulating cancer cell functions. TIICs are highly heterogenic and plastic and may either suppress cancers or provide support for tumor growth. A wide range of studies have shed light on how tumor-associated macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, mast cells, natural killer cells and lymphocytes contribute for the establishment of several hallmarks of cancer and became the basis for successful immunotherapies. Many of those TIICs play pivotal roles in several hallmarks of cancer. This review contributes to elucidate the multifaceted roles of immune cells in cancer development, highlighting molecular components that constitute promising therapeutic targets. Additional studies are needed to clarify the relation between TIICs and hallmarks such as enabling replicative immortality, evading growth suppressors, sustaining proliferative signaling, resisting cell death and genome instability and mutation, to further explore their therapeutic potential and improve the outcomes of cancer patients.

ML218 HCl Is More Efficient Than Capsaicin in Inhibiting Bacterial Antigen-Induced Cal 27 Oral Cancer Cell Proliferation

The bacterial antigen, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and disruptions in calcium channels are independently known to influence oral cancer progression. Previously, we found that bacterial antigens, LPS and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) act as confounders during the action of capsaicin on Cal 27 oral cancer proliferation. As calcium channel drugs may affect oral cancer cell proliferation, we investigated the effect of ML218 HCl, a T-type voltage-gated calcium channel blocker, on the proliferation of Cal 27 oral cancer cells. We hypothesized that ML218 HCl could effectively reduce LPS-induced oral cancer cell proliferation. LPS and LTA antigens were added to Cal 27 oral cancer cells either prior to and/or concurrently with ML218 HCl treatment, and the efficacy of the treatment was evaluated by measuring Cal 27 proliferation, cell death and apoptosis. ML218 HCl inhibited oral cancer cell proliferation, increased apoptosis and cell death, but their efficacy was significantly reduced in the presence of bacterial antigens. ML218 HCl proved more effective than capsaicin in reducing bacterial antigen-induced Cal 27 oral cancer cell proliferation. Our results also suggest an interplay of proliferation factors during the bacterial antigens and calcium channel drug interaction in Cal 27. Bacterial antigen reduction of drug efficacy should be considered for developing newer pharmacological agents or testing the efficacy of the existing oral cancer chemotherapeutic agents. Finally, voltage gated calcium channel drugs should be considered for future oral cancer research.

Advances in plant-derived natural products for antitumor immunotherapy

In recent years, immunotherapy has emerged as a novel antitumor strategy in addition to traditional surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. It uniquely focuses on immune cells and immunomodulators in the tumor microenvironment and helps eliminate tumors at the root by rebuilding the immune system. Despite remarkable breakthroughs, cancer immunotherapy still faces many challenges: lack of predictable and prognostic biomarkers, adverse side effects, acquired treatment resistance, high costs, etc. Therefore, more efficacious and efficient, safer and cheaper antitumor immunomodulatory drugs have become an urgent requirement. For decades, plant-derived natural products obtained from land and sea have provided the most important source for the development of antitumor drugs. Currently, more attention is being paid to the discovery of potential cancer immunotherapy modulators from plant-derived natural products, such as polysaccharides, phenols, terpenoids, quinones and alkaloids. Some of these agents have outstanding advantages of multitargeting and low side effects and low cost compared to conventional immunotherapeutic agents. We intend to summarize the progress of comprehensive research on these plant-derived natural products and their derivatives and discuss their possible mechanisms in regulating the immune system and their efficacy as monotherapies or in combination with regular chemotherapeutic agents.

The TNF-α/TNFR2 Pathway: Targeting a Brake to Release the Anti-tumor Immune Response

Newly discovered anti-cancer immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor T cells, focus on spurring the anti-tumor effector T cell (Teff) response. Although such strategies have already demonstrated a sustained beneficial effect in certain malignancies, a substantial proportion of treated patients does not respond. CD4⁺FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs), a suppressive subset of T cells, can impair anti-tumor responses and reduce the efficacy of currently available immunotherapies. An alternative view that has emerged over the last decade proposes to tackle this immune brake by targeting the suppressive action of Tregs on the anti-tumoral response. It was recently demonstrated that the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2) is critical for the phenotypic stabilization and suppressive function of human and mouse Tregs. The broad non-specific effects of TNF-α infusion in patients initially led clinicians to abandon this signaling pathway as first-line therapy against neoplasms. Previously unrecognized, TNFR2 has emerged recently as a legitimate target for anti-cancer immune checkpoint therapy. Considering the accumulation of pre-clinical data on the role of TNFR2 and clinical reports of TNFR2⁺ Tregs and tumor cells in cancer patients, it is now clear that a TNFR2-centered approach could be a viable strategy, once again making the TNF-α pathway a promising anti-cancer target. Here, we review the role of the TNFR2 signaling pathway in tolerance and the equilibrium of T cell responses and its connections with oncogenesis. We analyze recent discoveries concerning the targeting of TNFR2 in cancer, as well as the advantages, limitations, and perspectives of such a strategy.

Antiproliferative, apoptosis-inducing activity and molecular docking studies of sydnones compounds

Objective

To evaluate the antiproliferative and apoptosis inducing activity of different sydnones on cancer cell lines and their interaction with cancer proteins by molecular docking studies.

Material and Methods

Antiproliferative activity was carried out by MTT assay and apoptosis inducing activity was performed by DAPI and Annexin V and propidium iodide staining. Molecular docking studies were performed using AutoDock Tools 1.5.6. Pharmacokinetics properties like ADME and toxicity were analysed by pkCSM web server.

