How does synaptotagmin trigger neurotransmitter release?

Ionic Hydrogen Bonds and Lipid Packing Defects Determine the Binding Orientation and Insertion Depth of RecA on Multicomponent Lipid Bilayers

We describe a computational and experimental approach for probing the binding properties of the RecA protein at the surface of anionic membranes. Fluorescence measurements indicate that RecA behaves differently when bound to phosphatidylglycerol (PG)- and cardiolipin (CL)-containing liposomes. We use a multistage computational protocol that integrates an implicit membrane/solvent model, the highly mobile mimetic membrane model, and the full atomistic membrane model to study how different anionic lipids perturb RecA binding to the membrane. With anionic lipids studied here, the binding interface involves three key regions: the N-terminal helix, the DNA binding loop L2, and the M-M7 region. The nature of binding involves both electrostatic interactions between cationic protein residues and lipid polar/charged groups and insertion of hydrophobic residues. The L2 loop contributes more to membrane insertion than the N-terminal helix. More subtle aspects of RecA-membrane interaction are influenced by specific properties of anionic lipids. Ionic hydrogen bonds between the carboxylate group in phosphatidylserine and several lysine residues in the C-terminal region of RecA stabilize the parallel (∥) binding orientation, which is not locally stable on PG- and CL-containing membranes despite similarity in the overall charge density. Lipid packing defects, which are more prevalent in the presence of conical lipids, are observed to enhance the insertion depth of hydrophobic motifs. The computational finding that RecA binds in a similar orientation to PG- and CL-containing membranes is consistent with the fact that PG alone is sufficient to induce RecA polar localization, although CL might be more effective because of its tighter binding to RecA. The different fluorescence behaviors of RecA upon binding to PG- and CL-containing liposomes is likely due to the different structures and flexibility of the C-terminal region of RecA when it binds to different anionic phospholipids.

Synaptotagmin-1 C2B domain interacts simultaneously with SNAREs and membranes to promote membrane fusion

Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1) acts as a Ca²⁺ sensor for neurotransmitter release through its C2 domains. It has been proposed that Syt1 promotes SNARE-dependent fusion mainly through its C2B domain, but the underlying mechanism is poorly understood. In this study, we show that the C2B domain interacts simultaneously with acidic membranes and SNARE complexes via the top Ca²⁺-binding loops, the side polybasic patch, and the bottom face in response to Ca²⁺. Disruption of the simultaneous interactions completely abrogates the triggering activity of the C2B domain in liposome fusion. We hypothesize that the simultaneous interactions endow the C2B domain with an ability to deform local membranes, and this membrane-deformation activity might underlie the functional significance of the Syt1 C2B domain in vivo.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.14211.001

Information travels around the nervous system along cells called neurons, which communicate with each other via connections called synapses. When a signal travelling along one neuron reaches a synapse, it triggers the release of molecules known as neurotransmitters. These molecules are then taken up by the next neuron to pass the signal on. Neurotransmitters are stored in compartments called synaptic vesicles and their release from the first neuron depends on the synaptic vesicles fusing with the membrane that surrounds the cell. This “membrane fusion” process is driven by a group of proteins called the SNARE complex.

Membrane fusion is triggered by a sudden increase in the amount of calcium ions in the cell, which leads to an increase in the activity of a protein called synaptotagmin-1. A region of this protein known as the C2B domain is able to detect calcium ions, and it can also bind to the cell membrane and SNARE complex proteins. However, it is not clear what roles these interactions play in driving the release of neurotransmitters.

Wang, Li et al. have used a variety of biophysical techniques to study these interactions in more detail using purified proteins and other cell components. The experiments show that all three interactions occur at the same time and are all required for synaptotagmin-1 to trigger membrane fusion. Wang, Li et al. propose that these interactions allow synaptotagmin-1 to bend a section of the cell membrane in response to calcium ions.

The experiments also show that the C2B domain interacts more strongly with the SNARE complex than previously thought. A future challenge is to observe whether synaptotagmin-1 works in the same way in living cells.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.14211.002

Extended synaptotagmins are Ca2+-dependent lipid transfer proteins at membrane contact sites

Organelles are in constant communication with each other through exchange of proteins (mediated by trafficking vesicles) and lipids [mediated by both trafficking vesicles and lipid transfer proteins (LTPs)]. It has long been known that vesicle trafficking can be tightly regulated by the second messenger Ca(2+), allowing membrane protein transport to be adjusted according to physiological demands. However, it remains unclear whether LTP-mediated lipid transport can also be regulated by Ca(2+) In this work, we show that extended synaptotagmins (E-Syts), poorly understood membrane proteins at endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane contact sites, are Ca(2+)-dependent LTPs. Using both recombinant and endogenous mammalian proteins, we discovered that E-Syts transfer glycerophospholipids between membrane bilayers in the presence of Ca(2+) E-Syts use their lipid-accommodating synaptotagmin-like mitochondrial lipid binding protein (SMP) domains to transfer lipids. However, the SMP domains themselves cannot transport lipids unless the two membranes are tightly tethered by Ca(2+)-bound C2 domains. Strikingly, the Ca(2+)-regulated lipid transfer activity of E-Syts was fully recapitulated when the SMP domain was fused to the cytosolic domain of synaptotagmin-1, the Ca(2+)sensor in synaptic vesicle fusion, indicating that a common mechanism of membrane tethering governs the Ca(2+)regulation of lipid transfer and vesicle fusion. Finally, we showed that microsomal vesicles isolated from mammalian cells contained robust Ca(2+)-dependent lipid transfer activities, which were mediated by E-Syts. These findings established E-Syts as a novel class of LTPs and showed that LTP-mediated lipid trafficking, like vesicular transport, can be subject to tight Ca(2+)regulation.

Synaptobrevin transmembrane domain influences exocytosis by perturbing vesicle membrane curvature

Membrane fusion requires that nearly flat lipid bilayers deform into shapes with very high curvature. This makes membrane bending a critical force in determining fusion mechanisms. A lipid bilayer will bend spontaneously when material is distributed asymmetrically between its two monolayers, and its spontaneous curvature (C0) will influence the stability of curved fusion intermediates. Prior work on Ca(2+)-triggered exocytosis revealed that fusion pore lifetime (τ) varies with vesicle content (Q), and showed that this relation reflects membrane bending energetics. Lipids that alter C0 change the dependence of τ on Q. These results suggested that the greater stability of an initial exocytotic fusion pore associated with larger vesicles reflects the need to bend more membrane during fusion pore dilation. In this study, we explored the possibility of manipulating C0 by mutating the transmembrane domain (TMD) of the vesicle membrane protein synaptobrevin 2 (syb2). Amperometric measurements of exocytosis in mouse chromaffin cells revealed that syb2 TMD mutations altered the relation between τ and Q. The effects of these mutations showed a striking periodicity, changing sign as the structural perturbation moved through the inner and outer leaflets. Some glycine and charge mutations also influenced the dependence of τ on Q in a manner consistent with expected changes in C0. These results suggest that side chains in the syb2 TMD influence the kinetics of exocytosis by perturbing the packing of the surrounding lipids. The present results support the view that membrane bending occurs during fusion pore expansion rather than during fusion pore formation. This supports the view of an initial fusion pore through two relatively flat membranes formed by protein.

Different states of synaptotagmin regulate evoked versus spontaneous release

The tandem C2-domains of synaptotagmin 1 (syt) function as Ca²⁺-binding modules that trigger exocytosis; in the absence of Ca²⁺, syt inhibits spontaneous release. Here, we used proline linkers to constrain and alter the relative orientation of these C2-domains. Short poly-proline helices have a period of three, so large changes in the relative disposition of the C2-domains result from changing the length of the poly-proline linker by a single residue. The length of the linker was varied one residue at a time, revealing a periodicity of three for the ability of the linker mutants to interact with anionic phospholipids and drive evoked synaptic transmission; syt efficiently drove exocytosis when its tandem C2-domains pointed in the same direction. Analysis of spontaneous release revealed a reciprocal relationship between the activation and clamping activities of the linker mutants. Hence, different structural states of syt underlie the control of distinct forms of synaptic transmission.

