151
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Karinen R, Fosen JT, Rogde S, Vindenes V. An accidental poisoning with mitragynine. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 245:e29-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 10/09/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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152
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Moreno BP, Ricardo Fiorucci LL, do Carmo MRB, Sarragiotto MH, Baldoqui DC. Terpenoids and a coumarin from aerial parts of Psychotria vellosiana Benth. (Rubiaceae). BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2014.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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153
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Rapid detection by direct analysis in real time-mass spectrometry (DART-MS) of psychoactive plant drugs of abuse: The case of Mitragyna speciosa aka “Kratom”. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 242:210-218. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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154
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Cao XF, Wang JS, Wang PR, Kong LY. Triterpenes from the stem bark of Mitragyna diversifolia and their cytotoxic activity. Chin J Nat Med 2014; 12:628-31. [PMID: 25156290 DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(14)60096-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AIM To study the chemical constituents and bioactivity of the stem bark of Mitragyna diversifolia. METHOD Compounds were isolated by various chromatographic methods. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic techniques (IR, UV, MS, and NMR), and they were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities by the MTT method. RESULTS Eight triterpenes were isolated and identified as 3α, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (1), 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (2), 3-oxo-6β-19α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (3), 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-24, 28-dioic acid 24-methyl ester (4), 3β, 6β, 19α, 24-tetrahydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (5), rotundic acid (6), 23-nor-24-exomethylene- 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (7), and pololic acid (8), respectively. All of the isolates were tested against two human tumor cell lines, MCF-7 (breast) and HT-29 (colon). CONCLUSION Compound 1 was a new triterpene. Compounds 5 - 7 exhibited potent inhibitory effects on the growth of MCF-7 and HT-29 cells, and the others showed no cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Fen Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jun-Song Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Peng-Ran Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Ling-Yi Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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155
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Development of indirect competitive ELISA for quantification of mitragynine in Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa (Roxb.) Korth.). Forensic Sci Int 2014; 244:70-7. [PMID: 25216455 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2014] [Revised: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibody (MAb) against mitragynine (MG), an analgesic alkaloid from Kratom leaves (Mitragyna speciosa), was produced. MG was coupled to carrier proteins employing either 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide/N-hydroxysuccinimide (EDC/NHS), a zero-length cross linker or a 5-carbon length glutaraldehyde cross linker. To confirm the immunogenicity, the hapten numbers were determined using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Preparation of the MAb was accomplished by the electrofusion method. Hybridoma 1A6 that was constructed from the fusion between splenocytes of EDC/NHS conjugate immunized mice and SP2/0-Ag14 myeloma cells was selected, cloned twice and expanded. The cross-reactivities (CRs) of this MAb 1A6 with a series of indole alkaloids were 30.54%, 24.83% and 8.63% for speciogynine, paynantheine and mitraciliatine, respectively. Using this MAb, an indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA) was developed with a measurement range of 32.92-250 μg/mL. Quantitative analysis of the MG contents in plant samples by icELISA correlated well with the standard high performance liquid chromatography method (R(2)=0.994). The MAb against mitragynine provided a tool for detection of MG in Kratom preparations.
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156
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Beng GT, Meesala R, Mordi MN, Mansor SM. Unexpected Reduction of Indole Double Bond in Mitragynine Using n-Butylsilane and Catalytic Tris(pentaflorophenyl)borane. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2013.853798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Goh Teik Beng
- a Center of Drug Research , Universiti Sains Malaysia , Minden , Penang , Malaysia
| | - Ramu Meesala
- a Center of Drug Research , Universiti Sains Malaysia , Minden , Penang , Malaysia
| | - Mohd Nizam Mordi
- a Center of Drug Research , Universiti Sains Malaysia , Minden , Penang , Malaysia
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157
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Matsumoto K, Narita M, Muramatsu N, Nakayama T, Misawa K, Kitajima M, Tashima K, Devi LA, Suzuki T, Takayama H, Horie S. Orally active opioid μ/δ dual agonist MGM-16, a derivative of the indole alkaloid mitragynine, exhibits potent antiallodynic effect on neuropathic pain in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2014; 348:383-92. [PMID: 24345467 PMCID: PMC6067406 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.113.208108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
(E)-Methyl 2-((2S,3S,7aS,12bS)-3-ethyl-7a-hydroxy-8-methoxy-1,2,3,4,6,7,7a,12b-octahydroindolo[2,3-a]quinolizin-2-yl)-3-methoxyacrylate (7-hydroxymitragynine), a main active constituent of the traditional herbal medicine Mitragyna speciosa, is an indole alkaloid that is structurally different from morphine. 7-Hydroxymitragynine induces a potent antinociceptive effect on mouse acute pain through μ-opioid receptors. In this study, we developed dual-acting μ- and δ-opioid agonists MGM-15 and MGM-16 from 7-hydroxymitragynine for the treatment of acute and chronic pain. MGM-16 showed a higher potency than that of 7-hydroxymitragynine and MGM-15 in in vitro and in vivo assays. MGM-16 exhibited a high affinity for μ- and δ-opioid receptors, with K(i) values of 2.1 and 7.0 nM, respectively. MGM-16 showed μ- and δ-opioid full agonistic effects in a guanosine 5'-O-(3-[(35)S]thiotriphosphate) binding assay and in a functional test using electrically elicited guinea pig ileum and mouse vas deferens contractions. Systemic administration of MGM-16 produced antinociceptive effects in a mouse acute pain model and antiallodynic effects in a chronic pain model. The antinociceptive effect of MGM-16 was approximately 240 times more potent than that of morphine in a mouse tail-flick test, and its antiallodynic effect was approximately 100 times more potent than that of gabapentin in partial sciatic nerve-ligated mice, especially with oral administration. The antinociceptive effect of MGM-16 was completely and partially blocked by the μ-selective antagonist β-funaltrexamine hydrochloride (β-FNA) and by the δ-selective antagonist naltrindole, respectively, in a tail-flick test. The antiallodynic effect of MGM-16 was completely blocked by β-FNA and naltrindole in a neuropathic pain model. These findings suggest that MGM-16 could become a class of a compound with potential therapeutic utility for treating neuropathic pain.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Oral
- Animals
- CHO Cells
- Cricetinae
- Cricetulus
- Hyperalgesia/drug therapy
- Hyperalgesia/physiopathology
- Ileum/drug effects
- Ileum/physiopathology
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Male
- Mice
- Muscle Contraction
- Muscle, Smooth/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth/physiology
- Neuralgia/drug therapy
- Neuralgia/physiopathology
- Physical Stimulation
- Rabbits
- Radioligand Assay
- Receptors, Opioid, delta/agonists
- Receptors, Opioid, delta/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/agonists
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/antagonists & inhibitors
- Sciatic Neuropathy/drug therapy
- Sciatic Neuropathy/physiopathology
- Secologanin Tryptamine Alkaloids/chemistry
- Secologanin Tryptamine Alkaloids/pharmacology
- Secologanin Tryptamine Alkaloids/therapeutic use
- Stereoisomerism
- Touch
- Vas Deferens/drug effects
- Vas Deferens/physiopathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenjiro Matsumoto
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai International University, Chiba, Japan (K.Ma., N.M., K.T., S.H.); Department of Toxicology (K.Ma., M.N., T.S.) and Department of Pharmacology (K.Ma., M.N.), Hoshi University School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Molecular Structure and Biological Function, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan (T.N., K.Mi., M.K., H.T.); and Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, New York (L.A.D.)
