Anterior cingulate cortex, error detection, and the online monitoring of performance

Not all errors are alike: modulation of error-related neural responses in musical joint action

During joint action, the sense of agency enables interaction partners to implement corrective and adaptive behaviour in response to performance errors. When agency becomes ambiguous (e.g. when action similarity encourages perceptual self-other overlap), confusion as to who produced what may disrupt this process. The current experiment investigated how ambiguity of agency affects behavioural and neural responses to errors in a joint action domain where self-other overlap is common: musical duos. Pairs of pianists performed piano pieces in synchrony, playing either the same pitches (ambiguous agency) or different pitches (unambiguous agency) while electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded for each individual. Behavioural and event-related potential results showed no effects of the agency manipulation but revealed differences in how distinct error types are processed. Self-produced 'wrong note' errors (substitutions) were left uncorrected, showed post-error slowing and elicited an error-related negativity (ERN) peaking before erroneous keystrokes (pre-ERN). In contrast, self-produced 'extra note' errors (additions) exhibited pre-error slowing, error and post-error speeding, were rapidly corrected and elicited the ERN. Other-produced errors evoked a feedback-related negativity but no behavioural effects. Overall findings shed light upon how the nervous system supports fluent interpersonal coordination in real-time joint action by employing distinct mechanisms to manage different types of errors.

Conjoint fluctuations of PFC-mediated processes and behavior: An investigation of error-related neural mechanisms in relation to sustained attention

The ability to detect errors, which derives from the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), is crucial to maintain attention over a long period of time. While impairment of this ability has been reported in patients with sustained attention disruption, the role mPFC-mediated processes play in the intra-individual fluctuation of sustained attention remains an open question. In this context, we computed the variance time course of reaction time (RT) of 42 healthy individuals to distinguish intra-individual periods of low and high performance instability, assumed to represent optimal and suboptimal attentional states, when performing a sustained Go/NoGo task. Analysis of the neurophysiological mechanisms of response monitoring revealed a specific reduction in the error-related negativity (ERN) amplitude and frontal midline theta power during periods of high compared to low RT variability, but only in individuals with a higher standard deviation of reaction time (SD-RT). Concerning post-error adaptation, an increase in the correct-related negativity (CRN) amplitude as well as the frontal lateral theta power on trials following errors was observed in individuals with lower SD-RT but not in those with higher SD-RT. Our results thus show that individuals with poor sustained attention ability exhibit altered post-error adaptation and attentional state-dependent efficiency of error monitoring. Conversely, individuals with good sustained attention performances retained their post-error adaptation and response monitoring regardless of the attentional periods. These findings reveal the critical role of the action-monitoring system in intra-individual behavioral stability and highlight the importance of considering attentional states when studying mPFC-mediated processes, especially in subjects with low sustained attention ability.

Frontal midline theta differentiates separate cognitive control strategies while still generalizing the need for cognitive control

Cognitive control processes encompass many distinct components, including response inhibition (stopping a prepotent response), proactive control (using prior information to enact control), reactive control (last-minute changing of a prepotent response), and conflict monitoring (choosing between two competing responses). While frontal midline theta activity is theorized to be a general marker of the need for cognitive control, a stringent test of this hypothesis would require a quantitative, within-subject comparison of the neural activation patterns indexing many different cognitive control strategies, an experiment lacking in the current literature. We recorded EEG from 176 participants as they performed tasks that tested inhibitory control (Go/Nogo Task), proactive and reactive control (AX-Continuous Performance Task), and resolving response conflict (Global/Local Task-modified Flanker Task). As activity in the theta (4-8 Hz) frequency band is thought to be a common signature of cognitive control, we assessed frontal midline theta activation underlying each cognitive control strategy. In all strategies, we found higher frontal midline theta power for trials that required more cognitive control (target conditions) versus control conditions. Additionally, reactive control and inhibitory control had higher theta power than proactive control and response conflict, and proactive control had higher theta power than response conflict. Using decoding analyses, we were able to successfully decode control from target trials using classifiers trained exclusively on each of the other strategies, thus firmly demonstrating that theta representations of cognitive control generalize across multiple cognitive control strategies. Our results confirm that frontal midline theta-band activity is a common mechanism for initiating and executing cognitive control, but theta power also differentiates between cognitive control mechanisms. As theta activation reliably differs depending on the cognitive control strategy employed, future work will need to focus on the differential role of theta in differing cognitive control strategies.

Value signals guide abstraction during learning

The human brain excels at constructing and using abstractions, such as rules, or concepts. Here, in two fMRI experiments, we demonstrate a mechanism of abstraction built upon the valuation of sensory features. Human volunteers learned novel association rules based on simple visual features. Reinforcement-learning algorithms revealed that, with learning, high-value abstract representations increasingly guided participant behaviour, resulting in better choices and higher subjective confidence. We also found that the brain area computing value signals – the ventromedial prefrontal cortex – prioritised and selected latent task elements during abstraction, both locally and through its connection to the visual cortex. Such a coding scheme predicts a causal role for valuation. Hence, in a second experiment, we used multivoxel neural reinforcement to test for the causality of feature valuation in the sensory cortex, as a mechanism of abstraction. Tagging the neural representation of a task feature with rewards evoked abstraction-based decisions. Together, these findings provide a novel interpretation of value as a goal-dependent, key factor in forging abstract representations.

Neural Coding of Cognitive Control: The Representational Similarity Analysis Approach

Cognitive control relies on distributed and potentially high-dimensional frontoparietal task representations. Yet, the classical cognitive neuroscience approach in this domain has focused on aggregating and contrasting neural measures - either via univariate or multivariate methods - along highly abstracted, 1D factors (e.g., Stroop congruency). Here, we present representational similarity analysis (RSA) as a complementary approach that can powerfully inform representational components of cognitive control theories. We review several exemplary uses of RSA in this regard. We further show that most classical paradigms, given their factorial structure, can be optimized for RSA with minimal modification. Our aim is to illustrate how RSA can be incorporated into cognitive control investigations to shed new light on old questions.

The anterior midcingulate cortex might be a neuronal substrate for the ideomotor mechanism

The way the brain controls voluntary movements for normal and pathological subject remains puzzling. In this selective review, we provide unreported harmonies between the anterior midcingulate cortex (aMCC) activities and the ideomotor mechanism postulating that voluntary movements are controlled by the anticipation of the expected perceptual consequences of an action, critically involving bidirectional interplay of a given motor activity and corresponding sensory feedback. Among other evidence, we found that the required asymmetry in the bidirectional interplay between a given motor command and its expected sensory effect could rely on the specific activity of aMCC neurons when observing errors and successes. We confirm this hypothesis by presenting a pathological perspective, studying obsessive-compulsive and other related disorders in which hyperactivated and uniform aMCC activities should lead to a circular-reflex process that results in persistent ideas and repeated actions. By evaluating normal and pathological data, we propose considering the aMCC at a central position within the cerebral network involved in the ideomotor mechanism.