Synaptotagmin contains tandem Ca²⁺-binding C2-domains that interact with target membranes to trigger exocytosis. Here, Bai et al. manipulate the relative orientation of these two domains using a synthetic polyproline linker and show that a parallel orientation is most effective for membrane interaction and exocytosis.

Molecular Machines Regulating the Release Probability of Synaptic Vesicles at the Active Zone

The fusion of synaptic vesicles (SVs) with the plasma membrane of the active zone (AZ) upon arrival of an action potential (AP) at the presynaptic compartment is a tightly regulated probabilistic process crucial for information transfer. The probability of a SV to release its transmitter content in response to an AP, termed release probability (Pr), is highly diverse both at the level of entire synapses and individual SVs at a given synapse. Differences in Pr exist between different types of synapses, between synapses of the same type, synapses originating from the same axon and even between different SV subpopulations within the same presynaptic terminal. The Pr of SVs at the AZ is set by a complex interplay of different presynaptic properties including the availability of release-ready SVs, the location of the SVs relative to the voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) at the AZ, the magnitude of calcium influx upon arrival of the AP, the buffering of calcium ions as well as the identity and sensitivity of the calcium sensor. These properties are not only interconnected, but can also be regulated dynamically to match the requirements of activity patterns mediated by the synapse. Here, we review recent advances in identifying molecules and molecular machines taking part in the determination of vesicular Pr at the AZ.

Extended-Synaptotagmins (E-Syts); the extended story

The Extended-Synaptotagmin (E-Syt) membrane proteins were only recently discovered, but have already been implicated in a range of interrelated cellular functions, including calcium and receptor signaling, and membrane lipid transport. However, despite their evolutionary conservation and detailed studies of their molecular actions, we still have little idea of how and when these proteins are required in cellular and organism physiology. Here we review our present understanding of the E-Syts and discuss the molecular functions and in vivo requirements for these proteins.

Vesicle-Mediated Steroid Hormone Secretion in Drosophila melanogaster

Steroid hormones are a large family of cholesterol derivatives regulating development and physiology in both the animal and plant kingdoms, but little is known concerning mechanisms of their secretion from steroidogenic tissues. Here, we present evidence that in Drosophila, endocrine release of the steroid hormone ecdysone is mediated through a regulated vesicular trafficking mechanism. Inhibition of calcium signaling in the steroidogenic prothoracic gland results in the accumulation of unreleased ecdysone, and the knockdown of calcium-mediated vesicle exocytosis components in the gland caused developmental defects due to deficiency of ecdysone. Accumulation of synaptotagmin-labeled vesicles in the gland is observed when calcium signaling is disrupted, and these vesicles contain an ABC transporter that functions as an ecdysone pump to fill vesicles. We propose that trafficking of steroid hormones out of endocrine cells is not always through a simple diffusion mechanism as presently thought, but instead can involve a regulated vesicle-mediated release process.

Calcium binding promotes conformational flexibility of the neuronal Ca(2+) sensor synaptotagmin

Synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1) is a synaptic vesicle protein that serves as a calcium sensor of neuronal secretion. It is established that calcium binding to Syt1 triggers vesicle fusion and release of neuronal transmitters, however, the dynamics of this process is not fully understood. To investigate how Ca(2+) binding affects Syt1 conformational dynamics, we performed prolonged molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of Ca(2+)-unbound and Ca(2+)-bound forms of Syt1. MD simulations were performed at a microsecond scale and combined with Monte Carlo sampling. We found that in the absence of Ca(2+) Syt1 structure in the solution is represented by an ensemble of conformational states with tightly coupled domains. To investigate the effect of Ca(2+) binding, we used two different strategies to generate a molecular model of a Ca(2+)-bound form of Syt1. First, we employed subsequent replacements of monovalent cations transiently captured within Syt1 Ca(2+)-binding pockets by Ca(2+) ions. Second, we performed MD simulations of Syt1 at elevated Ca(2+) levels. All the simulations produced Syt1 structures bound to four Ca(2+) ions, two ions chelated at the binding pocket of each domain. MD simulations of the Ca(2+)-bound form of Syt1 revealed that Syt1 conformational flexibility drastically increased upon Ca(2+) binding. In the presence of Ca(2+), the separation between domains increased, and interdomain rotations became more frequent. These findings suggest that Ca(2+) binding to Syt1 may induce major changes in the Syt1 conformational state, which in turn may initiate the fusion process.

Calcium Promotes the Formation of Syntaxin 1 Mesoscale Domains through Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-Bisphosphate

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) is a minor component of total plasma membrane lipids, but it has a substantial role in the regulation of many cellular functions, including exo- and endocytosis. Recently, it was shown that PI(4,5)P2and syntaxin 1, a SNARE protein that catalyzes regulated exocytosis, form domains in the plasma membrane that constitute recognition sites for vesicle docking. Also, calcium was shown to promote syntaxin 1 clustering in the plasma membrane, but the molecular mechanism was unknown. Here, using a combination of superresolution stimulated emission depletion microscopy, FRET, and atomic force microscopy, we show that Ca(2+)acts as a charge bridge that specifically and reversibly connects multiple syntaxin 1/PI(4,5)P2complexes into larger mesoscale domains. This transient reorganization of the plasma membrane by physiological Ca(2+)concentrations is likely to be important for Ca(2+)-regulated secretion.

Munc18-1 and the Syntaxin-1 N Terminus Regulate Open-Closed States in a t-SNARE Complex

Neuronal exocytosis is mediated by SNARE proteins, which assemble into a highly stable four-helical bundle in a process that is not well understood. Here, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to examine how the t-SNAREs syntaxin and SNAP25 assemble in the presence and absence of the regulatory protein Munc18-1. Syntaxin and SNAP25 form a 2:1 complex, which is structurally heterogeneous and persists in the presence of excess SNAP25. Munc18-1 dissociates this 2:1 complex, but a 1:1 complex is retained where syntaxin is in a closed state. In the absence of an N-terminal fragment of syntaxin, Munc18-1 also stabilizes a 1:1 complex of sytaxin/SNAP25; however, syntaxin now samples an open state. These data demonstrate that the open-closed syntaxin equilibrium is shifted toward the open state when syntaxin and Munc18-1 are associated with SNAP25, and the results indicate that a syntaxin/SNAP25:Munc18-1 complex is a likely starting point for SNARE assembly.