Result

In this study, four new sydnone compounds 3-(4-nonylbiphenyl-4'-yl) sydnone (MC-182), 3-(4-propylbiphenyl-4'-yl) sydnone (MC-454), 3-(4-hexylbiphenyl-4'-yl) sydnone (MC-433), and 3-(4-methylbiphenyl-4'-yl) sydnone (MC-431) were screened for antiproliferative and apoptotic effect against BT-474 (human breast cancer), HeLa (human cervical cancer) and Jurkat (human myeloid leukemia) Mostly, all the sydnone compounds exhibited decent antiproliferative effectiveness, but compound MC-431, MC-433, and MC-454 showed more antiproliferative activity (IC50 1.71, 10.09 and 2.87 μM against BT-474, Hela and Jurkat cell line, respectively). The changes of morphological characteristics of cancer cells determined by staining techniques indicate the apoptotic cell death. The molecular docking and interaction studies were carried out between sydnones with cancer proteins (epidermal growth factor domain receptor tyrosine kinase [EGF-TK], tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α] and Caspase3. Among all four sydnone molecules, two compounds MC-454 and MC-431 showed good binding energy with targeted proteins. Drug-like property was predicted by ADME toxicity study.

Conclusion

The results indicate sydnone compounds were found to exhibit anticancer activity by inducing apoptosis. The molecular docking study of sydnones with cancer proteins showed a decent interaction affinity. The results of absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity studies by the Insilco approach also proved that MC-454 sydnone showed better In-Vivo administration. Thus, the current research work indicates that these sydnone compounds would be prospective in developing anticancer medicines.

Meta-Analysis illustrates possible role of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced tissue injury in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) pathogenesis

Background

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a cancer of epithelial origin with a high incidence in certain populations. While NPC has a high remission rate with concomitant chemoradiation, recurrences are frequent, and the downstream morbidity of treatment is significant. Thus, it is imperative to find alternative therapies.

Methods

We employed a Search Tag Analyze Resource (STARGEO) platform to conduct a meta-analysis using the National Center for Biotechnology’s (NCBI) Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) to define NPC pathogenesis. We identified 111 tumor samples and 43 healthy nasopharyngeal epithelium samples from NPC public patient data. We analyzed associated signatures in Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA), restricting genes that showed statistical significance (p<0.05) and an absolute experimental log ratio greater than 0.15 between disease and control samples.

Results

Our meta-analysis identified activation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced tissue injury in NPC tissue. Additionally, interleukin-1 (IL-1) and SB203580 were the top upstream regulators. Tumorigenesis-related genes such as homeobox A10 (HOXA10) and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2 or COX-2) as well as those associated with extracellular matrix degradation, such as matrix metalloproteinases 1 and 3 (MMP-1, MMP-3) were also upregulated. Decreased expression of genes that encode proteins associated with maintaining healthy nasal respiratory epithelium structural integrity, including sentan-cilia apical structure protein (SNTN) and lactotransferrin (LTF) was documented. Importantly, we found that etanercept inhibits targets upregulated in NPC and LPS induction, such as MMP-1, PTGS2, and possibly MMP-3.

Conclusions

Our analysis illustrates that nasal epithelial barrier dysregulation and maladaptive immune responses are key components of NPC pathogenesis along with LPS-induced tissue damage.

2-Methoxy-estradiol Loaded Alpha Lipoic Acid Nanoparticles Augment Cytotoxicity in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

The therapeutic effectiveness of anticancer drugs with a selective target for the nucleus of cancer cells may be improved by experimental approaches. In this regard, the formulation of anticancer drugs is considered one of the best ways to improve their effectiveness in targeting cancerous tissues. To enhance the anticancer activity of 2-methoxy-estradiol (2 ME) for breast cancer, 2-methoxyestradiol loaded alpha lipoic acid nanoparticles have been formulated. The prepared formula was observed to be spherical with a nanometer-scale and low PDI size (.234). The entrapment efficiency of the 2ME-ALA NPs was 87.32 ± 2.21% with > 85% release of 2 ME within 24 h. There was a 1.2-fold increase in apoptosis and a 3.46-fold increase in necrosis of the MCF-7 cells when incubated with 2ME-ALA NPs when compared to control cells. This increased apoptosis was also associated with increased ROS and increased p53 expression in 2ME-ALA NPs treated cells compared to the raw-2 ME group. Evaluation of cell-cycle data showed a substantial arrest of the G2-M phase of the MCF-7 cells when incubated with 2ME-ALA NPs. At the same time, a dramatically increased number of pre-G1 cells showed the increased apoptotic potential of the 2 ME when administered via the proposed formulation. In the end, the differential upregulation of caspase-3, p53, and ROS in MCF-7 cells established the superiority of the 2ME-ALA-Ms approach in targeting breast cancer. In summary, these results demonstrate that 2ME-ALA NPs are an efficient delivery tool for controlling the growth of breast cancer cells.

Potential of Bioactive Food Components against Gastric Cancer: Insights into Molecular Mechanism and Therapeutic Targets

Gastric cancer, also known as stomach cancer, is a cancer that develops from the lining of the stomach. Accumulated evidence and epidemiological studies have indicated that bioactive food components from natural products play an important role in gastric cancer prevention and treatment, although its mechanism of action has not yet been elucidated. Particularly, experimental studies have shown that natural bioactive food products display a protective effect against gastric cancer via numerous molecular mechanisms, such as suppression of cell metastasis, anti-angiogenesis, inhibition of cell proliferation, induction of apoptosis, and modulation of autophagy. Chemotherapy remains the standard treatment for advanced gastric cancer along with surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, as well as immunotherapy, and its adverse side effects including neutropenia, stomatitis, mucositis, diarrhea, nausea, and emesis are well documented. However, administration of naturally occurring bioactive phytochemical food components could increase the efficacy of gastric chemotherapy and other chemotherapeutic resistance. Additionally, several studies have suggested that bioactive food components with structural stability, potential bioavailability, and powerful bioactivity are important to develop novel treatment strategies for gastric cancer management, which may minimize the adverse effects. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize the potential therapeutic effects of natural bioactive food products on the prevention and treatment of gastric cancer with intensive molecular mechanisms of action, bioavailability, and safety efficacy.