Thalamus and claustrum control parallel layer 1 circuits in retrosplenial cortex

The granular retrosplenial cortex (RSG) is critical for both spatial and non-spatial behaviors, but the underlying neural codes remain poorly understood. Here, we use optogenetic circuit mapping in mice to reveal a double dissociation that allows parallel circuits in superficial RSG to process disparate inputs. The anterior thalamus and dorsal subiculum, sources of spatial information, strongly and selectively recruit small low-rheobase (LR) pyramidal cells in RSG. In contrast, neighboring regular-spiking (RS) cells are preferentially controlled by claustral and anterior cingulate inputs, sources of mostly non-spatial information. Precise sublaminar axonal and dendritic arborization within RSG layer 1, in particular, permits this parallel processing. Observed thalamocortical synaptic dynamics enable computational models of LR neurons to compute the speed of head rotation, despite receiving head direction inputs that do not explicitly encode speed. Thus, parallel input streams identify a distinct principal neuronal subtype ideally positioned to support spatial orientation computations in the RSG.

Roles of the ventral hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex in spatial reversal learning and attentional set-shifting

Neural components enabling flexible cognition and behavior are well-established, and depend mostly on proper intercommunication within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum. However, dense projections from the ventral hippocampus (vHPC) alter the functioning of the medial PFC (mPFC). Dysfunctional hippocampo-prefrontal connectivity negatively affects the integrity of flexible cognition, especially in patients with schizophrenia. In this study, we aimed to test the role of the vHPC and mPFC in a place avoidance task on a rotating arena using two spatial flexibility task variants - reversal learning and set-shifting. To achieve this, we inactivated each of these structures in adult male Long-Evans rats by performing bilateral local muscimol (a GABA_A receptor agonist) injections. A significantly disrupted performance was observed in reversal learning in the vHPC-inactivated, but not in the mPFC-inactivated rats. These results confirm the notion that the vHPC participates in some forms of behavioral flexibility, especially when spatial cues are needed. It seems, rather unexpectedly, that the mPFC is not taxed in these flexibility tasks on a rotating arena.

Electroencephalography (EEG) Reveals Increased Frontal Activity in Social Presence

It remains an unsolved conundrum how social presence affects the neural processes involved in adaptive situation-specific decision-making mechanisms. To investigate this question, brain potential changes via electroencephalography (EEG) and skin conductance responses (SCR) were taken within this study, while participants were exposed to pre-rated pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant pictures, which they had to rate in terms of their perceived arousal. Crucially, they had to—in respective runs—do this alone and in the presence of a significant other. Contrasting respective event-related potentials (ERPs) revealed significantly more negative going potentials peaking at 708 ms post stimulus onset at mid-frontal electrode locations (around FPz and AFz), when participants were exposed to neutral pictures while in the presence of a significant other. SCR results demonstrate higher states of arousal in the presence of a significant other regardless of picture emotion category. Self-reported arousal turned out to be highest in response to neutral pictures within the significant other condition, whereas in the alone condition in response to the pleasant pictures. In light of existing literature on social aspects and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the ERP finding in the significant other condition, while rating emotionally neutral pictures, is interpreted as reflecting heightened ACC activation, which is supported by electrode locations showing significant brain activity differences as well as by source localization results. Neutral pictures are inherently ambiguous, and the current results indicate the presence of another person to change the way one processes, perceives, and acts on them. This is in support for theories proposing the ACC to be part of a larger signal-specification network that gauges relevant stimuli for adequate execution of control.

Acetaminophen does not affect cardiac and brain responses to social rejection but seems to attenuate behavioral adaptation in a social judgment task

The present study examined the effect of Acetaminophen on the painful experience of social rejection by examining brain, cardiac and behavioral measures reflecting different aspects of social feedback processing. Healthy students (N = 72), after ingesting either Acetaminophen or a placebo, performed a social judgment paradigm (SJP), in which they could be expectedly or unexpectedly rejected or accepted. During the task, cardiac and brain responses to different types of feedback were measured, as well as expectancies relating to the given feedback. Enhanced cardiac deceleration was found after unexpected social rejection as compared to all other conditions. Larger mean P3 amplitude was found after expected positive and negative feedback stimuli as compared to unexpected stimuli. While cardiac deceleration and P3 were not affected by Acetaminophen, behavioral responses were. While in the control group the percentage of acceptance predictions decreased over the experiment (learning from negative feedback), the Acetaminophen group did not adjust their positive prediction bias over time. The unexpected effect of Acetaminophen on prediction behavior suggests that Acetaminophen might indeed play a role in social pain perception. The normally observed social pain-based learning effect seems to disappear when participants ingest Acetaminophen, which can be interpreted as a reduced pain perception after Acetaminophen.

Amyloid beta associations with connected speech in cognitively unimpaired adults

INTRODUCTION

Connected speech and language (CSL) decline has been associated with early cognitive decline, but associations between CSL and Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers remain a gap in the literature. Our goal was to examine associations with amyloid beta (Aβ) and longitudinal CSL trajectories in cognitively unimpaired adults at increased AD risk.

METHODS

Using data from the Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention, CSL measures were automatically extracted from digitally recorded picture descriptions. Positron emission tomography determined Aβ status. Linear mixed effects models assessed the interaction between age and Aβ on CSL trajectories.

RESULTS

Participants who were Aβ positive experienced more rapid decline on specific word content, when controlling for age, sex, and literacy. There were no differences between groups in lexical diversity measures over time.

DISCUSSION

These results indicate that declines in connected speech may be related to preclinical AD. CSL may be a promising, inexpensive, and easy-to-collect digital cognitive marker for AD studies.

Sex Differences in Anxiety: An Investigation of the Moderating Role of Sex in Performance Monitoring and Attentional Bias to Threat in High Trait Anxious Individuals

Anxiety disorders are more predominant in women than men, however there is a lack of understanding as to what neurocognitive mechanisms drive this sex difference. Recent investigation has found a potential moderating role of sex in the relationship between anxiety and the error related negativity (ERN)—a component of error-monitoring that is prevalent in high anxiety individuals—such that females display a positive relationship between anxiety/worry and ERN amplitude. We strove to further explore the influence of sex on the relationship between trait anxiety and performance monitoring, specifically with ERN, as well as extend this work to include another hallmark of anxiety, attentional bias to threat. To meet this end, participants performed the flanker and dot-probe tasks, respectively. We did not find a significant difference in the relationship between attention bias scores and anxiety for female vs. males participants. Furthermore, ΔERN amplitudes were greater in males compared to females, and males had more positive CRN amplitudes than females. There were no significant associations between ERN or ΔERN with anxiety in both male and female participants. However, there was a significant relationship between CRN amplitudes and trait anxiety in male but not female participants. Given these results, the effect of sex on the relationship between components of performance monitoring—namely the CRN and ERN—and anxiety may be more nuanced than the current understanding. Our study was limited to detecting medium to large sized moderation effects. Our findings may be important for future meta-analysis on sex differences in anxiety.

