151
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Scholz S, Kaas B, Simpkins A, Lyons J, Venkatesan A, Probasco J. Brachial plexitis preceding encephalomyelitis in a patient with West Nile virus infection. BMJ Case Rep 2013; 2013:bcr-2013-200833. [PMID: 24311412 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2013-200833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe the case of a 54-year-old woman with West Nile virus infection presenting with painful brachial plexitis and radiculitis that preceded the more typically associated symptoms of meningoencephalitis. Physicians should be aware that West Nile virus infection can present with painful brachial plexitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Scholz
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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152
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Lim SP, Shi PY. West Nile virus drug discovery. Viruses 2013; 5:2977-3006. [PMID: 24300672 PMCID: PMC3967157 DOI: 10.3390/v5122977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV) in 1999 in the USA, and its continued spread throughout the Americas, parts of Europe, the Middle East and Africa, underscored the need for WNV antiviral development. Here, we review the current status of WNV drug discovery. A number of approaches have been used to search for inhibitors of WNV, including viral infection-based screening, enzyme-based screening, structure-based virtual screening, structure-based rationale design, and antibody-based therapy. These efforts have yielded inhibitors of viral or cellular factors that are critical for viral replication. For small molecule inhibitors, no promising preclinical candidate has been developed; most of the inhibitors could not even be advanced to the stage of hit-to-lead optimization due to their poor drug-like properties. However, several inhibitors developed for related members of the family Flaviviridae, such as dengue virus and hepatitis C virus, exhibited cross-inhibition of WNV, suggesting the possibility to re-purpose these antivirals for WNV treatment. Most promisingly, therapeutic antibodies have shown excellent efficacy in mouse model; one of such antibodies has been advanced into clinical trial. The knowledge accumulated during the past fifteen years has provided better rationale for the ongoing WNV and other flavivirus antiviral development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siew Pheng Lim
- Novartis Institute for Tropical Diseases, 10 Biopolis Road, Chromos 05-01, Singapore 138670, Singapore.
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153
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Marka A, Diamantidis A, Papa A, Valiakos G, Chaintoutis SC, Doukas D, Tserkezou P, Giannakopoulos A, Papaspyropoulos K, Patsoula E, Badieritakis E, Baka A, Tseroni M, Pervanidou D, Papadopoulos NT, Koliopoulos G, Tontis D, Dovas CI, Billinis C, Tsakris A, Kremastinou J, Hadjichristodoulou C. West Nile virus state of the art report of MALWEST Project. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:6534-610. [PMID: 24317379 PMCID: PMC3881129 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10126534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
During the last three years Greece is experiencing the emergence of West Nile virus (WNV) epidemics. Within this framework, an integrated surveillance and control programme (MALWEST project) with thirteen associate partners was launched aiming to investigate the disease and suggest appropriate interventions. One out of seven work packages of the project is dedicated to the State of the Art report for WNV. Three expert working groups on humans, animals and mosquitoes were established. Medical databases (PubMed, Scopus) were searched together with websites: e.g., WHO, CDC, ECDC. In total, 1,092 relevant articles were initially identified and 258 of them were finally included as references regarding the current knowledge about WNV, along with 36 additional sources (conference papers, reports, book chapters). The review is divided in three sections according to the fields of interest: (1) WNV in humans (epidemiology, molecular characteristics, transmission, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, surveillance); (2) WNV in animals (epidemiological and transmission characteristics concerning birds, horses, reptiles and other animal species) and (3) WNV in mosquitoes (control, surveillance). Finally, some examples of integrated surveillance programmes are presented. The introduction and establishment of the disease in Greece and other European countries further emphasizes the need for thorough research and broadening of our knowledge on this viral pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andriani Marka
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Athens, Athens 11527, Greece; E-mail:
| | - Alexandros Diamantidis
- Laboratory of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Volos 38446, Greece; E-mails: (A.D.); (N.T.P.)
| | - Anna Papa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses, Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; E-mail:
| | - George Valiakos
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Serafeim C. Chaintoutis
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; E-mails: (S.C.C.); (C.I.D.)
| | - Dimitrios Doukas
- Laboratory of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (D.D.); (D.T.)
| | - Persefoni Tserkezou
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Athens, Athens 11527, Greece; E-mail:
| | - Alexios Giannakopoulos
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Konstantinos Papaspyropoulos
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Eleni Patsoula
- Department of Parasitology, Entomology and Tropical Diseases, National School of Public Health, Athens 11521, Greece; E-mail:
| | - Evangelos Badieritakis
- Laboratory of Biological Control of Pesticides, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, Athens 14561, Greece; E-mails: (E.B.); (G.K.)
| | - Agoritsa Baka
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
| | - Maria Tseroni
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
| | - Danai Pervanidou
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
| | - Nikos T. Papadopoulos
- Laboratory of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Volos 38446, Greece; E-mails: (A.D.); (N.T.P.)
| | - George Koliopoulos
- Laboratory of Biological Control of Pesticides, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, Athens 14561, Greece; E-mails: (E.B.); (G.K.)
| | - Dimitrios Tontis
- Laboratory of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (D.D.); (D.T.)