Obesity and inflammation: colorectal cancer engines

The prevalence of obesity continues to increase to the extent that it became a worldwide pandemic. An accumulating body of evidence has associated obesity with the development of different types of cancer, including colorectal cancer, which is a notorious disease with a high mortality rate. At the molecular level, colorectal cancer is a heterogenous disease characterized by a myriad of genetic and epigenetic alterations associated with various forms of genomic instability (detailed in Supplementary Materials). Recently, the microenvironment has emerged as a major factor in carcinogenesis. Our aim is to define the different molecular alterations leading to the development of colorectal cancer in obese patients with a focus on the role of the microenvironment in carcinogenesis. We also highlight all existent molecules in clinical trials that target the activated pathways in obesity-associated colorectal cancer, whether used as single treatments or in combination. Obesity predisposes to colorectal cancer via creating a state of chronic inflammation with dysregulated adipokines, inflammatory mediators, and other factors such as immune cell infiltration. A unifying theme in obesity-mediated colorectal cancer is the activation of the PI3K/AKT, mTOR/MAPK, and STAT3 signaling pathways. Different inhibitory molecules towards these pathways exist, increasing the therapeutic choice of obesity-associated colon cancer. However, obese patients are more likely to suffer from chemotherapy overdosing. Preventing obesity through maintaining a healthy and active lifestyle remains to be the best remedy.

The Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α) Polymorphisms in Gastric Cancer: a Meta-Analysis

PURPOSE

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) is an inflammatory cytokine which may play a role in the development of gastric cancer (GC). This study aimed to investigate the association of five TNF-α polymorphisms including TNF-α-857, TNF-α-1031, TNF-α-863, TNF-α-308, and TNF-α-238 polymorphisms with GC risk.

METHODS

All eligible case-control studies were collected by searching PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The association of the risk of GC with TNF-α polymorphisms was estimated using odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). Heterogeneity was assessed via Cochrane's Q and I² analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 46 publications involving 16, 715 cases with GC and 27, 998 controls were recruited. The study revealed a significant association for TNF-α 308 (recessive model: OR = 0.646, P = 0.035), TNF-α-1031 (homozygote model: OR = 1.584, P = 0.027), and TNF-α-857 (homozygote model: OR = 1.760, P = 0.001) polymorphisms with the GC risk. The results of subgroup analysis based ethnicity found a significant association between GC risk and TNF-α-857 polymorphism in Caucasian subgroup (P = 0.005) and TNF-α-1031 polymorphism and GC risk in Asians (P = 0.018).

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggested that TNF-α-857 and TNF-α-1031 polymorphisms may be associated with the increased gastric cancer risk.

Multifaceted Effects of Lycopene: A Boulevard to the Multitarget-Based Treatment for Cancer

Lycopene is a pigment belonging to the group of carotenoids and it is among the most carefully studied antioxidants found especially in fruit and vegetables. As a carotenoid, lycopene exerts beneficial effects on human health by protecting lipids, proteins, and DNA from damage by oxidation. Lycopene is a powerful oxygen inactivator in the singlet state. This is suggestive of the fact that lycopene harbors comparatively stronger antioxidant properties over other carotenoids normally present in plasma. Lycopene is also reported to hinder cancer cell proliferation. The uncontrolled, rapid division of cells is a characteristic of the metabolism of cancer cells. Evidently, lycopene causes a delay in the progression of the cell cycle, which explains its antitumor activity. Furthermore, lycopene can block cell transformation by reducing the loss of contact inhibition of cancer cells. This paper collects recent studies of scientific evidence that show the multiple beneficial properties of lycopene, which acts with different molecular and cellular mechanisms.

NUB1 and FAT10 Proteins as Potential Novel Biomarkers in Cancer: A Translational Perspective

Cancer increases the global disease burden substantially, but it remains a challenge to manage it. The search for novel biomarkers is essential for risk assessment, diagnosis, prognosis, prediction of treatment response, and cancer monitoring. This paper examined NEDD8 ultimate buster-1 (NUB1) and F-adjacent transcript 10 (FAT10) proteins as novel biomarkers in cancer. This literature review is based on the search of the electronic database, PubMed. NUB1 is an interferon-inducible protein that mediates apoptotic and anti-proliferative actions in cancer, while FAT10 is a ubiquitin-like modifier that promotes cancer. The upregulated expression of both NUB1 and FAT10 has been observed in various cancers. NUB1 protein binds to FAT10 non-covalently to promote FAT10 degradation. An overexpressed FAT10 stimulates nuclear factor-kappa β, activates the inflammatory pathways, and induces the proliferation of cancer. The FAT10 protein interacts with the mitotic arrest deficient 2 protein, causing chromosomal instability and breast tumourigenesis. FAT10 binds to the proliferating cell nuclear antigen protein and inhibits the DNA damage repair response. In addition, FAT10 involves epithelial-mesenchymal transition, invasion, apoptosis, and multiplication in hepatocellular carcinoma. Our knowledge about them is still limited. There is a need to further develop NUB1 and FAT10 as novel biomarkers.