A Post-Docking Role of Synaptotagmin 1-C2B Domain Bottom Residues R398/399 in Mouse Chromaffin Cells

Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1) is the principal Ca(2+) sensor for vesicle fusion and is also essential for vesicle docking in chromaffin cells. Docking depends on interactions of the Syt1-C2B domain with the t-SNARE SNAP25/Syntaxin1 complex and/or plasma membrane phospholipids. Here, we investigated the role of the positively charged "bottom" region of the C2B domain, proposed to help crosslink membranes, in vesicle docking and secretion in mouse chromaffin cells and in cell-free assays. We expressed a double mutation shown previously to interfere with lipid mixing between proteoliposomes and with synaptic transmission, Syt1-R398/399Q (RQ), in syt1 null mutant cells. Ultrastructural morphometry revealed that Syt1-RQ fully restored the docking defect observed previously in syt1 null mutant cells, similar to wild type Syt1 (Syt1-wt). Small unilamellar lipid vesicles (SUVs) that contained the v-SNARE Synaptobrevin2 and Syt1-R398/399Q also docked to t-SNARE-containing giant vesicles (GUVs), similar to Syt1-wt. However, unlike Syt1-wt, Syt1-RQ-induced docking was strictly PI(4,5)P2-dependent. Unlike docking, neither synchronized secretion in chromaffin cells nor Ca(2+)-triggered SUV-GUV fusion was restored by the Syt1 mutants. Finally, overexpressing the RQ-mutant in wild type cells produced no effect on either docking or secretion. We conclude that the positively charged bottom region in the C2B domain--and, by inference, Syt1-mediated membrane crosslinking--is required for triggering fusion, but not for docking. Secretory vesicles dock by multiple, PI(4,5)P2-dependent and PI(4,5)P2-independent mechanisms. The R398/399 mutations selectively disrupt the latter and hereby help to discriminate protein regions involved in different aspects of Syt1 function in docking and fusion.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This study provides new insights in how the two opposite sides of the C2B domain of Synaptotagmin-1 participate in secretory vesicle fusion, and in more upstream steps, especially vesicle docking. We show that the "bottom" surface of the C2B domain is required for triggering fusion, but not for docking. Synaptotagmin-1 promotes docking by multiple, PI(4,5)P2-dependent and PI(4,5)P2-independent mechanisms. Mutations in the C2B bottom surface (R398/399) selectively disrupt the latter. These mutations help to discriminate protein regions involved in different aspects of Synaptotagmin-1 function in docking and fusion.

Functional analysis of the interface between the tandem C2 domains of synaptotagmin-1

Synaptotagmin (syt)-1 is a Ca²⁺ sensor that triggers rapid synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Mutations that disrupt physical interactions between the tandem Ca²⁺-sensing modules (C2 domains) of syt-1 disrupt regulated membrane fusion in reconstituted fusion reactions and in neurons. Hence contacts between these domains are important for function.

C2 domains are widespread motifs that often serve as Ca²⁺-binding modules; some proteins have more than one copy. An open issue is whether these domains, when duplicated within the same parent protein, interact with one another to regulate function. In the present study, we address the functional significance of interfacial residues between the tandem C2 domains of synaptotagmin (syt)-1, a Ca²⁺ sensor for neuronal exocytosis. Substitution of four residues, YHRD, at the domain interface, disrupted the interaction between the tandem C2 domains, altered the intrinsic affinity of syt-1 for Ca²⁺, and shifted the Ca²⁺ dependency for binding to membranes and driving membrane fusion in vitro. When expressed in syt-1 knockout neurons, the YHRD mutant yielded reductions in synaptic transmission, as compared with the wild-type protein. These results indicate that physical interactions between the tandem C2 domains of syt-1 contribute to excitation–secretion coupling.

A Phenomenological Synapse Model for Asynchronous Neurotransmitter Release

Neurons communicate with each other via synapses. Action potentials cause release of neurotransmitters at the axon terminal. Typically, this neurotransmitter release is tightly time-locked to the arrival of an action potential and is thus called synchronous release. However, neurotransmitter release is stochastic and the rate of release of small quanta of neurotransmitters can be considerably elevated even long after the ceasing of spiking activity, leading to asynchronous release of neurotransmitters. Such asynchronous release varies for tissue and neuron types and has been shown recently to be pronounced in fast-spiking neurons. Notably, it was found that asynchronous release is enhanced in human epileptic tissue implicating a possibly important role in generating abnormal neural activity. Current neural network models for simulating and studying neural activity virtually only consider synchronous release and ignore asynchronous transmitter release. Here, we develop a phenomenological model for asynchronous neurotransmitter release, which, on one hand, captures the fundamental features of the asynchronous release process, and, on the other hand, is simple enough to be incorporated in large-size network simulations. Our proposed model is based on the well-known equations for short-term dynamical synaptic interactions and includes an additional stochastic term for modeling asynchronous release. We use experimental data obtained from inhibitory fast-spiking synapses of human epileptic tissue to fit the model parameters, and demonstrate that our model reproduces the characteristics of realistic asynchronous transmitter release.

The Synaptic Vesicle Release Machinery

Extensive research has yielded crucial insights into the mechanism of neurotransmitter release, and working models for the functions of key proteins involved in release. The SNAREs Syntaxin-1, Synaptobrevin, and SNAP-25 play a central role in membrane fusion, forming SNARE complexes that bridge the vesicle and plasma membranes and that are disassembled by NSF-SNAPs. Exocytosis likely starts with Syntaxin-1 folded into a self-inhibited closed conformation that binds to Munc18-1. Munc13s open Syntaxin-1, orchestrating SNARE complex assembly in an NSF-SNAP-resistant manner together with Munc18-1. In the resulting primed state, with partially assembled SNARE complexes, fusion is inhibited by Synaptotagmin-1 and Complexins, which also perform active functions in release. Upon influx of Ca(2+), Synaptotagmin-1 activates fast release, likely by relieving the inhibition caused by Complexins and cooperating with the SNAREs in bringing the membranes together. Although alternative models exist and fundamental questions remain unanswered, a definitive description of the basic release mechanism may be available soon.

DGKθ Catalytic Activity Is Required for Efficient Recycling of Presynaptic Vesicles at Excitatory Synapses

Synaptic transmission relies on coordinated coupling of synaptic vesicle (SV) exocytosis and endocytosis. While much attention has focused on characterizing proteins involved in SV recycling, the roles of membrane lipids and their metabolism remain poorly understood. Diacylglycerol, a major signaling lipid produced at synapses during synaptic transmission, is regulated by diacylglycerol kinase (DGK). Here, we report a role for DGKθ in the mammalian CNS in facilitating recycling of presynaptic vesicles at excitatory synapses. Using synaptophysin- and vGlut1-pHluorin optical reporters, we found that acute and chronic deletion of DGKθ attenuated the recovery of SVs following neuronal stimulation. Rescue of recycling kinetics required DGKθ kinase activity. Our data establish a role for DGK catalytic activity at the presynaptic nerve terminal in SV recycling. Altogether, these data suggest that DGKθ supports synaptic transmission during periods of elevated neuronal activity.

Munc18-1-regulated stage-wise SNARE assembly underlying synaptic exocytosis

Synaptic-soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor (SNARE) proteins couple their stage-wise folding/assembly to rapid exocytosis of neurotransmitters in a Munc18-1-dependent manner. The functions of the different assembly stages in exocytosis and the role of Munc18-1 in SNARE assembly are not well understood. Using optical tweezers, we observed four distinct stages of assembly in SNARE N-terminal, middle, C-terminal, and linker domains (or NTD, MD, CTD, and LD, respectively). We found that SNARE layer mutations differentially affect SNARE assembly. Comparison of their effects on SNARE assembly and on exocytosis reveals that NTD and CTD are responsible for vesicle docking and fusion, respectively, whereas MD regulates SNARE assembly and fusion. Munc18-1 initiates SNARE assembly and structures t-SNARE C-terminus independent of syntaxin N-terminal regulatory domain (NRD) and stabilizes the half-zippered SNARE complex dependent upon the NRD. Our observations demonstrate distinct functions of SNARE domains whose assembly is intimately chaperoned by Munc18-1.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.09580.001

Plants, animals and other eukaryotes transport many large molecules within their cells inside membrane-bound packages called vesicles. These vesicles can fuse with the membrane of a target compartment in the cell to deliver their contents inside, or fuse with the cell’s membrane to release the contents outside of the cell.

Membrane fusion is carried out by a group of proteins called SNAREs. These proteins are embedded on the membranes of both the vesicle and its target, and they bind to each other to form a tight complex. This complex docks the vesicle to the target and then acts like a “zipper” to pull the two membranes close enough to fuse. The best-studied SNARE proteins act in nerve cells and fuse vesicles to the cell’s membrane in order to release molecules called neurotransmitters. This process is essential for communication between nerve cells, and relies on a protein called Munc18-1. However, it is not well understood how SNARE proteins assemble into the complex and how Munc18-1 regulates this process.