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158
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Ali Z, Demiray H, Khan IA. Isolation, characterization, and NMR spectroscopic data of indole and oxindole alkaloids from Mitragyna speciosa. Tetrahedron Lett 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2013.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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159
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Cao XF, Wang JS, Wang XB, Luo J, Wang HY, Kong LY. Monoterpene indole alkaloids from the stem bark of Mitragyna diversifolia and their acetylcholine esterase inhibitory effects. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2013; 96:389-96. [PMID: 24169379 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Five monoterpene indole alkaloids, mitradiversifoline, with a unique rearranged skeleton, specionoxeine-N(4)-oxide, 7-hydroxyisopaynantheine, 3-dehydropaynantheine, and 3-isopaynantheine-N(4)-oxide, and 10 known ones, were isolated from Mitragyna diversifolia. All the isolates were evaluated for their inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activities, and four showed moderate activities, with IC50 values of 4.1, 5.2, 10.2, and 10.3 μM, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Fen Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tong Jia Xiang, Nanjing 210009, People's Republic of China
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160
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Trakulsrichai S, Tongpo A, Sriapha C, Wongvisawakorn S, Rittilert P, Kaojarern S, Wananukul W. Kratom Abuse in Ramathibodi Poison Center, Thailand: A Five-Year Experience. J Psychoactive Drugs 2013; 45:404-8. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2013.844532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Satariya Trakulsrichai
- a aRamathibodi Poison Center, Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Achara Tongpo
- a aRamathibodi Poison Center, Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Charuwan Sriapha
- a aRamathibodi Poison Center, Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Sunun Wongvisawakorn
- a aRamathibodi Poison Center, Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Panee Rittilert
- a aRamathibodi Poison Center, Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Sming Kaojarern
- a aRamathibodi Poison Center, Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Winai Wananukul
- a aRamathibodi Poison Center, Ramathibodi Hospital, Faculty of Medicine , Mahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand
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161
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Hanapi NA, Ismail S, Mansor SM. Inhibitory effect of mitragynine on human cytochrome P450 enzyme activities. Pharmacognosy Res 2013; 5:241-6. [PMID: 24174816 PMCID: PMC3807987 DOI: 10.4103/0974-8490.118806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2012] [Revised: 02/15/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Context: To date, many findings reveal that most of the modern drugs have the ability to interact with herbal drugs. Aims: This study was conducted to determine the inhibitory effects of mitragynine on cytochrome P450 2C9, 2D6 and 3A4 activities. Methods and Material: The in vitro study was conducted using a high-throughput luminescence assay. Statistical Analysis: Statistical analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA and Dunnett's test with P < 0.05 vs. control. The IC50 values were calculated using the GraphPad Prism® 5 (Version 5.01, GraphPad Software, Inc., USA). Results: Assessment using recombinant enzymes showed that mitragynine gave the strongest inhibitory effect on CYP2D6 with an IC50 value of 0.45±0.33 mM, followed by CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 with IC50 values of 9.70±4.80 and 41.32±6.74 μM respectively. Positive inhibitors appropriate for CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 which are sulfaphenazole, quinidine and ketoconazole were used respectively. Vmax values of CYP2C9, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 were 0.0005, 0.01155 and 0.0137 μM luciferin formed/pmol/min respectively. Km values of CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 were 32.65, 56.01, and 103.30 μM respectively. Mitragynine noncompetitively inhibits CYP2C9 and CYP2D6 activities with the Ki values of 61.48 and 12.86 μM respectively. On the other hand, mitragynine inhibits CYP3A4 competitively with a Ki value of 379.18 μM. Conclusions: The findings of this study reveal that mitragynine might inhibit cytochrome P450 enzyme activities, specifically CYP2D6. Therefore, administration of mitragynine together with herbal or modern drugs which follow the same metabolic pathway may contribute to herb-drug interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Hanapi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
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162
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Tabatabai SM, Dashti S, Doosti F, Hosseinzadeh H. Phytotherapy of Opioid Dependence and Withdrawal Syndrome: A Review. Phytother Res 2013; 28:811-30. [DOI: 10.1002/ptr.5073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Meghdad Tabatabai
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
| | - Saeedeh Dashti
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
| | - Fatemeh Doosti
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
| | - Hossein Hosseinzadeh
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy; Mashhad University of Medical Sciences; Mashhad Iran
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163
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Jamil MFA, Subki MFM, Lan TM, Majid MIA, Adenan MI. The effect of mitragynine on cAMP formation and mRNA expression of mu-opioid receptors mediated by chronic morphine treatment in SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cell. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2013; 148:135-143. [PMID: 23608241 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.03.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 03/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE [corrected] Mitragynine is an indole alkaloid compound of Mitragyna speciosa (M. speciosa) Korth. (Rubiaceae). This plant is native to the southern regions of Thailand and northern regions of Malaysia and is frequently used to manage the withdrawal symptoms in both countries. AIM OF STUDY To investigate the effect of mitragynine after chronic morphine treatment on cyclic AMP (cAMP) level and mRNA expression of mu-opioid receptor (MOR) in human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH cell. METHOD AND MATERIALS Mitragynine was isolated from the Mitragyna speciosa plant using the acid-base extraction method. The cAMP level upon forskolin stimulation in the cells was determined using the Calbiochem(®) Direct Immunoassay Kit. The mRNA expression of the MOR was carried out using quantitative RT-PCR. RESULT Cotreatment and pretreatment of morphine and mitragynine significantly reduced the production of cAMP level at a lower concentration of mitragynine while the higher concentration of this compound could lead to the development of tolerance and dependence as shown by the increase of the cAMP level production in foskolin stimulation. In MOR mRNA expression study, cotreatment of morphine with mitragynine significantly reduced the down-regulation of MOR mRNA expression as compared to morphine treatment only. CONCLUSION These finding suggest that mitragynine could possibly avoid the tolerance and dependence on chronic morphine treatment by reducing the up-regulation of cAMP level as well as reducing the down-regulation of MOR at a lower concentration of mitragynine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Fadzly Amar Jamil
- Malaysian Institute Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals (IPharm), Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) Jalan Bukit Gambir, 11700 Gelugor Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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164
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Kerschgens IP, Claveau E, Wanner MJ, Ingemann S, van Maarseveen JH, Hiemstra H. Total syntheses of mitragynine, paynantheine and speciogynine via an enantioselective thiourea-catalysed Pictet-Spengler reaction. Chem Commun (Camb) 2013; 48:12243-5. [PMID: 23150886 DOI: 10.1039/c2cc37023a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The pharmacologically interesting indole alkaloids (-)-mitragynine, (+)-paynantheine and (+)-speciogynine were synthesised in nine steps from 4-methoxytryptamine by a route featuring (i) an enantioselective thiourea-catalysed Pictet-Spengler reaction, providing the tetrahydro-β-carboline ring and (ii) a Pd-catalysed Tsuji-Trost allylic alkylation, closing the D-ring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel P Kerschgens