The senescence-associated secretory phenotype: Fueling a wound that never heals

Wound healing is impaired with advanced age and certain chronic conditions, such as diabetes and obesity. Moreover, common cancer treatments, including chemotherapy and radiation, can cause unintended tissue damage and impair wound healing. Available wound care treatments are not always effective, as some wounds fail to heal or recur after treatment. Hence, a more thorough understanding of the pathophysiology of chronic, nonhealing wounds may offer new ideas for the development of effective wound care treatments. Cancers are sometimes referred to as wounds that never heal, sharing mechanisms similar to wound healing. We describe in this review how cellular senescence and the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) contribute to chronic wounds versus cancer.

Cytotoxic Activity of Isoniazid Derivative in Human Breast Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND/AIM

Isoniazid is an antibiotic used for the treatment of tuberculosis. Previously, we found that the isoniazid derivative (E)-N'-(2,3,4-trihydroxybenzylidene) isonicotinohydrazide (ITHB4) could be developed as novel antimycobacterial agent by lead optimization. We further explored the ability of this compound compared to zerumbone in inhibiting the growth of MCF-7 breast cancer cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cytotoxicity was measured by the MTT assay and further confirmed via apoptosis, ROS, cell cycle, DNA fragmentation and cytokine assays.

RESULTS

ITHB4 demonstrated a lower IC₅₀ compared to zerumbone in inhibiting the proliferation of MCF-7 cells. ITHB4 showed no toxicity against normal breast and human immune cells. Apoptosis assay revealed that ITHB4, at a concentration equal to the IC₅₀, induces apoptosis of MCF-7 cells and cell cycle arrest at the sub-G1 and G₂/M phases. ITHB4 triggered accumulation of intracellular ROS and nuclear DNA fragmentation. Secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced inflammation and potentially immunogenic cell death.

CONCLUSION

ITHB4 has almost similar chemotherapeutic properties as zerumbone in inhibiting MCF-7 growth, and hence provide the basis for further experiments in animal models.

Mangiferin mitigates di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced testicular injury in rats by modulating oxidative stress-mediated signals, inflammatory cascades, apoptotic pathways, and steroidogenesis

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an endocrine disruptor that causes reproductive defects in male animal models. This study was conducted to explore the plausible modulatory effects of mangiferin (MF) against DEHP-induced testicular injury in rats. Thirty-two adult male albino rats were allocated into four groups. Two groups were given DEHP (2 g/kg/day, p.o) for 14 days. One of these groups was treated with MF (20 mg/kg/day, i.p) for 7 days before and 14 days after DEHP administration. A vehicle-treated control was included, and another group of rats was given MF only. Results revealed that MF treatment suppressed oxidative testicular injury by amplifying the mRNA expression of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor-2 (Nrf2) and increasing hemoxygenase-1 (HO-1), glutathione, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels. This treatment also enhanced superoxide dismutase activity, but it decreased malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels. MF had an anti-inflammatory characteristic, as demonstrated by the downregulation of the mRNA of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). The content of tumor necrosis factor-alpha also decreased. MF modulated the apoptotic pathway by suppressing the mRNA of cytochrome c (Cyt c), Fas ligand content, Bax IHC expression, caspase-3 activity and cleaved caspase-3 IHC expression. It also upregulated the expression levels of heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70) and B-cell lymphoma 2. Moreover, MF upregulated the mRNA expression levels of HSP70 and c-kit and enriched the content of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein, which were reflected in serum testosterone levels. This result indicated that MF played crucial roles in steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Besides, the activities of testicular marker enzymes, namely, acid and alkaline phosphatases, and lactate dehydrogenase, significantly increased. Histopathological observations provided evidence supporting the biochemical and molecular measurements. In conclusion, MF provided protective mechanisms against the DEHP-mediated deterioration of testicular functions partially through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. It also involved the restoration of steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis through the modulation of Nrf2/HO-1, NF-κB/Cyt c/HSP70, and c-Kit signaling cascades.

Chemotherapy: a double-edged sword in cancer treatment

Chemotherapy is a well-known and effective treatment for different cancers; unfortunately, it has not been as efficient in the eradication of all cancer cells as been expected. The mechanism of this failure was not fully clarified, yet. Meanwhile, alterations in the physiologic conditions of the tumor microenvironment (TME) were suggested as one of the underlying possibilities. Chemotherapy drugs can activate multiple signaling pathways and augment the secretion of inflammatory mediators. Inflammation may show two opposite roles in the TME. On the one hand, inflammation, as an innate immune response, tries to suppress tumor growth but on the other hand, it might be not powerful enough to eradicate the cancer cells and even it can provide appropriate conditions for cancer promotion and relapse as well. Therefore, the administration of mild anti-inflammatory drugs during chemotherapy might result in more successful clinical results. Here, we will review and discuss this hypothesis. Most chemotherapy agents are triggers of inflammation in the tumor microenvironment through inducing the production of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) molecules. Some chemotherapy agents can induce systematic inflammation by provoking TLR4 signaling or triggering IL-1B secretion through the inflammasome pathway. NF-kB and MAPK are key signaling pathways of inflammation and could be activated by several chemotherapy drugs. Furthermore, inflammation can play a key role in cancer development, metastasis and exacerbation.