Mental Fatigue From Smartphone Use Reduces Volume-Load in Resistance Training: A Randomized, Single-Blinded Cross-Over Study

We investigated the acute effects of mental fatigue induced by 30-minute use of smartphone social network apps on volume load in resistance training among recreationally trained adults. Sixteen (n = 16) adults of both sexes performed three sets of a half back-squat exercise to failure with 80% of 15RM, interspersed with 3-minutes of passive recovery between sets, before and after two different cognitive tasks: (a) use of smartphone social network apps; and (b) watching a documentary. We assessed mechanical variables and ratings of perceived exertion during the strength exercise. Relative to the documentary-viewing control condition, a 30-minute exposure to smartphone social network apps led participants toward increased perception of mental fatigue (p = 0.004) and lower volume-load during the strength exercise (p = 0.006). There were no significant differences in perceived exertion between conditions (p = 0.54), participants' motivation (p = 0.277), intra-set mechanical variables (p > 0.05), or blood lactate concentrations (p = 0.36). Our findings of an isolated possible higher-than normal RPE without changes in physiological variables, accompanying the lower volume-load in the mentally-fatigued participants support psychological, rather than physiological, bases for mental fatigue effects.

Social Neuroscience: How the Brain Attends to the Joys and Pains of Others

Social interaction entails keeping an eye on good and bad things happening to others. A new study suggests that neurons in rat anterior cingulate cortex encode the attention paid to rewards and shocks to conspecifics, independently of empathically feeling their joy and pain.

Learning With and Without Feedback in Children With Developmental Language Disorder

Purpose Intervention provided to school-age children with developmental language disorder often relies on the provision of performance feedback, yet it is unclear whether children with this disorder benefit from feedback-based learning. The study evaluates the effect of performance feedback on learning in children with developmental language disorder. Method Thirteen 8- to 12-year-old children with developmental language disorder and 14 age- and gender-matched children with typical language development completed two learning tasks whose objective was to pair nonword novel names with novel objects. The two tasks differed in the presence of performance feedback to guide learning. Learning outcomes on immediate and follow-up tests were compared between the feedback-based and feedback-free tasks. Additionally, an electrophysiological marker of feedback processing was compared between children with and without developmental language disorder. Results Children with developmental language disorder demonstrated poorer learning outcomes on both tasks when compared with their peers, but both groups achieved better accuracy on the feedback-free task when compared with the feedback-based task. Within the feedback-based task, children were more likely to repeat a correct response than to change it after positive feedback but were as likely to repeat an error as they were to correct it after receiving negative feedback. While children with typical language elicited a feedback-related negativity with greater amplitude to negative feedback, this event-related potential had no amplitude differences between positive and negative feedback in children with developmental language disorder. Conclusions Findings indicate that 8- to 12-year-old children benefit more from a feedback-free learning environment and that negative feedback is not as effective as positive feedback in facilitating learning in children. The behavioral and electrophysiological data provide evidence that feedback processing is impaired in children with developmental language disorders. Future research should evaluate feedback-based learning in children with this disorder using other learning paradigms.

Reactive and Proactive Adaptation of Cognitive and Motor Neural Signals during Performance of a Stop-Change Task

The ability to inhibit or suppress unwanted or inappropriate actions, is an essential component of executive function and cognitive health. The immense selective pressure placed on maintaining inhibitory control processes is exemplified by the relatively small number of instances in which these systems completely fail in the average person's daily life. Although mistakes and errors do inevitably occur, inhibitory control systems not only ensure that this number is low, but have also adapted behavioral strategies to minimize future failures. The ability of our brains to adapt our behavior and appropriately engage proper motor responses is traditionally depicted as the primary domain of frontal brain areas, despite evidence to the fact that numerous other brain areas contribute. Using the stop-signal task as a common ground for comparison, we review a large body of literature investigating inhibitory control processes across frontal, temporal, and midbrain structures, focusing on our recent work in rodents, in an effort to understand how the brain biases action selection and adapts to the experience of conflict.

Visual Sequences Drive Experience-Dependent Plasticity in Mouse Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Mechanisms of experience-dependent plasticity have been well characterized in mouse primary visual cortex (V1), including a form of potentiation driven by repeated presentations of a familiar visual sequence (“sequence plasticity”). The prefrontal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) responds to visual stimuli, yet little is known about if and how visual experience modifies ACC circuits. We find that mouse ACC exhibits sequence plasticity, but in contrast to V1, the plasticity expresses as a change in response timing, rather than a change in response magnitude. Sequence plasticity is absent in ACC, but not V1, in a mouse model of a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with intellectual disability and autism-like features. Our results demonstrate that simple sensory stimuli can be used to reveal how experience functionally (or dysfunctionally) modifies higher-order prefrontal circuits and suggest a divergence in how ACC and V1 encode familiarity.

Sidorov et al. demonstrate that patterned visual input can drive experience-dependent plasticity in the timing of neural responses in mouse anterior cingulate cortex.

Better the devil you know than the devil you don't: Neural processing of risk and ambiguity

Risk and ambiguity are inherent in virtually all human decision-making. Risk refers to a situation in which we know the precise probability of potential outcomes of each option, whereas ambiguity refers to a situation in which outcome probabilities are not known. A large body of research has shown that individuals prefer known risks to ambiguity, a phenomenon known as ambiguity aversion. One heated debate concerns whether risky and ambiguous decisions rely on the same or distinct neural circuits. In the current meta-analyses, we integrated the results of neuroimaging research on decision-making under risk (n = 69) and ambiguity (n = 31). Our results showed that both processing of risk and ambiguity showed convergence in anterior insula, indicating a key role of anterior insula in encoding uncertainty. Risk additionally engaged dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and ventral striatum, whereas ambiguity specifically recruited the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), inferior parietal lobe (IPL) and right anterior insula. Our findings demonstrate overlapping and distinct neural substrates underlying different types of uncertainty, guiding future neuroimaging research on risk-taking and ambiguity aversion.

Information Processing and Technical Knowledge Contribute to Self-Controlled Video Feedback for Children Learning the Snatch Movement in Weightlifting

Our aim in this study was to examine, via technical performance analysis and speed of execution, whether information processing and technical knowledge help explain learning benefits of self-controlled video feedback in children's weightlifting performance. We randomized 24 children (aged 10 to 12 years) into self-controlled (SC) and yoked (YK) feedback groups. Learners underwent test sessions one week before (pre-test) and one day after (post-test) six weightlifting training sessions. During each test session, we recorded kinematic parameters of snatch performance using Kinovea version 0.8.15 software. After the learning sessions, the SC group improved on most kinematic parameters (e.g., the horizontal displacement of the bar between the first and the second pulls [M_DXV = 25.42%, SD = 18.96, p = 0.003) and the maximum height reached by the bar (M_HMV = 5.51%, SD = 7.71, p < 0.05)], while the YK group improved only on the DxV (M_DXV = 19.08%, SD = 24.68, p < 0.05). In addition, the SC group showed a more advanced phase of cognitive processing compared to the YK group, and the SC group showed a superior improvement in their technical knowledge level (p < 0.001) compared to the YK group (p < 0.05). Thus, key elements to correcting motor errors in children's weightlifting through self-controlled feedback were improvements in information processing and technical knowledge.