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Science Park 904, 1098XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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165
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Raffa RB, Beckett JR, Brahmbhatt VN, Ebinger TM, Fabian CA, Nixon JR, Orlando ST, Rana CA, Tejani AH, Tomazic RJ. Orally active opioid compounds from a non-poppy source. J Med Chem 2013; 56:4840-8. [PMID: 23517479 DOI: 10.1021/jm400143z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The basic science and clinical use of morphine and other "opioid" drugs are based almost exclusively on the extracts or analogues of compounds isolated from a single source, the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). However, it now appears that biological diversity has evolved an alternative source. Specifically, at least two alkaloids isolated from the plant Mitragyna speciosa, mitragynine ((E)-2-[(2S,3S)-3-ethyl-8-methoxy-1,2,3,4,6,7,12,12b-octahydroindolo[3,2-h]quinolizin-2-yl]-3-methoxyprop-2-enoic acid methyl ester; 9-methoxy coryantheidine; MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG), and several synthetic analogues of these natural products display centrally mediated (supraspinal and spinal) antinociceptive (analgesic) activity in various pain models. Several characteristics of these compounds suggest a classic "opioid" mechanism of action: nanomolar affinity for opioid receptors, competitive interaction with the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, and two-way analgesic cross-tolerance with morphine. However, other characteristics of the compounds suggest novelty, particularly chemical structure and possible greater separation from side effects. We review the chemical and pharmacological properties of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, USA.
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166
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Ndagijimana A, Wang X, Pan G, Zhang F, Feng H, Olaleye O. A review on indole alkaloids isolated from Uncaria rhynchophylla and their pharmacological studies. Fitoterapia 2013; 86:35-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2013.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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167
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Parthasarathy S, Ramanathan S, Murugaiyah V, Hamdan MR, Said MIM, Lai CS, Mansor SM. A simple HPLC-DAD method for the detection and quantification of psychotropic mitragynine in Mitragyna speciosa (ketum) and its products for the application in forensic investigation. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 226:183-7. [PMID: 23385139 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa, a native plant of Thailand and Malaysia known as 'ketum', is a plant of considerable interest. It exhibits strong antinociceptive effect and yet, acts like a psychostimulant. Due to the affordability and its ease of availability, the abuse of this plant as a substitute for other banned narcotics has become a major concern in many societies. In countries such as Thailand, Myanmar, Australia and Malaysia, the use of ketum is illegal. However, for a person to be charged for possessing or selling ketum, a reliable analytical method is needed in order to detect and identify the plant and its products. Mitragynine is the major alkaloid of ketum. This compound manifests its antinociceptive effects by acting on the opioid receptors. Since M. speciosa contain large quantity of mitragynine and it is exclusive to the species, the present analytical method is developed and validated for the purpose of screening ketum products based on this unique compound as the analytical marker. The method uses a HPLC-DAD system with Inertsil C8 (4.6 mm × 150 mm, 5 μm) as the column and a mixture of acetonitrile and formic acid, 50:50 (v/v), as the mobile phase. This method not only detects mitragynine, it can also be used to quantify the amount of mitragynine in the sample. The limit of detection is 0.25 μg/ml, while the limit of quantification is 0.50 μg/ml. The method is quick, simple and reliable with an accuracy of 97.27-101.74% and coefficient of variations of between 0.91 and 3.96%. The method has been tested and found suitable for the identification and quantification of mitragynine in dried plants, a variety of ketum extracts, as well as ketum drink obtained from the market.
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168
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Fakurazi S, Rahman SA, Hidayat MT, Ithnin H, Moklas MAM, Arulselvan P. The combination of mitragynine and morphine prevents the development of morphine tolerance in mice. Molecules 2013; 18:666-81. [PMID: 23292329 PMCID: PMC6270191 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18010666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 12/27/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine (MG) is the major active alkaloid found in Mitragyna speciosa Korth. In the present study, we investigated the enhancement of analgesic action of MG when combined with morphine and the effect of the combination on the development of tolerance towards morphine. Mice were administered intraperitoneally with a dose of MG (15 and 25 mg/kg b.wt) combined with morphine (5 mg/kg b.wt) respectively for 9 days. The antinociceptive effect was evaluated by a hot plate test. The protein expression of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cAMP response element binding (CREB) was analyzed by immunoblot. Toxicological parameters especially liver and kidney function tests were assessed after the combination treatment with MG and morphine. The concurrent administration of MG and morphine showed significant (p < 0.05) increase in latency time when compared to morphine alone group and the outstanding analgesic effects in the combination regimens were maintained until day 9. For the protein expression, there was a significant increment of cAMP and CREB levels (p < 0.05) in group treated with 5 mg/kg morphine but there was no significant change of these protein expressions when MG was combined with morphine. There was a significant changes in toxicological parameters of various treated groups. The combination treatment of MG and morphine effectively reduce the tolerance due to the chronic administration of morphine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharida Fakurazi
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
- Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Shamima Abdul Rahman
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences, 63000 Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Mohamad Taufik Hidayat
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
| | - Hairuszah Ithnin
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Mohamad Aris Mohd Moklas
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
| | - Palanisamy Arulselvan
- Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
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169
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NiO Nanoparticles: An Efficient Catalyst for the Multicomponent One-Pot Synthesis of Novel Spiro and Condensed Indole Derivatives. J CHEM-NY 2013. [DOI: 10.1155/2013/606259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An efficient catalytic protocol for the synthesis of novel spiro[indoline-3,4′-pyrano[2,3-c]thiazole]carbonitriles and condensed thiazolo[5′′,4′′:5′,6′]pyrano[4′,3′:3,4]furo[2,3-b]indole derivatives is developed in a one-pot three-component approach involving substituted 1H-indole-2,3-diones, activated methylene reagent, and 2-thioxo-4-thiazolidinone under conventional heating and microwave irradiation. This paper describes the use of NiO nanoparticles as catalyst for the synthesis of novel spiro and condensed indole derivatives by Knoevenagel condensation followed by Michael addition. The advantageous features of this methodology are operational simplicity, high yield processing, and easy handling. The particle size of NiO nanoparticle was determined by XRD. After reaction course, NiO nanoparticles can be recycled and reused without any apparent loss of activity.