Ma et al. have now used a tool called “optical tweezers” to pull an assembled SNARE complex apart in the laboratory and then observe how it folds and assembles in a step-by-step process. These experiments showed that the complex assembled in four stages and not three as has been reported in previous work. SNARE proteins are made up of four parts called domains, and Ma et al. observed that the N-terminal domains were the first to bind to each other. Next, the binding progressed to the middle domain, then to the C-terminal domain and finally to the linker domain. An intermediate, half-zippered form was also observed.

Ma et al. next analysed each domain in more detail and found that the N-terminal and C-terminal domains drive the docking of vesicles to the target membrane, the middle domain is crucial for assembling the SNARE complex correctly, and all three domains regulate the fusing of the membranes. Further experiments showed that Munc18-1 promoted the assembly of new SNARE complexes and stabilized the half-zippered form, rather than stabilizing the complex after it had fully assembled. This study will provide a new tool to examine many other proteins that regulate SNARE assembly, and a basis to understand the role of SNARE proteins in brain activity.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.09580.002

Role of Munc13-4 as a Ca2+-dependent tether during platelet secretion

The Munc13 family of exocytosis regulators has multiple Ca(2+)-binding, C2 domains. Here, we probed the mechanism by which Munc13-4 regulates in vitro membrane fusion and platelet exocytosis. We show that Munc13-4 enhances in vitro soluble NSF attachment protein receptor (SNARE)-dependent, proteoliposome fusion in a Ca(2+)- and phosphatidylserine (PS)-dependent manner that was independent of SNARE concentrations. Munc13-4-SNARE interactions, under the conditions used, were minimal in the absence or presence of Ca(2+). However, Munc13-4 was able to bind and cluster liposomes harbouring PS in response to Ca(2+). Interestingly, Ca(2+)-dependent liposome binding/clustering and enhancement of proteoliposome fusion required both Munc13-4 C2 domains, but only the Ca(2+)-liganding aspartate residues of the C2B domain. Analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) measurements indicated that, in solution, Munc13-4 was a monomeric prolate ellipsoid with dimensions consistent with a molecule that could bridge two fusing membranes. To address the potential role of Munc13-4 as a tethering protein in platelets, we examined mepacrine-stained, dense granule mobility and secretion in platelets from wild-type and Munc13-4 null (Unc13d(Jinx)) mice. In the absence of Munc13-4, dense granules were highly mobile in both resting and stimulated platelets, and stimulation-dependent granule release was absent. These observations suggest that dense granules are stably docked in resting platelets awaiting stimulation and that Munc13-4 plays a vesicle-stabilizing or tethering role in resting platelets and also in activated platelets in response to Ca(2+). In summary, we show that Munc13-4 conveys Ca(2+) sensitivity to platelet SNARE-mediated membrane fusion and reveal a potential mechanism by which Munc13-4 bridges and stabilizes apposing membranes destined for fusion.

An Engineered Metal Sensor Tunes the Kinetics of Synaptic Transmission

The Ca(2+) sensor synaptotagmin-1 (syt-1) regulates neurotransmitter release by interacting with anionic phospholipids. Here we test the idea that the intrinsic kinetics of syt-membrane interactions determine, in part, the time course of synaptic transmission. To tune the kinetics of this interaction, we grafted structural elements from the slowest isoform, syt-7, onto the fastest isoform, syt-1, resulting in a chimera with intermediate kinetic properties. Moreover, the chimera coupled a physiologically irrelevant metal, Sr(2+), to membrane fusion in vitro. When substituted for syt-1 in mouse hippocampal neurons, the chimera slowed the kinetics of synaptic transmission. Neurons expressing the chimera also evinced rapid and efficient Sr(2+) triggered release, in contrast to the weak response of neurons expressing syt-1. These findings reveal presynaptic sensor-membrane interactions as a major factor regulating the speed of the release machinery. Finally, the chimera failed to clamp the elevated spontaneous fusion rate exhibited by syt-1 KO neurons, indicating that the metal binding loops of syt-1 regulate the two modes of release by distinct mechanisms.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

In calcium, synaptotagmin-1 triggers neurotransmitter release by interacting with membranes. Here, we demonstrate that intrinsic properties of this interaction control the time course of synaptic transmission. We engineered a "chimera" using synaptotagmin-1 and elements of a slower isoform, synaptotagmin-7. When expressed in neurons, the chimera slowed the rate of neurotransmitter release. Furthermore, unlike native synaptotagmin-1, the chimera was able to function robustly in the presence of strontium-a metal not present in cells. We exploited this ability to show that a key function of synaptotagmin-1 is to penetrate cell membranes. This work sheds light on fundamental mechanisms of neurotransmitter release.

The trans-SNARE-regulating function of Munc18-1 is essential to synaptic exocytosis

The fusion of neurotransmitter-filled synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane requires two classes of molecules-SNAP receptor (SNARE) and Sec1/Munc18 (SM) protein. Reconstitution studies suggest that the SM protein Munc18-1 promotes the zippering of trans-SNARE complexes and accelerates the kinetics of SNARE-dependent membrane fusion. However, the physiological role of this trans-SNARE-regulating function in synaptic exocytosis remains to be established. Here we first demonstrate that two mutations in the vesicle-anchored v-SNARE selectively impair the ability of Munc18-1 to promote trans-SNARE zippering, whereas other known Munc18-1/SNARE-binding modes are unaffected. In cultured neurons, these v-SNARE mutations strongly inhibit spontaneous as well as evoked neurotransmitter release, providing genetic evidence for the trans-SNARE-regulating function of Munc18-1 in synaptic exocytosis. Finally, we show that the trans-SNARE-regulating function of Munc18-1 is compromised by a mutation associated with Ohtahara Syndrome, a severe form of epilepsy.

Lysosomal physiology

Lysosomes are acidic compartments filled with more than 60 different types of hydrolases. They mediate the degradation of extracellular particles from endocytosis and of intracellular components from autophagy. The digested products are transported out of the lysosome via specific catabolite exporters or via vesicular membrane trafficking. Lysosomes also contain more than 50 membrane proteins and are equipped with the machinery to sense nutrient availability, which determines the distribution, number, size, and activity of lysosomes to control the specificity of cargo flux and timing (the initiation and termination) of degradation. Defects in degradation, export, or trafficking result in lysosomal dysfunction and lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs). Lysosomal channels and transporters mediate ion flux across perimeter membranes to regulate lysosomal ion homeostasis, membrane potential, catabolite export, membrane trafficking, and nutrient sensing. Dysregulation of lysosomal channels underlies the pathogenesis of many LSDs and possibly that of metabolic and common neurodegenerative diseases.

Cell healing: Calcium, repair and regeneration

Cell repair is attracting increasing attention due to its conservation, its importance to health, and its utility as a model for cell signaling and cell polarization. However, some of the most fundamental questions concerning cell repair have yet to be answered. Here we consider three such questions: (1) How are wound holes stopped? (2) How is cell regeneration achieved after wounding? (3) How is calcium inrush linked to wound stoppage and cell regeneration?

Sex-specific regulation of follicle-stimulating hormone secretion by synaptotagmin 9

The anterior pituitary releases six different hormones that control virtually all aspects of vertebrate physiology, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying their Ca(2+)-triggered release remain unknown. A subset of the synaptotagmin (syt) family of proteins serve as Ca(2+) sensors for exocytosis in neurons and neuroendocrine cells, and are thus likely to regulate pituitary hormone secretion. Here we show that numerous syt isoforms are highly expressed in the pituitary gland in a lobe, and sex-specific manner. We further investigated a Ca(2+)-activated isoform, syt-9, and found that it is expressed in a subpopulation of anterior pituitary cells, the gonadotropes. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and syt-9 are highly co-localized in female, but not male, mice. Loss of syt-9 results in diminished basal and stimulated FSH secretion only in females, resulting in alterations in the oestrus cycle. This work uncovers a new function for syt-9 and reveals a novel sex difference in reproductive hormone secretion.