The P300 and MFN as indicators of concealed knowledge in situations with negative and positive moral valence

Many studies on concealed knowledge involve mock-thefts. The present study compares ERPs of participants concealing knowledge of a morally negative behavior (mock-theft) with ERPs of participants concealing knowledge of a morally positive behavior. Some participants (n= 33) stole a candy box out of an office, whereas others (n= 28) put the candy box into an office as a present. During a concealed information test, participants concealed knowledge of the candy box and a key they had seen in the office (probe stimuli) and honestly indicated not knowing similar irrelevant stimuli. P300s were enlarged for probe, compared to irrelevant stimuli in both conditions, revealing that probe stimuli were more salient than irrelevant stimuli regardless of their moral valence. Likewise, medial frontal negativities were enlarged for probe versus irrelevant stimuli in both conditions, indicating response conflicts when answering deceptively to probe items in both situations.

Atypical Mediofrontal Theta Oscillations Underlying Cognitive Control in Kindergarteners With Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit deficits in cognitive control. Neuroimaging approaches have implicated disruptions to mediofrontal cortex structure and function. However, previous work is limited in testing whether young children with ASD exhibit disruptions to task-related theta oscillations thought to arise from the mediofrontal cortex.

METHODS

Children with ASD (n = 43) and age- and sex-matched typically developing peers (n = 24) at kindergarten entry performed a child-friendly Go/NoGo task while 64-channel electroencephalography was recorded. Time-frequency approaches were employed to assess the magnitude of mediofrontal theta oscillations immediately after error (vs. correct) responses (early theta) as well as later emerging theta oscillations (late theta). We tested whether error-related mediofrontal theta oscillations differed as a function of diagnosis (ASD/typical) and timing (early/late theta). In addition, links to social and academic outcomes were tested.

RESULTS

Overall, children showed increased theta power after error versus correct responses. Compared with typically developing children, children with ASD exhibited a selective reduction in error-related mediofrontal theta power during the late time window. There were no significant group differences for early theta power. Moreover, reduced error-related theta power during the late, but not early, time window significantly predicted poorer academic and social skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Kindergarteners with ASD demonstrated a selective reduction in error-related mediofrontal theta power during a relatively late time window, which is consistent with impairments in specific cognitive processes that recruit top-down control. Targeting these particular cognitive control processes via intervention prior to school entry may promote more successful functional outcomes for children with ASD.

Brain Structure and Subclinical Symptoms: A Dimensional Perspective of Psychopathology in the Depression and Anxiety Spectrum

Human psychopathology is the result of complex and subtle neurobiological alterations. Categorial DSM or ICD diagnoses do not allow a biologically founded and differentiated description of these diverse processes across a spectrum or continuum, emphasising the need for a scientific and clinical paradigm shift towards a dimensional psychiatric nosology. The subclinical part of the spectrum is, however, of special interest for early detection of mental disorders. We review the current evidence of brain structural correlates (grey matter volume, cortical thickness, and gyrification) in non-clinical (psychiatrically healthy) subjects with minor depressive and anxiety symptoms. We identified 16 studies in the depressive spectrum and 20 studies in the anxiety spectrum. These studies show effects associated with subclinical symptoms in the hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex, and anterior insula similar to major depression and changes in amygdala similar to anxiety disorders. Precuneus and temporal areas as parts of the default mode network were affected specifically in the subclinical studies. We derive several methodical considerations crucial to investigations of brain structural correlates of minor psycho(patho)logical symptoms in healthy participants. And we discuss neurobiological overlaps with findings in patients as well as distinct findings, e.g. in areas involved in the default mode network. These results might lead to more insight into the early pathogenesis of clinical significant depression or anxiety and need to be enhanced by multi-centre and longitudinal studies.

Distinct and temporally associated neural mechanisms underlying concurrent, postsuccess, and posterror cognitive controls: Evidence from a stop-signal task

Cognitive control is built upon the interactions of multiple brain regions. It is currently unclear whether the involved regions are temporally separable in relation to different cognitive processes and how these regions are temporally associated in relation to different task performances. Here, using stop-signal task data acquired from 119 healthy participants, we showed that concurrent and poststop cognitive controls were associated with temporally distinct but interrelated neural mechanisms. Specifically, concurrent cognitive control activated regions in the cingulo-opercular network (including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex [dACC], insula, and thalamus), together with superior temporal gyrus, secondary motor areas, and visual cortex; while regions in the fronto-parietal network (including the lateral prefrontal cortex [lPFC] and inferior parietal lobule) and cerebellum were only activated during poststop cognitive control. The associations of activities between concurrent and poststop regions were dependent on task performance, with the most notable difference in the cerebellum. Importantly, while concurrent and poststop signals were significantly correlated during successful cognitive control, concurrent activations during erroneous trials were only correlated with posterror activations in the fronto-parietal network but not cerebellum. Instead, the cerebellar activation during posterror cognitive control was likely to be driven secondarily by posterror activation in the lPFC. Further, a dynamic causal modeling analysis demonstrated that postsuccess cognitive control was associated with inhibitory connectivity from the lPFC to cerebellum, while excitatory connectivity from the lPFC to cerebellum was present during posterror cognitive control. Overall, these findings suggest dissociable but temporally related neural mechanisms underlying concurrent, postsuccess, and posterror cognitive control processes in healthy individuals.

Individual Response–Effect Congruencies Modulate Subsequent Stimulus–Response Compatibility Effects

Expectations of the outcomes of our actions can directly influence response behavior. In 2 experiments, we demonstrate that the congruency between a response and its unanticipated effect (R-E congruency) can also influence task performance by moderating the magnitude of stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility effects on a subsequent trial. This is the case when response effects are physical locations that precede a location-based S-R compatibility task and when response effects are spatial words preceding a spatial word-based S-R compatibility task (Experiment 1). However, prior R-E congruency does not influence the subsequent S-R compatibility effect when the stimulus type has changed from location to word or vice versa (Experiment 2). In both experiments, the correspondence between the spatial information of the S-R task stimulus and prior effect also influences the S-R compatibility effect. We discuss how conflict control and event coding may lead to the observed results and why their influence is specific to spatial mode.

Error Processing During the Online Retrieval of Probabilistic Sequence Knowledge

Abstract. Adaptive behavior involves rapid error processing and action evaluation. However, it has not been clarified how errors contribute to automatic behaviors that can be retrieved to successfully adapt to our complex environment. Automatic behaviors strongly rely on the process of probabilistic sequence learning and memory. Therefore, the present study investigated error processing during the online retrieval of probabilistic sequence knowledge. Twenty-four healthy young adults acquired and continuously retrieved a repeating stimulus sequence reflected by reaction time (RT) changes on a rapid forced-choice RT task. Performance was compared with a baseline that denoted the processing of random stimuli embedded in the probabilistic sequence. At the neurophysiological level, event-related brain potentials synchronized to responses were measured. Error processing was tracked by the error negativity (Ne) and the error positivity (Pe). The mean amplitude of the Ne gradually decreased as the task progressed, similarly for the sequence retrieval and the embedded baseline process. The mean amplitude of the Pe increased over time, likewise, irrespective of the type of the stimuli. Accordingly, we propose that automatic error detection (Ne) and conscious error evaluation (Pe) are not sensitive to sequence learning and retrieval. Overall, the present study provides insight into how error processing takes place for the retrieval of sequence knowledge in a probabilistic environment.