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170
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Lim EL, Seah TC, Koe XF, Wahab HA, Adenan MI, Jamil MFA, Majid MIA, Tan ML. In vitro evaluation of cytochrome P450 induction and the inhibition potential of mitragynine, a stimulant alkaloid. Toxicol In Vitro 2012; 27:812-24. [PMID: 23274770 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2012.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2012] [Revised: 12/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
CYP450 enzymes are key determinants in drug toxicities, reduced pharmacological effect and adverse drug reactions. Mitragynine, an euphoric compound was evaluated for its effects on the expression of mRNAs encoding CYP1A2, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 and protein expression and resultant enzymatic activity. The mRNA and protein expression of CYP450 isoforms were carried out using an optimized multiplex qRT-PCR assay and Western blot analysis. CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 enzyme activities were evaluated using P450-Glo™ assays. The effects of mitragynine on human CYP3A4 protein expression were determined using an optimized hCYP3A4-HepG2 cell-based assay. An in silico computational method to predict the binding conformation of mitragynine to the active site of the CYP3A4 enzyme was performed and further validated using in vitro CYP3A4 inhibition assays. Mitragynine was found to induce mRNA and protein expression of CYP1A2. For the highest concentration of 25 μM, induction of mRNA was approximately 70% that of the positive control and was consistent with the increased CYP1A2 enzymatic activity. Thus, mitragynine is a significant in vitro CYP1A2 inducer. However, it appeared to be a weak CYP3A4 inducer at the transcriptional level and a weak CYP3A4 enzyme inhibitor. It is therefore, unlikely to have any significant clinical effects on CYP3A4 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ee Lin Lim
- Malaysian Institute of Pharmaceuticals & Nutraceuticals, Ministry of Science, Technology & Innovation (MOSTI), Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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171
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Hassan Z, Muzaimi M, Navaratnam V, Yusoff NHM, Suhaimi FW, Vadivelu R, Vicknasingam BK, Amato D, von Hörsten S, Ismail NIW, Jayabalan N, Hazim AI, Mansor SM, Müller CP. From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012. [PMID: 23206666 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (or Ketum) is a psychoactive plant preparation used in Southeast Asia. It is derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Kratom as well as its main alkaloid, mitragynine, currently spreads around the world. Thus, addiction potential and adverse health consequences are becoming an important issue for health authorities. Here we reviewed the available evidence and identified future research needs. It was found that mitragynine and M. speciosa preparations are systematically consumed with rather well defined instrumentalization goals, e.g. to enhance tolerance for hard work or as a substitute in the self-treatment of opiate addiction. There is also evidence from experimental animal models supporting analgesic, muscle relaxant, anti-inflammatory as well as strong anorectic effects. In humans, regular consumption may escalate, lead to tolerance and may yield aversive withdrawal effects. Mitragynine and its derivatives actions in the central nervous system involve μ-opioid receptors, neuronal Ca²⁺ channels and descending monoaminergic projections. Altogether, available data currently suggest both, a therapeutic as well as an abuse potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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172
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Sabetghadam A, Navaratnam V, Mansor SM. Dose-Response Relationship, Acute Toxicity, and Therapeutic Index between the Alkaloid Extract ofMitragyna speciosaand Its Main Active Compound Mitragynine in Mice. Drug Dev Res 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Sabetghadam
- Centre for Drug Research; Universiti Sains Malaysia; P. Pinang; 11800; Malaysia
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173
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Posch TN, Martin N, Pütz M, Huhn C. Nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry: a versatile, straightforward tool for the analysis of alkaloids from psychoactive plant extracts. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:1557-66. [PMID: 22736357 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201100682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In this study we show that a nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry (NACE-MS) method carefully optimized by a design of experiment can be applied to a very large number of alkaloids in different plant extracts. It is possible to characterize the pattern of the psychoactive alkaloids in several plant samples and preparations thereof, each presenting different challenges in their analysis. The method is shown to be able to separate structurally closely related substances, diastereomers and further isobaric compounds, to separate members of different alkaloid classes within one run and to tolerate significant matrix load. A comparison with methods presented in the literature reveals that a near-generic NACE-MS method for the fast profiling of alkaloids in forensically relevant plant samples has been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tjorben Nils Posch
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Central Division of Analytical Chemistry, Jülich, Germany
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174
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Le D, Goggin MM, Janis GC. Analysis of Mitragynine and Metabolites in Human Urine for Detecting the Use of the Psychoactive Plant Kratom. J Anal Toxicol 2012; 36:616-25. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bks073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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175
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Shamima AR, Fakurazi S, Hidayat MT, Hairuszah I, Moklas MAM, Arulselvan P. Antinociceptive action of isolated mitragynine from Mitragyna Speciosa through activation of opioid receptor system. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:11427-11442. [PMID: 23109863 PMCID: PMC3472755 DOI: 10.3390/ijms130911427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Cannabinoids and opioids systems share numerous pharmacological properties and antinociception is one of them. Previous findings have shown that mitragynine (MG), a major indole alkaloid found in Mitragyna speciosa (MS) can exert its antinociceptive effects through the opioids system. In the present study, the action of MG was investigated as the antinociceptive agent acting on Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and effects on the opioids receptor. The latency time was recorded until the mice showed pain responses such as shaking, licking or jumping and the duration of latency was measured for 2 h at every 15 min interval by hot plate analysis. To investigate the beneficial effects of MG as antinociceptive agent, it was administered intraperitoneally 15 min prior to pain induction with a single dosage (3, 10, 15, 30, and 35 mg/kg b.wt). In this investigation, 35 mg/kg of MG showed significant increase in the latency time and this dosage was used in the antagonist receptor study. The treated groups were administered with AM251 (cannabinoid receptor-1 antagonist), naloxone (non-selective opioid antagonist), naltrindole (δ-opioid antagonist) naloxonazine (μ1-receptor antagonist) and norbinaltorpimine (κ-opioid antagonist) respectively, prior to administration of MG (35 mg/kg). The results showed that the antinociceptive effect of MG was not antagonized by AM251; naloxone and naltrindole were effectively blocked; and norbinaltorpimine partially blocked the antinociceptive effect of MG. Naloxonazine did inhibit the effect of MG, but it was not statistically significant. These results demonstrate that CB1 does not directly have a role in the antinociceptive action of MG where the effect was observed with the activation of opioid receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Rahman Shamima
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences, 63000 Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Sharida Fakurazi
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Human Anatomy, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
- Institute of Bioscience, Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +603-8947-2331; Fax: +603-8942-2341
| | - Mohamad Taufik Hidayat
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Human Anatomy, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
| | - Ithnin Hairuszah
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Pathology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
| | - Mohamad Aris Mohd Moklas
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Human Anatomy, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mails: (M.T.H.); (M.A.M.M.)