Reconstituting Intracellular Vesicle Fusion Reactions: The Essential Role of Macromolecular Crowding

Intracellular vesicle fusion is mediated by SNAREs and Sec1/Munc18 (SM) proteins. Despite intensive efforts, the SNARE-SM mediated vesicle fusion reaction has not been faithfully reconstituted in biochemical assays. Here, we present an unexpected discovery that macromolecular crowding is required for reconstituting the vesicle fusion reaction in vitro. Macromolecular crowding is known to profoundly influence the kinetic and thermodynamic behaviors of macromolecules, but its role in membrane transport processes such as vesicle fusion remains unexplored. We introduced macromolecular crowding agents into reconstituted fusion reactions to mimic the crowded cellular environment. In this crowded assay, SNAREs and SM proteins acted in concert to drive efficient membrane fusion. In uncrowded assays, by contrast, SM proteins failed to associate with the SNAREs and the fusion rate decreased more than 30-fold, close to undetectable levels. The activities of SM proteins were strictly specific to their cognate SNARE isoforms and sensitive to biologically relevant mutations, further supporting that the crowded fusion assay accurately recapitulates the vesicle fusion reaction. Using this crowded fusion assay, we also showed that the SNARE-SM mediated fusion reaction can be modulated by two additional factors: NSF and α-SNAP. These findings suggest that the vesicle fusion machinery likely has been evolutionarily selected to function optimally in the crowded milieu of the cell. Accordingly, macromolecular crowding should constitute an integral element of any reconstituted fusion assay.

Wnt signalling tunes neurotransmitter release by directly targeting Synaptotagmin-1

The functional assembly of the synaptic release machinery is well understood; however, how signalling factors modulate this process remains unknown. Recent studies suggest that Wnts play a role in presynaptic function. To examine the mechanisms involved, we investigated the interaction of release machinery proteins with Dishevelled-1 (Dvl1), a scaffold protein that determines the cellular locale of Wnt action. Here we show that Dvl1 directly interacts with Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt-1) and indirectly with the SNARE proteins SNAP25 and Syntaxin (Stx-1). Importantly, the interaction of Dvl1 with Syt-1, which is regulated by Wnts, modulates neurotransmitter release. Moreover, presynaptic terminals from Wnt signalling-deficient mice exhibit reduced release probability and are unable to sustain high-frequency release. Consistently, the readily releasable pool size and formation of SNARE complexes are reduced. Our studies demonstrate that Wnt signalling tunes neurotransmitter release and identify Syt-1 as a target for modulation by secreted signalling proteins.

Synaptotagmin-1 binds to PIP(2)-containing membrane but not to SNAREs at physiological ionic strength

The Ca(2+) sensor synaptotagmin-1 is thought to trigger membrane fusion by binding to acidic membrane lipids and SNARE proteins. Previous work has shown that binding is mediated by electrostatic interactions that are sensitive to the ionic environment. However, the influence of divalent or polyvalent ions, at physiological concentrations, on synaptotagmin's binding to membranes or SNAREs has not been explored. Here we show that binding of rat synaptotagmin-1 to membranes containing phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) is regulated by charge shielding caused by the presence of divalent cations. Surprisingly, polyvalent ions such as ATP and Mg(2+) completely abrogate synaptotagmin-1 binding to SNAREs regardless of the presence of Ca(2+). Altogether, our data indicate that at physiological ion concentrations Ca(2+)-dependent synaptotagmin-1 binding is confined to PIP2-containing membrane patches in the plasma membrane, suggesting that membrane interaction of synaptotagmin-1 rather than SNARE binding triggers exocytosis of vesicles.

Membrane Docking of the Synaptotagmin 7 C2A Domain: Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Measurements Show Contributions from Two Membrane Binding Loops

The synaptotagmin (Syt) family of proteins plays an important role in vesicle docking and fusion during Ca(2+)-induced exocytosis in a wide variety of cell types. Its role as a Ca(2+) sensor derives primarily from its two C2 domains, C2A and C2B, which insert into anionic lipid membranes upon binding Ca(2+). Syt isoforms 1 and 7 differ significantly in their Ca(2+) sensitivity; the C2A domain from Syt7 binds Ca(2+) and membranes much more tightly than the C2A domain from Syt1, at least in part because of greater contributions from the hydrophobic effect. While the structure and membrane activity of Syt1 have been extensively studied, the structural origins of differences between Syt1 and Syt7 are unknown. This study used site-directed spin labeling and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy to determine depth parameters for the Syt7 C2A domain, for comparison to analogous previous measurements with the Syt1 C2A domain. In a novel approach, the membrane docking geometry of both Syt1 and Syt7 C2A was modeled by mapping depth parameters onto multiple molecular dynamics-simulated structures of the Ca(2+)-bound protein. The models reveal membrane penetration of Ca(2+) binding loops 1 (CBL1) and 3 (CBL3), and membrane binding is more sensitive to mutations in CBL3. On average, Syt7 C2A inserts more deeply into the membrane than Syt1 C2A, although depths vary among the different structural models. This observation provides a partial structural explanation for the hydrophobically driven membrane docking of Syt7 C2A.

Isoflurane inhibits synaptic vesicle exocytosis through reduced Ca2+ influx, not Ca2+-exocytosis coupling

Identifying presynaptic mechanisms of general anesthetics is critical to understanding their effects on synaptic transmission. We show that the volatile anesthetic isoflurane inhibits synaptic vesicle (SV) exocytosis at nerve terminals in dissociated rat hippocampal neurons through inhibition of presynaptic Ca(2+) influx without significantly altering the Ca(2+) sensitivity of SV exocytosis. A clinically relevant concentration of isoflurane (0.7 mM) inhibited changes in [Ca(2+)]i driven by single action potentials (APs) by 25 ± 3%, which in turn led to 62 ± 3% inhibition of single AP-triggered exocytosis at 4 mM extracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]e). Lowering external Ca(2+) to match the isoflurane-induced reduction in Ca(2+) entry led to an equivalent reduction in exocytosis. These data thus indicate that anesthetic inhibition of neurotransmitter release from small SVs occurs primarily through reduced axon terminal Ca(2+) entry without significant direct effects on Ca(2+)-exocytosis coupling or on the SV fusion machinery. Isoflurane inhibition of exocytosis and Ca(2+) influx was greater in glutamatergic compared with GABAergic nerve terminals, consistent with selective inhibition of excitatory synaptic transmission. Such alteration in the balance of excitatory to inhibitory transmission could mediate reduced neuronal interactions and network-selective effects observed in the anesthetized central nervous system.

Synaptotagmin's role in neurotransmitter release likely involves Ca(2+)-induced conformational transition

Neuronal exocytosis is mediated by a Ca(2+)-triggered membrane fusion event that joins synaptic vesicles and presynaptic membrane. In this event, synaptotagmin I plays a key role as a Ca(2+) sensor protein that binds to and bends the presynaptic membrane with its C2B domain, and thereby initiates membrane fusion. We report free energy calculations according to which C2B-induced membrane bending is preceded by a Ca(2+)- and membrane-dependent conformational transition. In this transition C2B attaches to the membrane, moves its C-terminal helix from the orientation seen in the available (but membrane-free) crystal/NMR structures as pointing away from the membrane (helix-up), to an orientation pointing toward the membrane (helix-down). In the C2B helix-down state, lipid tails in the proximal membrane bilayer leaflet interact with the moved helix and become disordered, whereas tails in the distal leaflet, to keep in contact with the proximal leaflet, become stretched and ordered. The difference in lipid tail packing between the two leaflets results in an imbalance of pressure across the membrane, and thereby causes membrane bending. The lipid-disordering monitored in the simulations is well suited to facilitate Ca(2+)-triggered membrane fusion.