Oxidative stress parameters as biomarkers of bladder cancer development and progression

The epidemiological studies confirm that the overproduction of free radical is an important factor of cancer induction as well as development, and loss of antioxidant systems efficiency is associated with an increased risk of carcinogenesis. While bladder cancer is the fourth most common type of cancer all over the world, there is little evidence of the advancing changes in oxidative/nitrative stress during the progression of bladder cancer. Our study aimed to investigate the plasma levels of typical markers of oxidative/nitrative stress depending on the clinical classification of bladder cancer differentiation and infiltration degree. We examined 40 patients with newly diagnosed bladder cancer and 20 healthy volunteers as a control group. We analysed the plasma levels of protein carbonyls, thiol groups, 3-nitrotyrosine, lipid peroxidation, as well as non-enzymatic plasma antioxidant capacity using DPPH^· and ABTS^·+ radicals. We confirmed that all analysed biomarkers are higher in enrolled BC patients than in healthy subjects. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate a positive correlation between the degree of bladder cancer progression and the level of oxidative stress, but no correlation in the case of NT-3. Based on obtained results, we might conclude that during carcinogenesis of the bladder increased oxidative damage of biomolecules is manifested. This indicates the participation of oxidative stress in the development of bladder cancer, and it is important the ensure the proper antioxidant protection.

Perturbation of miR-146b and relevant inflammatory elements in esophageal carcinoma patients supports an immune downregulatory mechanism

BACKGROUND

Esophageal Cancer is known as one of the deadliest cancers worldwide with the squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) being the predominant subtype. There is a growing body of evidence linking the dysregulated microRNA (miRNA) pathway of immune cells to the progression of several tumors. In a previous study, we investigated molecular alterations pertaining to miR-146a and some components of NF-kB signaling pathway and proposed a possible immune downregulatory mechanism in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of ESCC patients. Here, we further scrutinized other components of this pathway by evaluating PBMC levels of miR-146b, TLR4, IL10, and TNFA.

METHODS

Gene expressions were quantified using RT-qPCR assays. To prevent the vulnerability of results to the expression instability of reference genes, nine additional transcripts were quantified, and stable reference genes for normalizing qPCR data were identified using the NormFinder and the geNorm algorithms. The efficiency-corrected normalized relative quantity values were used to compare gene expressions among study groups.

RESULTS

The PBMC expression of miR-146b and TNFA was downregulated in ESCC patients as compared to healthy subjects. While the level of TLR4 was not different among the study groups, the PBMC level of IL10 was upregulated in ESCC patients. Logistic regression analyses coupled with the ROC curve and cross-validation analysis suggested that PBMC expression may serve as potential candidate biomarker for discriminating ESCC patients from healthy subjects.

CONCLUSION

The present findings, in line with our previous report, propose a particular gene expression pattern in PBMCs of ESCC patients, providing evidence in support of an immune downregulatory mechanism.

The genomic architecture of metastasis in breast cancer: focus on mechanistic aspects, signalling pathways and therapeutic strategies

Breast cancer is a multifactorial, heterogeneous disease and the second most frequent cancer amongst women worldwide. Metastasis is one of the most leading causes of death in these patients. Early-stage or locally advanced breast cancer is limited to the breast or nearby lymph nodes. When breast cancer spreads to farther tissues/organs from its original site, it is referred to as metastatic or stage IV breast cancer. Normal breast development is regulated by specific genes and signalling pathways controlling cell proliferation, cell death, cell differentiation and cell motility. Dysregulation of genes involved in various signalling pathways not only leads to the formation of primary tumour but also to the metastasis as well. The metastatic cascade is represented by a multi-step process including invasion of the local tumour cell followed by its entry into the vasculature, exit of malignant cells from the circulation and ultimately their colonization at the distant sites. These stages are referred to as formation of primary tumour, angiogenesis, invasion, intravasation and extravasation, respectively. The major sites of metastasis of breast cancer are the lymph nodes, bone, brain and lung. Only about 28% five-year survival rate has been reported for stage IV breast cancer. Metastasis is a serious concern for breast cancer and therefore, various therapeutic strategies such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors have been developed to target specific dysregulated genes and various signalling pathways involved in different steps of metastasis. In addition, other therapies like hyperbaric oxygen therapy, RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 are also being explored as novel strategies to cure the stage IV/metastatic breast cancer. Therefore, the current review has been compiled with an aim to evaluate the genetic basis of stage IV breast cancer with a focus on the molecular mechanisms. In addition, the therapeutic strategies targeting these dysregulated genes involved in various signalling pathways have also been discussed. Genome editing technologies that can target specific genes in the affected areas by making knock-in and knock-out alternations and thereby bring significant treatment outcomes in breast cancer have also been summarized.

Development, Optimization and Evaluation of 2-Methoxy-Estradiol Loaded Nanocarrier for Prostate Cancer

The therapeutic efficacy of antineoplastic agents possessing a selective target to the nucleus of the cancer cells could be enhanced through novel formulation approaches. Thus, toward the improvement of the anticancer potential of 2-methoxy estradiol (2 ME) on prostate cancer, the drug was entrapped into the hydrophobic micelles core formulated with Phospholipon 90G and d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS). Optimization of the formulation was done by Box-Behnken statistical design using Statgraphics software to standardize percentages of TPGS and phospholipid to obtain the smallest particle size. The optimized formulation was found to be spherical with nanometer size of 152 ± 5.2 nm, and low PDI (0.234). The entrapment efficiency of the micelles was 88.67 ± 3.21% with >93% release of 2 ME within 24 h. There was a 16-fold increase in apoptosis and an 8-fold increase in necrosis of the PC-3 cells when incubated with 2 ME micellar delivery compared to control cells (2.8 ± 0.2%). This increased apoptosis was further correlated with increased BAX expression (11.6 ± 0.7) and decreased BCL-2 expression (0.29 ± 0.05) in 2 ME micelles treated cells when compared to the control group. Further, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (∼50-fold) by the drug-loaded micelles and free drug compared to control cells was found to be due to the generation of ROS. Findings on cell cycle analysis revealed the significant arrest of the G2-M phase of the PC-3 cells when incubated with the optimized formulation. Simultaneously, a significantly increased number of cells in pre-G1 revealed the maximum apoptotic potential of the drug when delivered via micellar formulation. Finally, upregulation of caspase-9, p53, and NO, with downregulation of TNF-α, NF-κβ, and inflammatory mediators of the PC-3 cells established the superiority of the micellar approach against prostate cancer. In summary, the acquired results highlighted the potentiality of the 2 ME-micellar delivery tool for controlling the growth of prostate cancer cells for improved efficacy.