| | - Palanisamy Arulselvan
- Institute of Bioscience, Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; E-Mail:
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176
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Wungsintaweekul J, Choo-malee J, Charoonratana T, Keawpradub N. Methyl jasmonate and yeast extract stimulate mitragynine production in Mitragyna speciosa (Roxb.) Korth. shoot culture. Biotechnol Lett 2012; 34:1945-50. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-012-0968-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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177
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Khorana N, Changwichit K, Ingkaninan K, Utsintong M. Prospective acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of indole and its analogs. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:2885-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.02.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2011] [Revised: 01/26/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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178
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Posch TN, Müller A, Schulz W, Pütz M, Huhn C. Implementation of a design of experiments to study the influence of the background electrolyte on separation and detection in non-aqueous capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:583-98. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201100381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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179
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180
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Ward J, Rosenbaum C, Hernon C, McCurdy CR, Boyer EW. Herbal medicines for the management of opioid addiction: safe and effective alternatives to conventional pharmacotherapy? CNS Drugs 2011; 25:999-1007. [PMID: 22133323 DOI: 10.2165/11596830-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Striking increases in the abuse of opioids have expanded the need for pharmacotherapeutic interventions. The obstacles that confront effective treatment of opioid addiction - shortage of treatment professionals, stigma associated with treatment and the ability to maintain abstinence - have led to increased interest in alternative treatment strategies among both treatment providers and patients alike. Herbal products for opioid addiction and withdrawal, such as kratom and specific Chinese herbal medications such as WeiniCom, can complement existing treatments. Unfortunately, herbal treatments, while offering some advantages over existing evidence-based pharmacotherapies, have poorly described pharmacokinetics, a lack of supportive data derived from well controlled clinical trials, and severe toxicity, the cause for which remains poorly defined. Herbal products, therefore, require greater additional testing in rigorous clinical trials before they can expect widespread acceptance in the management of opioid addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanine Ward
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
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181
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Kapp FG, Maurer HH, Auwärter V, Winkelmann M, Hermanns-Clausen M. Intrahepatic cholestasis following abuse of powdered kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). J Med Toxicol 2011; 7:227-31. [PMID: 21528385 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-011-0155-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a common medical plant in Thailand and is known to contain mitragynine as the main alkaloid. According to an increase in published reports and calls at German poison control centers, it has been used more frequently as a drug of abuse in the western hemisphere during the last couple of years. Despite this increase, reports of severe toxicity are rare within the literature. CASE REPORT We describe a case of a young man who presented with jaundice and pruritus after intake of kratom for 2 weeks in the absence of any other causative agent. Alkaloids of M. speciosa were detected in the urine. CONCLUSION While M. speciosa is gaining in popularity among illicit drug users, its adverse effects remain poorly understood. This is the first published case of intrahepatic cholestasis after kratom abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich G Kapp
- Poisons Information Center VIZ-Freiburg, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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182
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Sabetghadam A, Ramanathan S, Mansor SM. The evaluation of antinociceptive activity of alkaloid, methanolic, and aqueous extracts of Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa Korth leaves in rats. Pharmacognosy Res 2011; 2:181-5. [PMID: 21808563 PMCID: PMC3141311 DOI: 10.4103/0974-8490.65514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Revised: 06/03/2010] [Accepted: 07/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa Korth is a medicinal plant indigenous to Thailand and Malaysia and has been known for its narcotic and coca-like effects. Many studies have been performed on the antinociceptive effect of the plant extracts of Thai origin; however, limited studies have been reported till date on M. speciosa extracts of Malaysian origin. Various concentrations of alkaloid (5–20 mg/kg), methanolic (50–200 mg/kg), and aqueous (100–400 mg/kg) extracts of Malaysian M. speciosa leaves were prepared and orally administered to nine groups of rats. Morphine (5 mg/kg, s.c.) and aspirin (300 mg/kg, p.o.) were used as control. Antagonism of the antinociceptive activity was evaluated by pretreatment with naloxone at a dose of 2 mg/kg (i.p.). Results showed that oral administration of the alkaloid (20 mg/kg), methanolic (200 mg/kg), and aqueous (400 mg/kg) extracts significantly prolonged the latency of nociceptive response compared with control groups in both hot plate and tail flick tests (P < 0.05). Antinociceptive action of the alkaloid (20 mg/kg), methanolic (200 mg/kg), and aqueous (400 mg/kg) extracts was significantly blocked by naloxone. In conclusion, these results suggest the presence of antinociceptive effect in various extracts of Malaysian M. speciosa leaves. In addition, the antinociceptive effective doses vary depending on the type of solvents used for extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Sabetghadam
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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183
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Dandia A, Bhati DS, Jain AK, Sharma GN. Ultrasound promoted clay catalyzed efficient and one pot synthesis of substituted oxindoles. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2011; 18:1143-1147. [PMID: 21504851 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2011.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2010] [Revised: 03/18/2011] [Accepted: 03/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A simple facile, one-pot synthesis of oxindoles in reasonable purity is reported via intramolecular Friedal-Craft cyclization. Clay KSF is an inexpensive, efficient and mild catalyst for the synthesis of substituted oxindoles by the reaction of chloroacetyl chloride and various anilines under the influence of ultrasonic irradiation under solvent-free conditions. The remarkable advantages of this method are the simple experimental procedures, short reaction times, high yields of products, suitability for a wide variety of substituents, and the green aspects through the avoidance of toxic catalyst and solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Dandia
- Centre of Advanced Studies, Department of Chemistry, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India.