Complexins: small but capable

Despite intensive research, it is still unclear how an immediate and profound acceleration of exocytosis is triggered by appropriate Ca(2+)-stimuli in presynaptic terminals. This is due to the fact that the molecular mechanisms of "docking" and "priming" reactions, which set up secretory vesicles to fuse at millisecond time scale, are extremely hard to study. Yet, driven by a fruitful combination of in vitro and in vivo analyses, our mechanistic understanding of Ca(2+)-triggered vesicle fusion has certainly advanced in the past few years. In this review, we aim to highlight recent progress and emerging views on the molecular mechanisms, by which constitutively forming SNAREpins are organized in functional, tightly regulated units for synchronized release. In particular, we will focus on the role of the small regulatory factor complexin whose function in Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis has been controversially discussed for more than a decade. Special emphasis will also be laid on the functional relationship of complexin and synaptotagmin, as both proteins possibly act as allies and/or antagonists to govern SNARE-mediated exocytosis.

Characterization of P4 ATPase Phospholipid Translocases (Flippases) in Human and Rat Pancreatic Beta Cells: THEIR GENE SILENCING INHIBITS INSULIN SECRETION

The negative charge of phosphatidylserine in lipid bilayers of secretory vesicles and plasma membranes couples the domains of positively charged amino acids of secretory vesicle SNARE proteins with similar domains of plasma membrane SNARE proteins enhancing fusion of the two membranes to promote exocytosis of the vesicle contents of secretory cells. Our recent study of insulin secretory granules (ISG) (MacDonald, M. J., Ade, L., Ntambi, J. M., Ansari, I. H., and Stoker, S. W. (2015) Characterization of phospholipids in insulin secretory granules in pancreatic beta cells and their changes with glucose stimulation. J. Biol. Chem. 290, 11075-11092) suggested that phosphatidylserine and other phospholipids, such as phosphatidylethanolamine, in ISG could play important roles in docking and fusion of ISG to the plasma membrane in the pancreatic beta cell during insulin exocytosis. P4 ATPase flippases translocate primarily phosphatidylserine and, to a lesser extent, phosphatidylethanolamine across the lipid bilayers of intracellular vesicles and plasma membranes to the cytosolic leaflets of these membranes. CDC50A is a protein that forms a heterodimer with P4 ATPases to enhance their translocase catalytic activity. We found that the predominant P4 ATPases in pure pancreatic beta cells and human and rat pancreatic islets were ATP8B1, ATP8B2, and ATP9A. ATP8B1 and CDC50A were highly concentrated in ISG. ATP9A was concentrated in plasma membrane. Gene silencing of individual P4 ATPases and CDC50A inhibited glucose-stimulated insulin release in pure beta cells and in human pancreatic islets. This is the first characterization of P4 ATPases in beta cells. The results support roles for P4 ATPases in translocating phosphatidylserine to the cytosolic leaflets of ISG and the plasma membrane to facilitate the docking and fusion of ISG to the plasma membrane during insulin exocytosis.

Synaptotagmins interact with APP and promote Aβ generation

Background

Accumulation of the β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) is a major pathological hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Recent studies have shown that synaptic Aβ toxicity may directly impair synaptic function. However, proteins regulating Aβ generation at the synapse have not been characterized. Here, we sought to identify synaptic proteins that interact with the extracellular domain of APP and regulate Aβ generation.

Results

Affinity purification-coupled mass spectrometry identified members of the Synaptotagmin (Syt) family as novel interacting proteins with the APP ectodomain in mouse brains. Syt-1, −2 and −9 interacted with APP in cells and in mouse brains in vivo. Using a GST pull-down approach, we have further demonstrated that the Syt interaction site lies in the 108 amino acids linker region between the E1 and KPI domains of APP. Stable overexpression of Syt-1 or Syt-9 with APP in CHO and rat pheochromocytoma cells (PC12) significantly increased APP-CTF and sAPP levels, with a 2 to 3 fold increase in secreted Aβ levels in PC12 cells. Moreover, using a stable knockdown approach to reduce the expression of endogenous Syt-1 in PC12 cells, we have observed a ~ 50 % reduction in secreted Aβ generation. APP processing also decreased in these cells, shown by lower CTF levels. Lentiviral-mediated knock down of endogenous Syt-1 in mouse primary neurons also led to a significant reduction in both Aβ40 and Aβ42 generation. As secreted sAPPβ levels were significantly reduced in PC12 cells lacking Syt-1 expression, our results suggest that Syt-1 regulates Aβ generation by modulating BACE1-mediated cleavage of APP.

Conclusion

Altogether, our data identify the synaptic vesicle proteins Syt-1 and 9 as novel APP-interacting proteins that promote Aβ generation and thus may play an important role in the pathogenesis of AD.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13024-015-0028-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

High Affinity Host-Guest FRET Pair for Single-Vesicle Content-Mixing Assay: Observation of Flickering Fusion Events

Fluorescence-based single-vesicle fusion assays provide a powerful method for studying mechanisms underlying complex biological processes of SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor)-mediated vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release. A crucial element of these assays is the ability of the fluorescent probe(s) to reliably detect key intermediate events of fusion pore opening and content release/mixing. Here, we report a new, reliable, and efficient single-vesicle content-mixing assay using a high affinity, fluorophore tagged host-guest pair, cucurbit[7]uril-Cy3 and adamantane-Cy5 as a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) pair. The power of these probes is demonstrated by the first successful observation of flickering dynamics of the fusion pore by in vitro assay using neuronal SNARE-reconstituted vesicles.

Synaptotagmin SYTA forms ER-plasma membrane junctions that are recruited to plasmodesmata for plant virus movement

Metazoan synaptotagmins are Ca(2+) sensors that regulate exocytosis and endocytosis in various cell types, notably in nerve and neuroendocrine cells [1, 2]. Recently, the structurally related extended synaptotagmins were shown to tether the cortical ER to the plasma membrane in human and yeast cells to maintain ER morphology and stabilize ER-plasma membrane (ER-PM) contact sites for intracellular lipid and Ca(2+) signaling [3, 4]. The Arabidopsis synaptotagmin SYTA regulates endocytosis and the ability of plant virus movement proteins (MPs) to alter plasmodesmata to promote virus cell-to-cell transport [5, 6]. Yet how MPs modify plasmodesmata, the cellular functions of SYTA and how these aid MP activity, and the proteins essential to form plant cell ER-PM contact sites remain unknown. We addressed these questions using an Arabidopsis SYTA knockdown line syta-1 and a Tobamovirus movement protein MP(TVCV) [5, 7]. We report here that SYTA localized to ER-PM contact sites. These sites were depleted and the ER network collapsed in syta-1, and both reformed upon rescue with SYTA. MP(TVCV) accumulation in plasmodesmata, but not secretory trafficking, was also inhibited in syta-1. During infection, MP(TVCV) recruited SYTA to plasmodesmata, and SYTA and the cortical ER were subsequently remodeled to form viral replication sites adjacent to plasmodesmata in which MP(TVCV) and SYTA directly interacted caged within ER membrane. SYTA also accumulated in plasmodesmata active in MP(TVCV) transport. Our findings show that SYTA is essential to form ER-PM contact sites and suggest that MPs interact with SYTA to recruit these sites to alter plasmodesmata for virus cell-to-cell movement.