Overlapping and dissociable brain activations for fluid intelligence and executive functions

Cognitive enhancement interventions aimed at boosting human fluid intelligence (gf) have targeted executive functions (EFs), such as updating, inhibition, and switching, in the context of transfer-inducing cognitive training. However, even though the link between EFs and gf has been demonstrated at the psychometric level, their neurofunctional overlap has not been quantitatively investigated. Identifying whether and how EFs and gf might share neural activation patterns could provide important insights into the overall hierarchical organization of human higher-order cognition, as well as suggest specific targets for interventions aimed at maximizing cognitive transfer. We present the results of a quantitative meta-analysis of the available fMRI and PET literature on EFs and gf in humans, showing the similarity between gf and (i) the overall global EF network, as well as (ii) specific maps for updating, switching, and inhibition. Results highlight a higher degree of similarity between gf and updating (80% overlap) compared with gf and inhibition (34%), and gf and switching (17%). Moreover, three brain regions activated for both gf and each of the three EFs also were identified, located in the left middle frontal gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, and anterior cingulate cortex. Finally, resting-state functional connectivity analysis on two independent fMRI datasets showed the preferential behavioural correlation and anatomical overlap between updating and gf. These findings confirm a close link between gf and EFs, with implications for brain stimulation and cognitive training interventions.

Frontal activation as a key for deciphering context congruity and valence during visual perception: An electrical neuroimaging study

The object-context associations and the valence are two important stimulus attributes that influence visual perception. The current study investigates the neural sources associated with schema congruent and incongruent object-context associations within positive, negative, and neutral valence during an intermittent binocular rivalry task with simultaneous high-density EEG recording. Cortical sourceswere calculated using the sLORETA algorithm in 150 ms after stimulus onset (Stim + 150) and 400 ms before response (Resp-400) time windows. No significant difference in source activity was found between congruent and incongruent associations in any of the valence categories in the Stim + 150 ms window indicating that immediately after stimulus presentation the basic visual processing remains the same for both. In the Resp-400 ms window, different frontal regions showed higher activity for incongruent associations with different valence such as the superior frontal gyrus showed significantly higher activations for negative while the middle and medial frontal gyrus showed higher activations for neutral and finally, the inferior frontal gyrus showed higher activations for positive valence. Besides replicating the previous knowledge of frontal activations in response to context congruity, the current study provides further evidence for the sensitivity of the frontal lobe to the valence associated with the incongruent stimuli.

Shift Toward Randomness in Brain Networks of Patients With Anorexia Nervosa: The Role of Malnutrition

No study to date investigated structural white matter (WM) connectome characteristics in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN). Previous research in AN found evidence of imbalances in global and regional connectomic brain architecture and highlighted a role of malnutrition in determining structural brain changes. The aim of our study was to explore the characteristics of the WM network architecture in a sample of patients with AN. Thirty-six patients with AN and 36 healthy women underwent magnetic resonance imaging to obtain a high-resolution three-dimensional T1-weighted anatomical image and a diffusion tensor imaging scan. Probabilistic tractography data were extracted and analyzed in their network properties through graph theory tools. In comparison to healthy women, patients with AN showed lower global network segregation (normalized clustering: p = 0.029), an imbalance between global network integration and segregation (i.e., lower small-worldness: p = 0.031), and the loss of some of the most integrative and influential hubs. Both clustering and small-worldness correlated with the lowest lifetime body mass index. A significant relationship was found between the average regional loss of cortical volume and changes in network properties of brain nodes: the more the difference in the cortical volume of brain areas, the more the increase in the centrality of corresponding nodes in the whole brain, and the decrease in clustering and efficiency of the nodes of parietal cortex. Our findings showed an unbalanced connectome wiring in AN patients, which seems to be influenced by malnutrition and loss of cortical volume. The role of this rearrangement in the maintenance and prognosis of AN and its reversibility with clinical improvement needs to be established by future studies.

Spatiotemporal Characteristics of Neural Dynamics in Theta Oscillations Related to the Inhibition of Habitual Behavior

The human brain carries out cognitive control for the inhibition of habitual behaviors by suppressing some familiar but inappropriate behaviors instead of engaging specific goal-directed behavior flexibly in a given situation. To examine the characteristics of neural dynamics related to such inhibition of habitual behaviors, we used a modified rock–paper–scissors (RPS) task that consisted of a basic, a lose-, and a win-conditioned game. Spectral and phase synchrony analyses were conducted to examine the acquired electroencephalogram signals across the entire brain during all RPS tasks. Temporal variations in frontal theta power activities were directly in line with the stream of RPS procedures in accordance with the task conditions. The lose-conditioned RPS task gave rise to increases in the local frontal power and global phase-synchronized pairs of theta oscillations. The activation of the global phase-synchronized network preceded the activation of frontal theta power. These results demonstrate that the frontal regions play a pivotal role in the inhibition of habitual behaviors—stereotyped and ingrained stimulus–response mappings that have been established over time. This study suggests that frontal theta oscillations may be engaged during the cognitive inhibition of habitual behaviors and that these oscillations characterize the degree of cognitive load required to inhibit habitual behaviors.

Role of the Anterior Cingulate Cortex in Translational Pain Research

As the most common symptomatic reason to seek medical consultation, pain is a complex experience that has been classified into different categories and stages. In pain processing, noxious stimuli may activate the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). But the function of ACC in the different pain conditions is not well discussed. In this review, we elaborate the commonalities and differences from accumulated evidence by a variety of pain assays for physiological pain and pathological pain including inflammatory pain, neuropathic pain, and cancer pain in the ACC, and discuss the cellular receptors and signaling molecules from animal studies. We further summarize the ACC as a new central neuromodulation target for invasive and non-invasive stimulation techniques in clinical pain management. The comprehensive understanding of pain processing in the ACC may lead to bridging the gap in translational research between basic and clinical studies and to develop new therapies.