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184
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Purintrapiban J, Keawpradub N, Kansenalak S, Chittrakarn S, Janchawee B, Sawangjaroen K. Study on glucose transport in muscle cells by extracts from Mitragyna speciosa (Korth) and mitragynine. Nat Prod Res 2011; 25:1379-87. [PMID: 18846471 DOI: 10.1080/14786410802267627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The leaves of Mitragyna speciosa Korth (Rubiaceae) have been used in folk medicine for its unique medicinal properties. This study examined the water, methanolic and crude alkaloidal extracts from M. speciosa leaves and its major constituent mitragynine for the enhancement of glucose transport. Cellular uptake of radioactive 2-deoxyglucose was determined in rat L8 myotubes. Involving signalling pathway was determined with the specific inhibitors. Cell cytotoxicity was monitored by lactate dehydrogenase assay. Protein levels of glucose transporters (GLUTs) were measured by Western blotting. The results show that test samples significantly increased the rate of glucose uptake. The uptake was associated with increase in GLUT1 protein content. Co-incubation with insulin had no additional effect, but the cellular uptake was decreased by wortmannin and SB 203580, specific inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), respectively. It is concluded that the increased glucose transport activity of M. speciosa is associated with increases in activities of the key enzymes dependent to the insulin-stimulated glucose transport for its acute action, and increases in the GLUT1 content for its long-term effect. This study demonstrated the effect of M. speciosa in stimulating glucose transport in muscle cells, implicating the folkloric use of M. speciosa leaves for treating diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juntipa Purintrapiban
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla, Thailand.
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185
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Utar Z, Majid MIA, Adenan MI, Jamil MFA, Lan TM. Mitragynine inhibits the COX-2 mRNA expression and prostaglandin E₂ production induced by lipopolysaccharide in RAW264.7 macrophage cells. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 136:75-82. [PMID: 21513785 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Revised: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE [corrected] Mitragyna speciosa Korth (Rubiaceae) is one of the medicinal plants used traditionally to treat various types of diseases especially in Thailand and Malaysia. Its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in its crude form are well documented. In this study, the cellular mechanism involved in the anti-inflammatory effects of mitragynine, the major bioactive constituent, was investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS The effects of mitragynine on the mRNA and protein expression of COX-1 and COX-2 and the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) were investigated in LPS-treated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to assess the mRNA expression of COX-1 and COX-2. Protein expression of COX-1 and COX-2 were assessed using Western blot analysis and the level of PGE(2) production was quantified using Parameter™ PGE(2) Assay (R&D Systems). RESULTS Mitragynine produced a significant inhibition on the mRNA expression of COX-2 induced by LPS, in a dose dependent manner and this was followed by the reduction of PGE(2) production. On the other hand, the effects of mitragynine on COX-1 mRNA expression were found to be insignificant as compared to the control cells. However, the effect of mitragynine on COX-1 protein expression is dependent on concentration, with higher concentration of mitragynine producing a further reduction of COX-1 expression in LPS-treated cells. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that mitragynine suppressed PGE(2) production by inhibiting COX-2 expression in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. Mitragynine may be useful for the treatment of inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zulkhurnain Utar
- Malaysian Institute of Pharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals (IPharm), Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Sains@USM Complex, 10, Persiaran Bukit Jambul, 11900 Bayan Lepas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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186
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Kikura-Hanajiri R, Uchiyama N, Goda Y. Survey of current trends in the abuse of psychotropic substances and plants in Japan. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2011; 13:109-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2011.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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187
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Metabolism studies of the Kratom alkaloids mitraciliatine and isopaynantheine, diastereomers of the main alkaloids mitragynine and paynantheine, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:1049-55. [PMID: 21450536 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), native in Southeast Asia, is increasingly misused as a herbal drug of abuse. During metabolism studies on the Kratom alkaloids mitragynine, its diastereomers speciogynine and speciociliatine as well as paynantheine in rats and humans, further isomeric compounds were detected in Kratom users' urine. The question arose whether these compounds were formed from the low abundant, isomeric alkaloids mitraciliatine (MC) and isopaynantheine (ISO-PAY). Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to identify using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry their phase I and II metabolites in rat urine after administration of pure MC or ISO-PAY, to confirm their formation in humans, and finally to confirm whether the above-mentioned isomeric compounds in human urine represent MC and ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The metabolic pathways of both alkaloids in rats were found to be comparable to those of their corresponding diastereomers. In the human urines tested, not all metabolites found in rats could be detected because of the much lower amounts of MC and ISO-PAY in Kratom. However, all the above-mentioned so far unknown isomeric compounds could be identified in the human urine samples as MC, ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The used LC separation was also suitable for the differentiation of all other Kratom alkaloids and their metabolites in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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188
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Idayu NF, Hidayat MT, Moklas MAM, Sharida F, Raudzah ARN, Shamima AR, Apryani E. Antidepressant-like effect of mitragynine isolated from Mitragyna speciosa Korth in mice model of depression. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 18:402-407. [PMID: 20869223 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2010.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2010] [Revised: 06/11/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa Korth. leaves have been used for decades as a traditional medicine to treat diarrhea, diabetes and to improve blood circulation by natives of Malaysia, Thailand and other regions of Southeast Asia. Mitragynine is the major active alkaloid in the plant. To date, the role of mitragynine in psychological disorders such as depression is not scientifically evaluated. Hence, the present investigation evaluates the antidepressant effect of mitragynine in the mouse forced swim test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST), two models predictive of antidepressant activity and the effect of mitragynine towards neuroendocrine system of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by measuring the corticosterone concentration of mice exposed to FST and TST. An open-field test (OFT) was used to detect any association of immobility in the FST and TST with changes in motor activity of mice treated with mitragynine. In the present study, mitragynine at dose of 10 mg/kg and 30 mg/kg i.p. injected significantly reduced the immobility time of mice in both FST and TST without any significant effect on locomotor activity in OFT. Moreover, mitragynine significantly reduced the released of corticosterone in mice exposed to FST and TST at dose of 10 mg/kg and 30 mg/kg. Overall, the present study clearly demonstrated that mitragynine exerts an antidepressant effect in animal behavioral model of depression (FST and TST) and the effect appears to be mediated by an interaction with neuroendocrine HPA axis systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Farah Idayu
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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189
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Palframan MJ, Parsons AF, Johnson P. Concise syntheses of (±)-protoemetinol and related alkaloids using radical cyclisation. Tetrahedron Lett 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2011.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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190
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Metabolism studies of the Kratom alkaloid speciociliatine, a diastereomer of the main alkaloid mitragynine, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 399:2747-53. [PMID: 21249338 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4660-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2010] [Revised: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 01/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) is currently used as a drug of abuse. When monitoring its abuse in urine, several alkaloids and their metabolites must be considered. In former studies, mitragynine (MG), its diastereomer speciogynine (SG), and paynantheine and their metabolites could be identified in rat and human urine using LC-MS(n). In Kratom users' urines, besides MG and SG, further isomeric compounds were detected. To elucidate whether the MG and SG diastereomer speciociliatine (SC) and its metabolites represent further compounds, the phase I and II metabolites of SC were identified first in rat urine after the administration of the pure alkaloid. Then, the identified rat metabolites were screened for in the urine of Kratom users using the above-mentioned LC-MS(n) procedure. Considering the mass spectra and retention times, it could be confirmed that SC and its metabolites are so far the unidentified isomers in human urine. In conclusion, SC and its metabolites can be used as further markers for Kratom use, especially by consumption of raw material or products that contain a high amount of fruits of the Malaysian plant M. speciosa.