Diabetes Mellitus and Its Metabolic Complications: The Role of Adipose Tissues

Many approaches have been used in the effective management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. A recent paradigm shift has focused on the role of adipose tissues in the development and treatment of the disease. Brown adipose tissues (BAT) and white adipose tissues (WAT) are the two main types of adipose tissues with beige subsets more recently identified. They play key roles in communication and insulin sensitivity. However, WAT has been shown to contribute significantly to endocrine function. WAT produces hormones and cytokines, collectively called adipocytokines, such as leptin and adiponectin. These adipocytokines have been proven to vary in conditions, such as metabolic dysfunction, type 2 diabetes, or inflammation. The regulation of fat storage, energy metabolism, satiety, and insulin release are all features of adipose tissues. As such, they are indicators that may provide insights on the development of metabolic dysfunction or type 2 diabetes and can be considered routes for therapeutic considerations. The essential roles of adipocytokines vis-a-vis satiety, appetite, regulation of fat storage and energy, glucose tolerance, and insulin release, solidifies adipose tissue role in the development and pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus and the complications associated with the disease.

Kaempferia parviflora extract inhibits TNF-α-induced release of MCP-1 in ovarian cancer cells through the suppression of NF-κB signaling

Ovarian clear cell carcinoma (OCCC) is an uncommon subtype of epithelial cell ovarian cancers (EOCs) that has poor response to conventional platinum-based therapy. Therefore, finding new potential therapeutic agents is required. Since inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), is strongly expressed in EOCs and associated with the level of tumor grade, disruption of this inflammation pathway may provide another potential target for OCCC treatment. We previously reported that Kaempferia parviflora (KP) extract decreased cell proliferation and induced apoptosis. However, the effects of KP on OCCC, especially the aspects related to inflammatory cytokines, have not been elucidated. Our current study demonstrated the effects of KP extract on cytokine production in TNF-α-induced OCCC TOV-21G cell line. This study showed that KP extract inhibited interleukin 6 (IL-6) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) production at both transcription and translation levels via the suppression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signal transduction. In contrast, KP extract increased the expression of inhibitor kappa B (IκB) protein which may delay NF-κB translocation into the nucleus upon TNF-α activation. Moreover, the suppression of cytokines released from KP treated-TOV-21G reduced the migration of monocyte cell (THP-1). KP extract also exhibited the inhibition of IL-6 and MCP-1 production from THP-1 activated by lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Cells treated with KP extract exhibited a decrease in extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) and protein kinase B (AKT) phosphorylation and induced myeloid leukemia cell differentiation protein Mcl-1 (MCL-1) expression. Suppression of inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production and inhibition of tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) migration support the possibility of using KP for OCCC treatment.

Effects of web-based cognitive behavioral stress management and health promotion interventions on neuroendocrine and inflammatory markers in men with advanced prostate cancer: A randomized controlled trial

Cognitive behavioral stress management (CBSM) improves quality of life and mitigates stress biology in patients with early-stage cancer, including men with localized prostate cancer. However, treatments for advanced prostate cancer like androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) can lead to significant symptom burden that may be further exacerbated by stress-induced inflammation and cortisol dysregulation. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of CBSM (versus an active health promotion control) on circulating inflammatory markers and cortisol in men with advanced prostate cancer.

METHODS

Men with stage III or IV prostate cancer (N = 192) who had undergone ADT within the last year were randomized to CBSM or health promotion. Both interventions were 10 weeks, group-based, and delivered online. Venous blood was drawn at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months to measure circulating levels of CRP, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and TNF-α. Saliva samples were collected at awakening, 30 min after awakening, evening, and night for two consecutive days at baseline, 6-months, and 12-months to measure diurnal cortisol slopes.

RESULTS

Mixed modeling analyses demonstrated that changes in inflammatory markers and cortisol did not differ by intervention. Men in both CBSM and health promotion showed decreases in IL-10, IL-8, and TNF-α from baseline to 6 months (β = -3.85--5.04, p's = 0.004-<0.001). However, these markers generally demonstrated a rebound increase from 6 to 12 months (β = 1.91-4.06, p's = 0.06-<0.001). Men in health promotion also demonstrated a flatter diurnal cortisol slope versus men in CBSM at 6 months (β = -2.27, p = .023), but not at 12 months. There were no intervention effects on CRP, IL-6, or overall cortisol output.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to hypotheses, CBSM did not lead to changes in the circulating inflammatory markers and cortisol relative to health promotion. CBSM may be associated with healthy diurnal cortisol rhythm because of its focus on cognitive behavioral approaches to stress management. More research is needed to understand the impact of CBSM and health promotion on biomarkers among men with advanced prostate cancer.