Engaging proactive control: Influences of diverse language experiences using insights from machine learning

We used insights from machine learning to address an important but contentious question: Is bilingual language experience associated with executive control abilities? Specifically, we assess proactive executive control for over 400 young adult bilinguals via reaction time (RT) on an AX continuous performance task (AX-CPT). We measured bilingual experience as a continuous, multidimensional spectrum (i.e., age of acquisition, language entropy, and sheer second language exposure). Linear mixed effects regression analyses indicated significant associations between bilingual language experience and proactive control, consistent with previous work. Information criteria (e.g., AIC) and cross-validation further suggested that these models are robust in predicting data from novel, unmodeled participants. These results were bolstered by cross-validated LASSO regression, a form of penalized regression. However, the results of both cross-validation procedures also indicated that similar predictive performance could be achieved through simpler models that only included information about the AX-CPT (i.e., trial type). Collectively, these results suggest that the effects of bilingual experience on proactive control, to the extent that they exist in younger adults, are likely small. Thus, future studies will require even larger or qualitatively different samples (e.g., older adults or children) in combination with valid, granular quantifications of language experience to reveal predictive effects on novel participants. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex intrinsic functional connectivity linked to electrocortical measures of error monitoring

The error-related negativity (ERN) is a response-locked event-related potential, occurring approximately 50 ms following an erroneous response at frontocentral electrode sites. Source localization and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research indicate that the ERN is likely generated by activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). The dACC is thought to be a part of a broader network of brain regions that collectively comprise an error monitoring network. However, little is known about how intrinsic connectivity within the dACC-based error monitoring network contributes to variability in ERN amplitude. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between dACC functional connectivity and ERN amplitude. In a sample of highly trait anxious individuals, the ERN was elicited in a flanker task and functional connectivity was assessed in a 10-min resting-state fMRI scan. Results suggest that the strength of dACC seeded functional connectivity with the supplementary motor area is correlated with the ΔERN (i.e., incorrect-correct responses) amplitude such that greater ΔERN amplitude was accompanied by greater functional coupling between these regions. In sum, ERN amplitude appears to be related to the strength of functional connectivity between error monitoring and motor control regions of the brain.

Political uncertainty moderates neural evaluation of incongruent policy positions

Uncertainty has been shown to impact political evaluation, yet the exact mechanisms by which uncertainty affects the minds of citizens remain unclear. This experiment examines the neural underpinnings of uncertainty in political evaluation using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). During fMRI, participants completed an experimental task where they evaluated policy positions attributed to hypothetical political candidates. Policy positions were either congruent or incongruent with candidates' political party affiliation and presented with varying levels of certainty. Neural activity was modelled as a function of uncertainty and incongruence. Analyses suggest that neural activity in brain regions previously implicated in affective and evaluative processing (anterior cingulate cortex, insular cortex) differed as a function of the interaction between uncertainty and incongruence, such that activation in these areas was greatest when information was both certain and incongruent, and uncertainty influenced processing differently as a function of the valence of the attached information. These findings suggest that individuals are attuned to uncertainty in the stated issue positions of politicians, and that the neural processing of this uncertainty is dependent on congruence of these positions with expectations based on political party identification. Implications for the study of emotion and politics and political cognition are discussed. This article is part of the theme issue 'The political brain: neurocognitive and computational mechanisms'.

Conflict Processing in Schizophrenia: Dissociable neural mechanisms revealed by the N2 and frontal midline theta

Deficits in executive control have long been regarded as one of the hallmark cognitive characteristics in people with schizophrenia (SZ), and current neurocognitive models of SZ generally regard the dysfunctional anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) as the possible neural mechanism. This however, contrasts with recent studies showing that conflict processing, a key component of executive functions that relies on ACC, remains relatively intact in SZ. The current study aimed to investigate this issue through two well-known electrophysiological signatures of conflict processing that have been suggested to originate from ACC, i.e., the N2 component of event-related potentials (ERPs) and frontal midline theta (FMθ) oscillations. We recorded 64-channel scalp electroencephalography from 29 SZ (17 women; mean age: 30.4 years) and 31 healthy control subjects (HC; 17 women; mean age: 29.1 years) performing a modified flanker task. Behavioral data revealed no significant differences in flanker conflict effects (lower accuracy and longer reaction times in incongruent trials than in congruent trials) between HC and SZ. Trial-averaged ERP and spectral analysis suggested that both N2 and FMθ were significantly impaired in SZ relative to HC. Furthermore, by sorting incongruent trials according to their reaction times within individual subjects, we found that the trial-by-trial modulation of N2 (larger amplitude and longer latency in slower trials) which was observed and localized in ACC for HC was totally absent for SZ. By contrast, the trial-by-trial modulation of FMθ (larger power in slower trials) was observed and localized in ACC for both groups, despite a smaller magnitude in SZ, which suggested that FMθ, not N2, might serve as the neural substrate of conflict processing in SZ. Taken together, our results enrich the current neurocognitive models of SZ by revealing dissociable neural responses between N2 and FMθ during conflict processing in SZ.

A role of the lateral prefrontal cortex in the congruency sequence effect revealed by transcranial direct current stimulation

Congruency effect is the increase in response time when relevant and irrelevant cues indicate incongruent rather than congruent responses. The congruency effect is smaller in the trial after an incongruent trial than after a congruent trial: this difference is known as the congruency sequence effect (CSE). Psychophysical and neural studies have suggested that the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) and the medial prefrontal cortex are associated with the CSE. In the present study, we applied anodal and cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation, which is thought to result in excitation and inhibition, respectively, on the LPFC, while human participants were performing a flanker task. We found that the CSE was increased under cathodal stimulation (inhibition) of the LPFC. Moreover, the LPFC stimulation modulated the congruency effect after a congruent trial. Further analyses suggested that the results cannot be explained by any of the currently prevailing hypotheses of the CSE, including the conflict monitoring hypothesis, feature integration hypothesis, and temporal learning account. Based on our findings, we propose that a new distinct mechanism might be involved in the CSE. Specifically, the LPFC might contribute to the CSE by maintaining the attention to the task-relevant information, which is an endogenous goal-oriented function and reduces the carry-over of the task-irrelevant information after a congruent trial.

Directly Exploring the Neural Correlates of Feedback-Related Reward Saliency and Valence During Real-Time fMRI-Based Neurofeedback

Introduction: The potential therapeutic efficacy of real-time fMRI Neurofeedback has received increasing attention in a variety of psychological and neurological disorders and as a tool to probe cognition. Despite its growing popularity, the success rate varies significantly, and the underlying neural mechanisms are still a matter of debate. The question whether an individually tailored framework positively influences neurofeedback success remains largely unexplored.

Methods: To address this question, participants were trained to modulate the activity of a target brain region, the visual motion area hMT+/V5, based on the performance of three imagery tasks with increasing complexity: imagery of a static dot, imagery of a moving dot with two and with four opposite directions. Participants received auditory feedback in the form of vocalizations with either negative, neutral or positive valence. The modulation thresholds were defined for each participant according to the maximum BOLD signal change of their target region during the localizer run.

Results: We found that 4 out of 10 participants were able to modulate brain activity in this region-of-interest during neurofeedback training. This rate of success (40%) is consistent with the neurofeedback literature. Whole-brain analysis revealed the recruitment of specific cortical regions involved in cognitive control, reward monitoring, and feedback processing during neurofeedback training. Individually tailored feedback thresholds did not correlate with the success level. We found region-dependent neuromodulation profiles associated with task complexity and feedback valence.

Discussion: Findings support the strategic role of task complexity and feedback valence on the modulation of the network nodes involved in monitoring and feedback control, key variables in neurofeedback frameworks optimization. Considering the elaborate design, the small sample size here tested (N = 10) impairs external validity in comparison to our previous studies. Future work will address this limitation. Ultimately, our results contribute to the discussion of individually tailored solutions, and justify further investigation concerning volitional control over brain activity.