The schizophrenia risk gene product miR-137 alters presynaptic plasticity

Noncoding variants in the human MIR137 gene locus increase schizophrenia risk with genome-wide significance. However, the functional consequence of these risk alleles is unknown. Here we examined induced human neurons harboring the minor alleles of four disease-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms in MIR137. We observed increased MIR137 levels compared to those in major allele-carrying cells. microRNA-137 gain of function caused downregulation of the presynaptic target genes complexin-1 (Cplx1), Nsf and synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1), leading to impaired vesicle release. In vivo, miR-137 gain of function resulted in changes in synaptic vesicle pool distribution, impaired induction of mossy fiber long-term potentiation and deficits in hippocampus-dependent learning and memory. By sequestering endogenous miR-137, we were able to ameliorate the synaptic phenotypes. Moreover, reinstatement of Syt1 expression partially restored synaptic plasticity, demonstrating the importance of Syt1 as a miR-137 target. Our data provide new insight into the mechanism by which miR-137 dysregulation can impair synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus.

Regulation of synaptic activity by snapin-mediated endolysosomal transport and sorting

Recycling synaptic vesicles (SVs) transit through early endosomal sorting stations, which raises a fundamental question: are SVs sorted toward endolysosomal pathways? Here, we used snapin mutants as tools to assess how endolysosomal sorting and trafficking impact presynaptic activity in wild-type and snapin(-/-) neurons. Snapin acts as a dynein adaptor that mediates the retrograde transport of late endosomes (LEs) and interacts with dysbindin, a subunit of the endosomal sorting complex BLOC-1. Expressing dynein-binding defective snapin mutants induced SV accumulation at presynaptic terminals, mimicking the snapin(-/-) phenotype. Conversely, over-expressing snapin reduced SV pool size by enhancing SV trafficking to the endolysosomal pathway. Using a SV-targeted Ca(2+) sensor, we demonstrate that snapin-dysbindin interaction regulates SV positional priming through BLOC-1/AP-3-dependent sorting. Our study reveals a bipartite regulation of presynaptic activity by endolysosomal trafficking and sorting: LE transport regulates SV pool size, and BLOC-1/AP-3-dependent sorting fine-tunes the Ca(2+) sensitivity of SV release. Therefore, our study provides new mechanistic insights into the maintenance and regulation of SV pool size and synchronized SV fusion through snapin-mediated LE trafficking and endosomal sorting.

Effects of PIP2 on membrane fusion between mast cell SNARE liposomes mediated by synaptotagmin 2

Recent studies have revealed that SNARE proteins are involved in exocytotic release in mast cells. Previously, we reported that mast cell SNARE proteins induce membrane fusion between liposomes. Moreover, we found that synaptotagmin 2, a candidate Ca2+ sensor for mast cell exocytosis, enhanced SNARE-mediated membrane fusion via Ca2+ and phosphatidylserine. Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) is an acidic phospholipid like phosphatidylserine. In the present study, we investigated whether PIP2 is involved in the enhancement effect of synaptotagmin 2 on SNARE-mediated membrane fusion. PIP2 did not show any significant effect on SNARE-mediated membrane fusion by itself. In the presence of Ca2+, synaptotagmin 2 enhanced SNARE-mediated membrane fusion between liposomes containing PIP2. However, even in the presence of Ca2+, when we used 100% PC liposomes, synaptotagmin 2 did not show any significant effect on SNARE-mediated membrane fusion. These results indicated that PIP2 is involved in the enhancement effect of synaptotagmin 2 on membrane fusion between liposomes containing mast cell SNARE proteins.

DNA methylation in the medial prefrontal cortex regulates alcohol-induced behavior and plasticity

Recent studies have suggested an association between alcoholism and DNA methylation, a mechanism that can mediate long-lasting changes in gene transcription. Here, we examined the contribution of DNA methylation to the long-term behavioral and molecular changes induced by a history of alcohol dependence. In search of mechanisms underlying persistent rather than acute dependence-induced neuroadaptations, we studied the role of DNA methylation regulating medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) gene expression and alcohol-related behaviors in rats 3 weeks into abstinence following alcohol dependence. Postdependent rats showed escalated alcohol intake, which was associated with increased DNA methylation as well as decreased expression of genes encoding synaptic proteins involved in neurotransmitter release in the mPFC. Infusion of the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor RG108 prevented both escalation of alcohol consumption and dependence-induced downregulation of 4 of the 7 transcripts modified in postdependent rats. Specifically, RG108 treatment directly reversed both downregulation of synaptotagmin 2 (Syt2) gene expression and hypermethylation on CpG#5 of its first exon. Lentiviral inhibition of Syt2 expression in the mPFC increased aversion-resistant alcohol drinking, supporting a mechanistic role of Syt2 in compulsive-like behavior. Our findings identified a functional role of DNA methylation in alcohol dependence-like behavioral phenotypes and a candidate gene network that may mediate its effects. Together, these data provide novel evidence for DNA methyltransferases as potential therapeutic targets in alcoholism.

Biochemical and molecular characterization of the calcineurin in Echinococcus granulosus larval stages

Calcineurin (CaN) is a Ca(2+)-calmodulin activated serine-threonine protein phosphatase that couples the local or global calcium signals, thus controlling important cellular functions in physiological and developmental processes. The aim of this study was to characterize CaN in Echinococcus granulosus (Eg-CaN), a human cestode parasite of clinical importance, both functionally and molecularly. We found that the catalytic subunit isoforms have predicted sequences of 613 and 557 amino acids and are substantially similar to those of the human counterpart, except for the C-terminal end. We also found that the regulatory subunit consists of 169 amino acids which are 87% identical to the human ortholog. We cloned a cDNA encoding for one of the two catalytic subunit isoforms of CaN (Eg-can-A1) as well as the only copy of the Eg-can-B gene, both constitutively transcribed in all Echinococcus larval stages and responsible for generating a functionally active heterodimer. Eg-CaN native enzyme has phosphatase activity, which is enhanced by Ca(2+)/Ni(2+) and reduced by cyclosporine A and Ca(2+) chelators. Participation of Eg-CaN in exocytosis was demonstrated using the FM4-64 probe and Eg-CaN-A was immunolocalized in the cytoplasm of tegumental cells, suckers and excretory bladder of protoscoleces. We also showed that the Eg-can-B transcripts were down-regulated in response to low Ca(2+) intracellular level, in agreement with decreased enzyme activity. Confocal microscopy revealed a striking pattern of Eg-CaN-A in discrete fluorescent spots in the protoscolex posterior bladder and vesicularized protoscoleces beginning the vesicular differentiation. In contrast, Eg-CaN-A was undetectable during the pre-microcyst closing stage while a high DDX-like RNA helicase expression was evidenced. Finally, we identified and analyzed the expression of CaN-related endogenous regulators.

The Dialogue of the Host-Parasite Relationship: Leishmania spp. and Trypanosoma cruzi Infection

The intracellular protozoa Leishmania spp. and Trypanosoma cruzi and the causative agents of Leishmaniasis and Chagas disease, respectively, belong to the Trypanosomatidae family. Together, these two neglected tropical diseases affect approximately 25 million people worldwide. Whether the host can control the infection or develops disease depends on the complex interaction between parasite and host. Parasite surface and secreted molecules are involved in triggering specific signaling pathways essential for parasite entry and intracellular survival. The recognition of the parasite antigens by host immune cells generates a specific immune response. Leishmania spp. and T. cruzi have a multifaceted repertoire of strategies to evade or subvert the immune system by interfering with a range of signal transduction pathways in host cells, which causes the inhibition of the protective response and contributes to their persistence in the host. The current therapeutic strategies in leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are very limited. Efficacy is variable, toxicity is high, and the emergence of resistance is increasingly common. In this review, we discuss the molecular basis of the host-parasite interaction of Leishmania and Trypanosoma cruzi infection and their mechanisms of subverting the immune response and how this knowledge can be used as a tool for the development of new drugs.

The synaptotagmin juxtamembrane domain is involved in neuroexocytosis

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The highly cationic juxtamembrane segment of synaptotagmin juxtamembrane domain was synthesized.

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This peptide inhibits neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular junction of mice and Drosophila.