New Insights into Molecular Mechanism behind Anti-Cancer Activities of Lycopene

Lycopene is a well-known compound found commonly in tomatoes which brings wide range of health benefits against cardiovascular diseases and cancers. From an anti-cancer perspective, lycopene is often associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer and people often look for it as a dietary supplement which may help to prevent cancer. Previous scientific evidence exhibited that the anti-cancer activity of lycopene relies on its ability to suppress oncogene expressions and induce proapoptotic pathways. To further explore the real potential of lycopene in cancer prevention, this review discusses the new insights and perspectives on the anti-cancer activities of lycopene which could help to drive new direction for research. The relationship between inflammation and cancer is being highlighted, whereby lycopene suppresses cancer via resolution of inflammation are also discussed herein. The immune system was found to be a part of the anti-cancer system of lycopene as it modulates immune cells to suppress tumor growth and progression. Lycopene, which is under the family of carotenoids, was found to play special role in suppressing lung cancer.

A Computational Systems Analyses to Identify Biomarkers and Mechanistic Link in Psoriasis and Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Psoriasis is the most common and chronic skin disease that affects individuals from every age group. The rate of psoriasis is increasing over the time in both developed and developing countries. Studies have revealed the possibility of association of psoriasis with skin cancers, particularly non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSC), which, include basal cell carcinoma and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC). There is a need to analyze the disease at molecular level to propose potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets in comparison to cSCC. Therefore, the second analyzed disease of this study is cSCC. It is the second most common prevalent skin cancer all over the world with the potential to metastasize and recur. There is an urge to validate the proposed biomarkers and discover new potential biomarkers as well. In order to achieve the goals and objectives of the study, microarray and RNA-sequencing data analyses were performed followed by network analysis. Afterwards, quantitative systems biology was implemented to analyze the results at a holistic level. The aim was to predict the molecular patterns that can lead psoriasis to cancer. The current study proposed potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for psoriasis and cSCC. IL-17 signaling pathway is also identified as significant pathway in both diseases. Moreover, the current study proposed that autoimmune pathology, neutrophil recruitment, and immunity to extracellular pathogens are sensitive towards MAPKs (MAPK13 and MAPK14) and genes for AP-1 (FOSL1 and FOS). Therefore, these genes should be further studied in gene knock down based studies as they may play significant role in leading psoriasis towards cancer.

Macrophages as a "weapon" in anticancer cellular immunotherapy

Anticancer immunotherapy is a treatment that activates the immune system to fight the tumor. Immunotherapy has several advantages over other cancer treatments in that anticancer immunotherapy displays high specificity, low side effects, and can combine with various conventional therapies. In recent years, oncologists have shown increasing interest in using macrophages for adoptive cell therapy and predict a bright future of macrophage-directed therapy for eliminating cancer. The focus of increased research interest is the classically activated M1 macrophages exhibiting pronounced tumoricidal activity, and the alternatively activated M2 tumor-associated macrophages, which otherwise help malignant cells evading attack by the immune system. M1 macrophages may represent an effective weapon in anticancer cellular immunotherapy, and the use of autoimmune macrophages properly prepared for antitumor administration is one of the promising ways for personalized therapy of cancer patients. The present report mainly discusses some modern aspects of the problem in application of activated M1 macrophage in anticancer therapy and reviews relevant publications up to 2021.

Molecular mechanisms and associated cell signalling pathways underlying the anticancer properties of phytochemical compounds from Aloe species (Review)

Naturally occurring components from various species of Aloe have been used as traditional folk medicine since the ancient times. Over the last few decades, the therapeutic effects of extracts and phytochemical compounds obtained from Aloe vera have been proven in preclinical and clinical studies. Recently, compounds from other Aloe species apart from Aloe vera have been investigated for the treatment of different diseases, with a particular focus on cancer. In the present review, the effects of phytochemical compounds obtained from different Aloe species are discussed, with a specific focus on the effects on cell signalling in cancer and normal cells, and their selectivity and efficacy. This information will be useful for the application of Aloe-derived compounds as therapeutic agents, either alone or in combination with other standard drugs for cancer treatment.

Rationally designed TNF-α inhibitors: Identification of promising cytotoxic agents

Design and synthesis of new indole derivatives as tumor growth inhibiting agents via inhibiting the TNF-α is described. The preliminary results showed the inhibition of LPS induced production of NO, TNF-α and IL-6 by these compounds out of which compounds 2d and 2g exhibited appreciable cytotoxicity against the 60 cell lines panel of human cancer. The rationale behind the design of the molecules and the results of their biological studies are presented. 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Yorkie-Cactus (IκBα)-JNK axis promotes tumor growth and progression in Drosophila

Presence of inflammatory factors in the tumor microenvironment is well-documented yet their specific role in tumorigenesis is elusive. The core inflammatory pathways like the Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) and the Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) pathway are conserved in Drosophila. We induced GFP-marked epithelial tumors by expressing activated oncogenic forms of RasV12 or Yorkie (Yki3SA, mammalian YAP) in scribble deficient cells (scribRNAi, mammalian SCRIB) to study the role of inflammatory factors in tumorigenesis. Similar to RasV12scribRNAi, we found that Yki3SAscribRNAi form invasive neoplastic lethal tumors that induce a systemic inflammatory response. We identified Cactus (Cact, mammalian IκBα), the negative regulator of TLR, as a key player in tumor growth. Cact accumulates in the cytoplasm in Drosophila tumor models, similar to squamous cell carcinoma in mice models and human patients where cytoplasmic IκBα favors oncogenic transformation. Further, cact is transcriptionally upregulated in tumors, and downregulation of Cact affects tumor growth. We investigated if TLR or TNF pathway affect tumor growth through activation of Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) pathway and its target Matrix Metalloprotease1 (MMP1). Genetically manipulating levels of TLR components or TNF receptors showed that Cact acts upstream of JNK signaling and regulates JNK via a non-canonical mechanism during tumorigenesis. Further, Hippo coactivator Yki transcriptionally regulates cact expression, and downregulation of Yki or Cact is sufficient to cause downregulation of JNK-mediated signaling that promotes tumorigenesis. Here, we report a link between Hippo, IκBα and JNK signaling that may induce inflammation and innate immune response in tumorigenesis.