Go with the flow: A neuroscientific view on being fully engaged

Flow is a state of full task absorption, accompanied with a strong drive and low levels of self-referential thinking. Flow is likely when there is a match between a person's skills and the task challenge. Despite its relevance for human performance and the vast body of research on flow, there is currently still relatively little insight in its underlying neurocognitive mechanisms. In this paper, we discuss a set of large brain networks that may be involved in establishing the core dimensions of flow. We propose that dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems mediate the intrinsic motivation and activate mood states that are typical for flow. The interaction between three large-scale attentional networks, namely the Default Mode Network, Central Executive Network and the Salience Network is proposed to play a role in the strong task engagement, low self-referential thinking, feedback and feelings of control in flow. The proposed relationships between flow and the brain networks may support the generation of new hypotheses and can guide future research in this field.

Doing it Wrong: A Systematic Review on Electrocortical and Behavioral Correlates of Error Monitoring in Patients with Neurological Disorders

Detecting errors in one's own and other's actions is a crucial ability for learning and adapting behavior to everchanging, highly volatile environments. Studies in healthy people demonstrate that monitoring errors in one's own and others' actions are underpinned by specific neural systems that are dysfunctional in a variety of neurological disorders. In this review, we first briefly discuss the main findings concerning error detection and error awareness in healthy subjects, the current theoretical models, and the tasks usually applied to investigate these processes. Then, we report a systematic search for evidence of dysfunctional error monitoring among neurological populations (basal ganglia, neurodegenerative, white-matter diseases and acquired brain injury). In particular, we examine electrophysiological and behavioral evidence for specific alterations of error processing in neurological disorders. Error-related negativity (ERN) amplitude were reduced in most (although not all) neurological patient groups, whereas Positivity Error (Pe) amplitude appeared not to be affected in most patient groups. Also theta activity was reduced in some neurological groups, but consistent evidence on the oscillatory activity has not been provided thus far. Behaviorally, we did not observe relevant patterns of pronounced dysfunctional (post-) error processing. Finally, we discuss limitations of the existing literature, conclusive points, open questions and new possible methodological approaches for clinical studies.

Patterns and networks of language control in bilingual language production

Many studies have examined the cognitive and neural mechanisms of bilingual language control, but few of them have captured the pattern information of brain activation. However, language control is a functional combination of both cognitive control and language production which demonstrates distinct patterns of neural representations under different language contexts. The first aim of the present study was to explore the brain activation patterns of language control using multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA). During the experiment, Chinese-English bilinguals were instructed to name pictures in either Chinese or English according to a visually presented cue while being scanned with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We found that patterns of neural activity in frontal brain regions including the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, left inferior frontal gyrus, left supplementary motor area, anterior cingulate cortex, bilateral precentral gyri, and the left cerebellum reliably discriminated between switch and non-switch conditions. We then modeled causal interactions between these regions by applying effective connectivity analyses based on an extended unified structure equation model (euSEM). The results showed that frontal and fronto-cerebellar connectivity were key components of the language control network. These findings further reveal the engagement of the cognitive control network in bilingual language production.

To Go or Not to Go: Degrees of Dynamic Inhibitory Control Revealed by the Function of Grip Force and Early Electrophysiological Indices

A critical issue in executive control is how the nervous system exerts flexibility to inhibit a prepotent response and adapt to sudden changes in the environment. In this study, force measurement was used to capture “partial” unsuccessful trials that are highly relevant in extending the current understanding of motor inhibition processing. Moreover, a modified version of the stop-signal task was used to control and eliminate potential attentional capture effects from the motor inhibition index. The results illustrate that the non-canceled force and force rate increased as a function of stop-signal delay (SSD), offering new objective indices for gauging the dynamic inhibitory process. Motor response (time and force) was a function of delay in the presentation of novel/infrequent stimuli. A larger lateralized readiness potential (LRP) amplitude in go and novel stimuli indicated an influence of the novel stimuli on central motor processing. Moreover, an early N1 component reflects an index of motor inhibition in addition to the N2 component reported in previous studies. Source analysis revealed that the activation of N2 originated from inhibitory control associated areas: the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG), pre-motor cortex, and primary motor cortex. Regarding partial responses, LRP and error-related negativity (ERNs) were associated with error correction processes, whereas the N2 component may indicate the functional overlap between inhibition and error correction. In sum, the present study has developed reliable and objective indices of motor inhibition by introducing force, force-rate and electrophysiological measures, further elucidating our understandings of dynamic motor inhibition and error correction.

Electroencephalographic Correlates of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

This chapter reviews EEG research in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), focusing on Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) such as the Contingent Negative Variation, N2, Error-Related Negativity, the feedback Error-Related Negativity and the Readiness Potential and their neural bases. The functional significance, utility and correlation of these ERPs with OCD symptoms will be discussed, alongside novel theories for integrating the research findings. I will consider hypotheses including goal-directed behaviour, overreliance on habits, dissociations between action and knowledge, and excessive intolerance of uncertainty in the context of EEG studies, thus providing a comprehensive framework of the electroencephalographic literature concerning OCD.

Hemispheric stroke: Mood disorders

Stroke causes many forms of disability, including emotional and mood disorders. Depression is the most common of these, affecting approximately one-third of stroke patients. Other disorders like mania, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, or apathy may also develop following stroke, although they are less common. The development of mood and emotional disorders is dependent on the severity of brain injury, the side of injury, and hemispheric location. Whereas a left hemispheric stroke often results in depression or a catastrophic reaction with anxiety, injury to the right hemisphere has predominantly been associated with the development of emotional indifference (anosodiaphoria) or euphoria. In this chapter, we discuss the mood disorders associated with hemispheric strokes and the neuropsychological mechanisms that might account for the clinical manifestations of these affective disorders.

Neural signature of error processing in major depression

The clinical presentation of major depression (MD) is heterogenous and comprises various affective and cognitive symptoms including an increased sensitivity to errors. Various electrophysiological but only few functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies investigated neural error processing in MD with inconsistent findings. Thus, reliable evidence regarding neural signatures of error processing in patients with current MD is limited despite its potential relevance as viable neurobiological marker of psychopathology. We therefore investigated a sample of 16 young adult female patients with current MD and 17 healthy controls (HC). During fMRI, we used an established Erikson-flanker Go/NoGo-paradigm and focused on neural alterations during errors of commission. In the absence of significant differences in rates of errors of commission in MD compared to HC, we observed significantly (p < 0.05, FWE-corrected on cluster level) enhanced neural activations of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) in MD relative to HC and thus, in brain regions consistently associated to neural error processing and corresponding behavioral adjustments. Considering comparable task performance, in particular similar commission error rates in MD and HC, our results support the evidence regarding an enhanced responsivity of neural error detection mechanisms in MD as a potential neural signature of increased negative feedback sensitivity as one of the core psychopathological features of this disorder.