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This peptide localizes mainly on the presynaptic membrane.

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The synaptotagmin juxtamembrane peptide binds monophosphoinositides in a Ca²⁺-independent manner.

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The juxtamembrane segment of synaptotagmin may contribute to the formation of the hemifusion intermediate.

Synaptotagmin is a synaptic vesicle membrane protein which changes conformation upon Ca²⁺ binding and triggers the fast neuroexocytosis that takes place at synapses. We have synthesized a series of peptides corresponding to the sequence of the cytosolic juxtamembrane domain of synaptotagmin, which is highly conserved among different isoforms and animal species, with or without either a hexyl hydrophobic chain or the hexyl group plus a fluorescein moiety. We show that these peptides inhibit neurotransmitter release, that they localize on the presynaptic membrane of the motor axon terminal at the neuromuscular junction and that they bind monophosphoinositides in a Ca²⁺-independent manner. Based on these findings, we propose that the juxtamembrane cytosolic domain of synaptotagmin binds the cytosolic layer of the presynaptic membrane at rest. This binding brings synaptic vesicles and plasma membrane in a very close apposition, favouring the formation of hemifusion intermediates that enable rapid vesicle fusion.

Reconstituting SNARE-mediated membrane fusion at the single liposome level

Successful reconstitutions of SNARE-mediated intracellular membrane fusion have been achieved in bulk fusion assays since 1998 and in single liposome fusion assays since 2004. Especially in neuronal presynaptic SNARE-mediated exocytosis, fusion is controlled by numerous accessory proteins, of which some functions have also been reconstituted in vitro. The development of and results obtained with two fundamentally different single liposome fusion assays, namely liposome-to-supported membrane and liposome-to-liposome, are reviewed. Both assays distinguish between liposome docking and fusion steps of the overall fusion reaction and both assays are capable of resolving hemi-and full-fusion intermediates and end states. They have opened new windows for elucidating the mechanisms of these fundamentally important cellular reactions with unprecedented time and molecular resolution. Although many of the molecular actors in this process have been discovered, we have only scratched the surface of looking at their fascinating plays, interactions, and choreographies that lead to vesicle traffic as well as neurotransmitter and hormone release in the cell.

Chapter 3: Molecular basis for the therapeutic effectiveness of botulinum neurotoxin type A

The utility of botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A) for treating overactive muscles and endocrine glands is attributable to a unique conflation of properties honed to exploit and inactivate synaptic transmission. Specific, high-affinity coincident binding to gangliosides plus an intraluminal loop of synaptic vesicle protein 2 (SV2) by the heavy chain (HC) of BoNT/A confers selectivity for presynaptic nerve terminals and subsequent uptake by endocytosis. Upon vesicle acidification, the HC forms a channel for transmembrane transfer of the light chain to the cytosol, as observed by single channel recordings. The light chain is a Zn(2+) -dependent endoprotease that cleaves and inactivates SNAP-25, thereby blocking exocytotic release of transmitters, a discovery that revealed the pivotal role of the latter in synaptic vesicle fusion. A di-leucine motif in BoNT/A light chain stabilizes this protease, contributing to its longevity inside nerves. The ubiquity of SV2 and SNAP-25 has prompted re-evaluation of the nerve types susceptible to BoNT/A. In urology, there is emerging evidence that BoNT/A blocks neuropeptide release from afferent nerves, exocytosis of acetylcholine and purines from efferent nerves, and possibly ATP release from the urothelium. Suppression by BoNT/A of the surface expression of nociceptor channels on bladder afferents might also contribute to its improvement of urological sensory symptoms.

Molecular origins of synaptotagmin 1 activities on vesicle docking and fusion pore opening

Synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1), a major Ca²⁺ sensor in neuroexocytosis, utilizes SNARE- and membrane-binding to regulate vesicle fusion, a required process for neurotransmitter release at the synapse. However, the mechanism by which Syt1 orchestrates SNARE- and membrane- binding to control individual vesicle fusion steps is still unclear. In this study, we used a number of single vesicle assays that can differentiate intermediates of neuroexocytosis, to focus on Syt1 mutants that might impair Syt1-SNARE/PIP₂ interaction, Ca²⁺-binding, or membrane penetration. Our results show that, although putative Syt1-SNARE/PIP₂ coupling through the polybasic region of the C2B domain is critical for vesicle docking, its disruption does not affect content release. In contrast, Ca²⁺-binding and membrane-penetration mutants significantly reduce content release. Our results thus delineate multiple functions of Syt1 along the pathway of Ca²⁺-triggered exocytosis in unprecedented detail.

Characterization of phospholipids in insulin secretory granules and mitochondria in pancreatic beta cells and their changes with glucose stimulation

The lipid composition of insulin secretory granules (ISG) has never previously been thoroughly characterized. We characterized the phospholipid composition of ISG and mitochondria in pancreatic beta cells without and with glucose stimulation. The phospholipid/protein ratios of most phospholipids containing unsaturated fatty acids were higher in ISG than in whole cells and in mitochondria. The concentrations of negatively charged phospholipids, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidylinositol in ISG were 5-fold higher than in the whole cell. In ISG phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylethanolamine, and sphingomyelin, fatty acids 12:0 and 14:0 were high, as were phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol containing 18-carbon unsaturated FA. With glucose stimulation, the concentration of many ISG phosphatidylserines and phosphatidylinositols increased; unsaturated fatty acids in phosphatidylserine increased; and most phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylcholines, sphingomyelins, and lysophosphatidylcholines were unchanged. Unsaturation and shorter fatty acid length in phospholipids facilitate curvature and fluidity of membranes, which favors fusion of membranes. Recent evidence suggests that negatively charged phospholipids, such as phosphatidylserine, act as coupling factors enhancing the interaction of positively charged regions in SNARE proteins in synaptic or secretory vesicle membrane lipid bilayers with positively charged regions in SNARE proteins in the plasma membrane lipid bilayer to facilitate docking of vesicles to the plasma membrane during exocytosis. The results indicate that ISG phospholipids are in a dynamic state and are consistent with the idea that changes in ISG phospholipids facilitate fusion of ISG with the plasma membrane-enhancing glucose-stimulated insulin exocytosis.

Phospholipase C and D regulation of Src, calcium release and membrane fusion during Xenopus laevis development

This review emphasizes how lipids regulate membrane fusion and the proteins involved in three developmental stages: oocyte maturation to the fertilizable egg, fertilization and during first cleavage. Decades of work show that phosphatidic acid (PA) releases intracellular calcium, and recent work shows that the lipid can activate Src tyrosine kinase or phospholipase C during Xenopus fertilization. Numerous reports are summarized to show three levels of increase in lipid second messengers inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and sn 1,2-diacylglycerol (DAG) during the three different developmental stages. In addition, possible roles for PA, ceramide, lysophosphatidylcholine, plasmalogens, phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate, phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphate, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, membrane microdomains (rafts) and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate in regulation of membrane fusion (acrosome reaction, sperm-egg fusion, cortical granule exocytosis), inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors, and calcium release are discussed. The role of six lipases involved in generating putative lipid second messengers during fertilization is also discussed: phospholipase D, autotaxin, lipin1, sphingomyelinase, phospholipase C, and phospholipase A2. More specifically, proteins involved in developmental events and their regulation through lipid binding to SH3, SH4, PH, PX, or C2 protein domains is emphasized. New models are presented for PA activation of Src (through SH3, SH4 and a unique domain), that this may be why the SH2 domain of PLCγ is not required for Xenopus fertilization, PA activation of phospholipase C, a role for PA during the calcium wave after fertilization, and that calcium/calmodulin may be responsible for the loss of Src from rafts after fertilization. Also discussed is that the large DAG increase during fertilization derives from phospholipase D production of PA and lipin dephosphorylation to DAG.