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191
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Khan H, Saeed M, Gilani AUH, Khan MA, Khan I, Ashraf N. Antinociceptive Activity of Aerial Parts of Polygonatum verticillatum
: Attenuation of Both Peripheral and Central Pain Mediators. Phytother Res 2011; 25:1024-30. [DOI: 10.1002/ptr.3369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy; University of Peshawar; Peshawar 25120 Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Saeed
- Department of Pharmacy; University of Peshawar; Peshawar 25120 Pakistan
| | - Anwar ul Hassan Gilani
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences; Aga Khan University Medical College; Karachi 74800 Pakistan
| | - Murad Ali Khan
- Chemistry Department; Kohat University of Science and Technology; Pakistan
| | - Inamullah Khan
- Department of Pharmacy; University of Peshawar; Peshawar 25120 Pakistan
| | - Nadeem Ashraf
- Pharmacology Section, H.E.J. Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical Sciences; University of Karachi; Karachi - 75270 Pakistan
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Abstract
In recent years, besides the classic designer drugs of the amphetamine type, a series of new drug classes appeared on the illicit drugs market. The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, metabolism, and toxicokinetics is discussed of 2,5-dimethoxy amphetamines, 2,5-dimethoxy phenethylamines, beta-keto-amphetamines, phencyclidine derivatives as well as of herbal drugs, ie, Kratom. They have gained popularity and notoriety as rave drugs. The metabolic pathways, the involvement of cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in the main pathways, and their roles in hepatic clearance are also summarized.
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193
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Monitoring of kratom or Krypton intake in urine using GC-MS in clinical and forensic toxicology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 400:127-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4464-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 11/16/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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194
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Nelsen JL, Lapoint J, Hodgman MJ, Aldous KM. Seizure and coma following Kratom (Mitragynina speciosa Korth) exposure. J Med Toxicol 2010; 6:424-6. [PMID: 20411370 PMCID: PMC3550469 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-010-0079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Reports of toxicity secondary to Kratom are rare and lack of diagnostic testing in human specimens has prevented confirmatory explanation of observed clinical effects. We present a novel case of serious human toxicity following Kratom use confirmed via quantitative analysis of urine by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. A 64 year-old male was witnessed to have a seizure at home following kratom consumption. Upon arrival to the emergency department (ED), the patient was unresponsive. While in the ED, the patient sustained a second seizure. He was intubated to protect his airway. The remainder of his hospital course was uneventful. A urine specimen was collected shortly after admission and sent for analysis. The mitragynine concentration in the urine was 167 ± 15 ng/ml. We report a rare case of Kratom toxicity characterized by a seizure and coma confirmed by urinary analysis of mitragynine by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. The proposed mechanism for this reaction is unclear but suggested mechanisms include adenosine binding or stimulation of adrenergic and/or serotonergic receptors similar to tramadol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie L Nelsen
- Department of Emergency Medicine, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Upstate New York Poison Center, 250 Harrison Street, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
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195
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Arndt T, Claussen U, Güssregen B, Schröfel S, Stürzer B, Werle A, Wolf G. Kratom alkaloids and O-desmethyltramadol in urine of a "Krypton" herbal mixture consumer. Forensic Sci Int 2010; 208:47-52. [PMID: 21112167 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2010] [Revised: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 10/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
AIM A drug and alcohol withdrawal rehabilitation centre requested an analysis for "Krypton" in urine of a former opiate-addictive woman. She showed an altered clinical picture and behaviour with miosis, itchiness, agitation, and moderate euphoria after 3 months of until than successful treatment. Literature search revealed that "Krypton" is said to contain "Kratom" (leaves of Mitragyna speciosa), but could also contain O-desmethyltramadol (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction thematic paper "Spice"). METHODS Immunological drug screenings were done with test strips (nal von minden, Regensburg, Germany) and with cloned enzyme donor immunoassay (Microgenics, Passau, Germany). "Kratom" alkaloids and tramadol (metabolites) were analyzed by LC-MS/MS (ThermoFisher Scientific Quantum Ultra Triple Quadrupole mass spectrometer). RESULTS Immunoassays were negative for amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, benzoylecgonine, buprenorphine, ethylglucuronide, methadone (metabolite), opiates, oxycodone, and THC-COOH, and test strips were negative for tramadol and its metabolites (cut-off 10 mg/L for O-desmethyltramadol). LC-MS/MS detected the "Kratom" alkaloids mitragynine, speciociliatine, speciogynine, mitraciliatine, and paynantheine and approximately 9mg/L O-desmethyltramadol, but no tramadol and N-desmethyltramadol. DISCUSSION The detection of M. speciosa alkaloids is a proof of "Kratom" abuse. Confronted with the analysis data, the patient admitted to have consumed 3-4 infusions of "Krypton". The origin of the O-desmethyltramadol is unclear. Tramadol abuse is unlikely since tramadol and N-desmethyltramadol (physiologically occurring in urine after tramadol intake) were not detectable. Consumption of a "Krypton" product spiked with O-desmethyltramadol could explain our findings and the patient's clinical picture. This would be in agreement with a most recent report about spiking apparently natural herbal mixtures with the synthetic opioid O-desmethyltramadol. CONCLUSION Analysis of "Kratom" abuse should not be restricted to M. speciosa alkaloids, but should also consider synthetic drugs which could be added to the herbal mixtures. Mass spectrometry based drug screenings will gain importance to keep pace with the dynamic drug market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torsten Arndt
- Bioscientia, Institut für Medizinische Diagnostik GmbH, Ingelheim, Germany.