Immunological Effects of Histotripsy for Cancer Therapy

Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide despite major advancements in diagnosis and therapy over the past century. One of the most debilitating aspects of cancer is the burden brought on by metastatic disease. Therefore, an ideal treatment protocol would address not only debulking larger primary tumors but also circulating tumor cells and distant metastases. To address this need, the use of immune modulating therapies has become a pillar in the oncology armamentarium. A therapeutic option that has recently emerged is the use of focal ablation therapies that can destroy a tumor through various physical or mechanical mechanisms and release a cellular lysate with the potential to stimulate an immune response. Histotripsy is a non-invasive, non-ionizing, non-thermal, ultrasound guided ablation technology that has shown promise over the past decade as a debulking therapy. As histotripsy therapies have developed, the full picture of the accompanying immune response has revealed a wide range of immunogenic mechanisms that include DAMP and anti-tumor mediator release, changes in local cellular immune populations, development of a systemic immune response, and therapeutic synergism with the inclusion of checkpoint inhibitor therapies. These studies also suggest that there is an immune effect from histotripsy therapies across multiple murine tumor types that may be reproducible. Overall, the effects of histotripsy on tumors show a positive effect on immunomodulation.

Hijacked Immune Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment: Molecular Mechanisms of Immunosuppression and Cues to Improve T Cell-Based Immunotherapy of Solid Tumors

The understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TME) has been expanding in recent years in the context of interactions among different cell types, through direct cell–cell communication as well as through soluble factors. It has become evident that the development of a successful antitumor response depends on several TME factors. In this context, the number, type, and subsets of immune cells, as well as the functionality, memory, and exhaustion state of leukocytes are key factors of the TME. Both the presence and functionality of immune cells, in particular T cells, are regulated by cellular and soluble factors of the TME. In this regard, one fundamental reason for failure of antitumor responses is hijacked immune cells, which contribute to the immunosuppressive TME in multiple ways. Specifically, reactive oxygen species (ROS), metabolites, and anti-inflammatory cytokines have central roles in generating an immunosuppressive TME. In this review, we focused on recent developments in the immune cell constituents of the TME, and the micromilieu control of antitumor responses. Furthermore, we highlighted the current challenges of T cell-based immunotherapies and potential future strategies to consider for strengthening their effectiveness.

Assessment of Histological Features in Squamous Cell Carcinoma Involving Head and Neck Skin and Mucosa

BACKGROUND

squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the second most common type of malignancy worldwide. Skin and mucosa of the head and neck areas are the most frequently affected. An aggressive behavior in SCC is not easily detected, and despite all efforts, mortality in these types of cancer did not show major improvements during recent decades. In this study, we aim to determine the role of histological features available through standard pathology assessment in SCC and their relation with tumor behavior and patients' survival.

METHOD

in a group of one hundred patients diagnosed with SCC involving the head and neck areas, we assessed the presence of four histological features (tumor/stroma ratio, immune infiltration at the front of invasion, tumor-budding activity, and tumor necrosis), their correlations with tumor type (mucosal or cutaneous), tumor clinicopathological characteristics, and their prognostic potential.

RESULTS

the comparison between histological features in cutaneous versus mucosal SCC reveals no significant differences for any of the four parameters assessed. We found significant correlations between tumor/stroma ratio and lymphatic metastasis (p = 0.0275), perineural invasion (p = 0.0006), and clinical staging (p = 0.0116). Immune infiltration at the front of invasion revealed similar correlations with lymph node involvement (p = 0.002), perineural invasion (p = 0.0138), and clinical staging (p = 0.0043). Tumor budding and tumor necrosis correlated with the size of the tumor (p = 0.0077 and p = 0.0004) and the clinical staging (p = 0.0039 and p = 0.0143). In addition, tumor budding was significantly correlated with perineural invasion (p = 0.0454). In mucosal SCC, patients with improved outcome revealed high values for the tumor/stroma ratio (p = 0.0159) and immune infiltration at the front of invasion (p = 0.0274). However, the multivariate analysis did not confirm their independent prognostic roles.

CONCLUSIONS

extended histological assessments that include features such as tumor/stroma ratio, immune infiltration at the front of invasion, tumor budding, and tumor necrosis can be an easy, accessible method to collect additional information on tumor aggressiveness in skin and mucosa SCC affecting the head and neck areas.

Mast Cells: A New Frontier for Cancer Immunotherapy

Mast cells are unique tissue-resident immune cells of the myeloid lineage that have long been implicated in the pathogenesis of allergic and autoimmune disorders. More recently, mast cells have been recognized as key orchestrators of anti-tumor immunity, modulators of the cancer stroma, and have also been implicated in cancer cell intrinsic properties. As such, mast cells are an underrecognized but very promising target for cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we discuss the role of mast cells in shaping cancer and its microenvironment, the interaction between mast cells and cancer therapies, and strategies to target mast cells to improve cancer outcomes. Specifically, we address (1) decreasing cell numbers through c-KIT inhibition, (2) modulating mast cell activation and phenotype (through mast cell stabilizers, FcεR1 signaling pathway activators/inhibitors, antibodies targeting inhibitory receptors and ligands, toll like receptor agonists), and (3) altering secreted mast cell mediators and their downstream effects. Finally, we discuss the importance of translational research using patient samples to advance the field of mast cell targeting to optimally improve patient outcomes. As we aim to expand the successes of existing cancer immunotherapies, focused clinical and translational studies targeting mast cells in different cancer contexts are now warranted.