Altered temporal, but intact spatial, features of transient network dynamics in psychosis

Contemporary models of psychosis suggest that a continuum of severity of psychotic symptoms exists, with subthreshold psychotic experiences (PEs) potentially reflecting some genetic and environmental risk factors shared with clinical psychosis. Thus, identifying abnormalities in brain activity that manifest across this continuum can shed new light on the pathophysiology of psychosis. Here, we investigated the moment-to-moment engagement of brain networks ("states") in individuals with schizophrenia (SCZ) and PEs and identified features of these states that are associated with psychosis-spectrum symptoms. Transient brain states were defined by clustering "single snapshots" of blood oxygen level-dependent images, based on spatial similarity of the images. We found that individuals with SCZ (n = 35) demonstrated reduced recruitment of three brain states compared to demographically matched healthy controls (n = 35). Of these three illness-related states, one specific state, involving primarily the visual and salience networks, also occurred at a lower rate in individuals with persistent PEs (n = 22), compared to demographically matched healthy youth (n = 22). Moreover, the occurrence rate of this marker brain state was negatively correlated with the severity of PEs (r = -0.26, p = 0.003, n = 130). In contrast, the spatial map of this state appeared to be unaffected in the SCZ or PE groups. Thus, reduced engagement of a brain state involving the visual and salience networks was demonstrated across the psychosis continuum, suggesting that early disruptions of perceptual and affective function may underlie some of the core symptoms of the illness.

Hot and cold executive functions in the brain: A prefrontal-cingular network

Executive functions, or cognitive control, are higher-order cognitive functions needed for adaptive goal-directed behaviours and are significantly impaired in majority of neuropsychiatric disorders. Different models and approaches are proposed for describing how executive functions are functionally organised in the brain. One popular and recently proposed organising principle of executive functions is the distinction between hot (i.e. reward or affective-related) versus cold (i.e. purely cognitive) domains of executive functions. The prefrontal cortex is traditionally linked to executive functions, but on the other hand, anterior and posterior cingulate cortices are hugely involved in executive functions as well. In this review, we first define executive functions, their domains, and the appropriate methods for studying them. Second, we discuss how hot and cold executive functions are linked to different areas of the prefrontal cortex. Next, we discuss the association of hot versus cold executive functions with the cingulate cortex, focusing on the anterior and posterior compartments. Finally, we propose a functional model for hot and cold executive function organisation in the brain with a specific focus on the fronto-cingular network. We also discuss clinical implications of hot versus cold cognition in major neuropsychiatric disorders (depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, substance use disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism) and attempt to characterise their profile according to the functional dominance or manifest of hot-cold cognition. Our model proposes that the lateral prefrontal cortex along with the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex are more relevant for cold executive functions, while the medial-orbital prefrontal cortex along with the ventral anterior cingulate cortex, and the posterior cingulate cortex are more closely involved in hot executive functions. This functional distinction, however, is not absolute and depends on several factors including task features, context, and the extent to which the measured function relies on cognition and emotion or both.

Evoking network profiles of the dorsal anterior cingulate in youth with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder during motor control and working memory

Interest in the pathology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder\has focused on brain network profiles of the dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex (dACC), given its role as a principal control region. Both motor control and working memory tasks induce dysfunctional dACC profiles in OCD. H H We contrasted dACC network profiles in OCD and age-comparable controls during both tasks (from data collected in the same participants). The motor task required participants to tap their right forefinger in response to a flashing white probe; the memory task was a standard n-back (2-Back) requiring participants to identify if a current stimulus was identical to the one presented two items before it in the sequence. Network interactions were modeled using Psychophysiological Interactions (PPI), a model of directional functional connectivity. Inter-group analyses indicated a) that the motor control task evoked greater dACC modulation than the working memory task, and b) that the modulatory effect was significantly greater in the OCD group. We also investigated the relationship between OCD symptom dimensions (lifetime obsession and lifetime compulsion measured using the CY-BOCS) and dACC network profiles in OCD. This analysis revealed a dichotomy between Obsessive-Compulsive symptom dimensions and the degree of dACC modulation: primarily increased obsessions predicted increased modulation during the motor control task, but primarily increased compulsions predicted increased modulation during the working memory task. These results re-emphasize the salience of the dACC in OCD, and the primacy of tasks of motor control in evoking dACC pathology in the disorder.

Activation of the cognitive control network associated with information uncertainty

The cognitive control network (CCN) that comprises regions of the frontoparietal network, the cingulo-opercular network, and other sub-cortical regions as core structures is commonly activated by events with an increase in information uncertainty. However, it is not clear whether this CCN activation is associated with both information entropy that represents the information conveyed by the context formed by a sequence of events and the surprise that quantifies the information conveyed by a specific type of event in the context. We manipulated entropy and surprise in this functional magnetic resonance imaging study by varying the probability of occurrence of two types of events in both the visual and auditory modalities and measured brain response as a function of entropy and surprise. We found that activation in regions of the CCN increased as a function of entropy and surprise in both the visual and auditory tasks. The frontoparietal network and additional structures in the CCN mediated the relationship between these information measures and behavioral response. These results suggest that the CCN is a high-level modality-general neural entity for the control of the processing of information conveyed by both context and event.

The effect of feedback valence and source on perception and metacognition: An fMRI investigation

Receiving feedback from our environment that informs us about the outcomes of our actions helps us assess our abilities (e.g., metacognition) and to flexibly adapt our behavior, consequently increasing our chances of success. However, a detailed examination of the effect of feedback on the brain activation during perceptual and confidence judgments as well as the interrelations between perceptual accuracy, prospective and retrospective confidence remains unclear. Here we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the neural response to feedback valence and source in visual contrast discrimination together with prospective confidence judgments at the beginning of each block and retrospective confidence judgments after every decision. Positive feedback was associated with higher activation (or lower deactivation depending on the area) in areas previously involved in attention, performance monitoring and visual regions during the perceptual judgment than during the confidence judgment. Changes in prospective confidence were positively related to changes in perceptual accuracy as well as to the corresponding retrospective confidence. Thus, feedback information impacted multiple, qualitatively different brain processing states, and we also revealed the dynamic interplay between prospective, perceptual accuracy and retrospective self-assessment.

Reward signaling by the rodent medial frontal cortex

The anatomical relevance and functional significance of medial parts of the rodent frontal cortex have been intensely debated over the modern history of neuroscience. Early studies emphasized common functions among medial frontal regions in rodents and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of primates. Behavioral tasks emphasized memory-guided performance and persistent neural activity as a marker of working memory. Over time, it became clear that long-standing concerns about cross-species homology were justified and the view emerged that rodents are useful for understanding medial parts of the frontal cortex in primates, and not the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Here, we summarize a series of studies on the rodent medial frontal cortex that began with an interest in studying working memory in the perigenual prelimbic area and ended up studying reward processing in the medial orbital region. Our experiments revealed a role for a 4-8Hz "theta" rhythm in tracking engagement in the consumption of rewarding fluids and denoting the value of a given reward. Evidence for a functional differentiation between the rostral and caudal medial frontal cortex and its relationship to other frontal cortical areas is also discussed with the hope of motivating future work on this part of the cerebral cortex.