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196
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Phase I and II metabolites of speciogynine, a diastereomer of the main Kratom alkaloid mitragynine, identified in rat and human urine by liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution linear ion trap mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2010; 45:1344-1357. [PMID: 20967737 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), a Thai medical plant, is misused as herbal drug of abuse. Besides the most abundant alkaloids mitragynine (MG) and paynantheine (PAY), several other alkaloids were isolated from Kratom leaves, among them the third abundant alkaloid is speciogynine (SG), a diastereomer of MG. The aim of this present study was to identify the phase I and II metabolites of SG in rat urine after the administration of a rather high dose of the pure alkaloid and then to confirm these findings using human urine samples after Kratom use. The applied liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS-MS) provided detailed information on the structure in the MS(n) mode particularly with high resolution. For the analysis of the human samples, the LC separation had to be improved markedly allowing the separation of SG and its metabolites from its diastereomer MG and its metabolites. In analogy to MG, besides SG, nine phase I and eight phase II metabolites could be identified in rat urine, but only three phase I and five phase II metabolites in human urine. These differences may be caused by the lower SG dose applied by the user of Kratom preparations. SG and its metabolites could be differentiated in the human samples from the diastereomeric MG and its metabolites comparing the different retention times determined after application of the single alkaloids to rats. In addition, some differences in MS(2) and/or MS(3) spectra of the corresponding diastereomers were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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197
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Apryani E, Hidayat MT, Moklas MAA, Fakurazi S, Idayu NF. Effects of mitragynine from Mitragyna speciosa Korth leaves on working memory. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2010; 129:357-360. [PMID: 20371280 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2009] [Revised: 03/21/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Mitragyna speciosa Korth from Rubiaceae family is a tropical plant indigenous to Southeast Asia particularly in Thailand, Peninsular of Malaysia and Indonesia. The leaves have been used by natives for their opium-like effect and cocaine-like stimulant ability to combat fatigue and enhance tolerance to hard work. However there is no scientific information about the effect of mitragynine on the cognitive performances. This study is designed to examine the working memory effects of mitragynine which is extracted from Mitragyna speciosa mature leaves. MATERIALS AND METHODS The cognitive effect was studied using object location task and the motor activity in open-field test. Mitragynine 5, 10 and 15 mg/kg and were administered by intraperitoneal (IP) for 28 consecutive days and evaluated on day 28 after the last dose treatment. Scopolamine was used as the control positive drug. RESULTS In this study there is prominent effects on horizontal locomotor activity was observed. Mitragynine significantly reduced locomotor activity in open-field test compared with vehicle. In object location task mitragynine (5, 10 and 15 mg/kg) did not showed any significances discrimination between the object that had changed position than the object that had remain in a constant position. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that chronic administration of mitragynine can altered the cognitive behavioral function in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evhy Apryani
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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198
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Liu H, McCurdy CR, Doerksen RJ. Computational Study on the Conformations of Mitragynine and Mitragynaline. THEOCHEM 2010; 945:57-63. [PMID: 21293786 PMCID: PMC3031075 DOI: 10.1016/j.theochem.2010.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A conformational search on mitragynine and mitragynaline, natural products isolated from the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa, was performed using the MMFF94s force field and the quantum mechanical B3LYP method. The main difference for the mitragynine conformers is caused by the position of the lone pair of the nitrogen shared by rings 3 and 4. Specifically, the lone pair can be syn or anti to the exocylic ethyl group on ring 4. Syn was found to be lower in energy than anti, because of less steric hindrance between the ethyl and the methylene group adjacent to the N in ring 3. The geometrical parameters for the lowest energy conformer of mitragynine are in excellent agreement with the published X-ray crystal structure's geometry. Because it has one more double bond, mitragynaline has less conformational freedom than mitragynine. The main possible conformational choice in mitragynaline is for orientational flexibility of a C-C single bond in ring 3. The finding of two low energy conformers of mitragynaline differing in ring 3 conformation matches reported X-ray crystal structural data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haining Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Mississippi, MS, 38677-1848, USA
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Mississippi, MS, 38677-1848, USA
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Mississippi, MS, 38677-1848, USA
| | - Robert J. Doerksen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Mississippi, MS, 38677-1848, USA
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Mississippi, MS, 38677-1848, USA
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199
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Zoerntlein SW, Kanogsunthornrat J, Maurer HH. Use of liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution linear ion trap mass spectrometry for studying the metabolism of paynantheine, an alkaloid of the herbal drug Kratom in rat and human urine. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 396:2379-91. [PMID: 19902190 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-3239-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2009] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The Thai medicinal plant Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai) is misused as a herbal drug of abuse. During studies on the main Kratom alkaloid mitragynine (MG) in rats and humans, several dehydro analogs could be detected in urine of Kratom users, which were not found in rat urine after administration of pure MG. Questions arose as to whether these compounds are formed from MG only by humans or whether they are metabolites formed from the second abundant Kratom alkaloid paynantheine (PAY), the dehydro analog of MG. Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to identify the phase I and II metabolites of PAY in rat urine after administration of the pure alkaloid. This was first isolated from Kratom leaves. Liquid chromatography-linear ion trap mass spectrometry provided detailed structure information of the metabolites in the MS(n) mode particularly with high resolution. Besides PAY, the following phase I metabolites could be identified: 9-O-demethyl PAY, 16-carboxy PAY, 9-O-demethyl-16-carboxy PAY, 17-O-demethyl PAY, 17-O-demethyl-16,17-dihydro PAY, 9,17-O-bisdemethyl PAY, 9,17-O-bisdemethyl-16,17-dihydro PAY, 17-carboxy-16,17-dihydro PAY, and 9-O-demethyl-17-carboxy-16,17-dihydro PAY. These metabolites indicated that PAY was metabolized via the same pathways as MG. Several metabolites were excreted as glucuronides or sulfates. The metabolism studies in rats showed that PAY and its metabolites corresponded to the MG-related dehydro compounds detected in urine of the Kratom users. In conclusion, PAY and its metabolites may be further markers for a Kratom abuse in addition of MG and its metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Prevatt-Smith KM, Prisinzano TE. New therapeutic potential for psychoactive natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2009; 27:23-31. [PMID: 20024092 DOI: 10.1039/b912196j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Much of our knowledge in neuroscience was discovered through the study of mind-altering natural products. However, although much has been learned about human physiology and basic biological processes, the underlying causes of CNS disorders and other disease states are still elusive. Based on its main past successes, the continued study of mind-altering compounds promises to yield novel agents that may be developed into medications and to identify new targets for the treatment of diseases. This Highlight describes the history of investigations into several classes of mind-altering natural products and relates recent and potential therapeutic uses for these agents.
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