| | - Chrysostomos I. Dovas
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; E-mails: (S.C.C.); (C.I.D.)
| | - Charalambos Billinis
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Athanassios Tsakris
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +30-2410-565-007; Fax: +30-2410-565-051
| | - Jenny Kremastinou
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
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Abstract
Emerging infections affecting the central nervous system often present as encephalitis and can cause substantial morbidity and mortality. Diagnosis requires not only careful history taking, but also the application of newly developed diagnostic tests. These diseases frequently occur in outbreaks stemming from viruses that have mutated from an animal host and gained the ability to infect humans. With globalization, this can translate to the rapid emergence of infectious clusters or the establishment of endemicity in previously naïve locations. Since these infections are often vector borne and effective treatments are almost uniformly lacking, prevention is at least as important as prompt diagnosis and institution of supportive care. In this review, we focus on some of the recent literature addressing emerging and resurging viral encephalitides in the United States and around the world-specifically, West Nile virus, dengue, polio, and cycloviruses. We also discuss new, or "emerging," techniques for the precise and rapid diagnosis of encephalitides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Lyons
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neurological Infections, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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155
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Pem-Novosel I, Vilibic-Cavlek T, Gjenero-Margan I, Pandak N, Peric L, Barbic L, Listes E, Cvitkovic A, Stevanovic V, Savini G. First outbreak of West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease in humans, Croatia, 2012. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2013; 14:82-4. [PMID: 24283515 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2012.1295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Between September 6 and 21, 2012, seven human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) neuroinvasive infection were laboratory confirmed in Croatia. The median patient age was 62 years (range 48-77). Five patients presented with meningoencephalitis and two patients with meningoencephalitis followed by acute flaccid paralysis. Four of them had an underlying disease (hypertension). Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), WNV-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibodies of low avidity were detected in six patients, whereas one showed only IgM antibodies. All samples were confirmed using plaque-reduction neutralization and microneutralization tests. Five patients recovered fully. Before human cases were reported, acute asymptomatic WNV infection was demonstrated by detection of IgM antibodies in sentinel horses. Moreover, an increased WNV IgG seropositivity in horses was detected in counties where human cases occurred. Adulticidal and larvicidal treatments were administered immediately in the respective places of residence. The end of the warm season contributed to the fact that there were no new cases of WNV disease recorded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iva Pem-Novosel
- 1 Communicable Diseases Epidemiology Service, Croatian National Institute of Public Health , Zagreb, Croatia
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156
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Barzon L, Pacenti M, Franchin E, Pagni S, Lavezzo E, Squarzon L, Martello T, Russo F, Nicoletti L, Rezza G, Castilletti C, Capobianchi MR, Salcuni P, Cattai M, Cusinato R, Palù G. Large human outbreak of West Nile virus infection in north-eastern Italy in 2012. Viruses 2013; 5:2825-39. [PMID: 24284876 PMCID: PMC3856417 DOI: 10.3390/v5112825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2013] [Revised: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) disease have been reported in Italy since 2008. So far, most cases have been identified in north-eastern Italy, where, in 2012, the largest outbreak of WNV infection ever recorded in Italy occurred. Most cases of the 2012 outbreak were identified in the Veneto region, where a special surveillance plan for West Nile fever was in place. In this outbreak, 25 cases of West Nile neuroinvasive disease and 17 cases of fever were confirmed. In addition, 14 WNV RNA-positive blood donors were identified by screening of blood and organ donations and two cases of asymptomatic infection were diagnosed by active surveillance of subjects at risk of WNV exposure. Two cases of death due to WNND were reported. Molecular testing demonstrated the presence of WNV lineage 1 in all WNV RNA-positive patients and, in 15 cases, infection by the novel Livenza strain was ascertained. Surveillance in other Italian regions notified one case of neuroinvasive disease in the south of Italy and two cases in Sardinia. Integrated surveillance for WNV infection remains a public health priority in Italy and vector control activities have been strengthened in areas of WNV circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova I-35121, Italy; E-Mails: (E.F.); (S.P.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (T.M.)
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, Padova I-35128, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (M.C.); (R.C.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (L.B.); (G.P.); Tel.: +39-049-821-8946 (L.B.); Fax: +39-049-827-2355 (L.B.); Tel.: +39-049-827-2350 (G.P.); Fax: +39-049-827-2355 (G.P.)
| | - Monia Pacenti
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, Padova I-35128, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (M.C.); (R.C.)
| | - Elisa Franchin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova I-35121, Italy; E-Mails: (E.F.); (S.P.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (T.M.)
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, Padova I-35128, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (M.C.); (R.C.)
| | - Silvana Pagni
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova I-35121, Italy; E-Mails: (E.F.); (S.P.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (T.M.)
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, Padova I-35128, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (M.C.); (R.C.)
| | - Enrico Lavezzo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova I-35121, Italy; E-Mails: (E.F.); (S.P.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (T.M.)
| | - Laura Squarzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova I-35121, Italy; E-Mails: (E.F.); (S.P.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (T.M.)
| | - Thomas Martello
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova I-35121, Italy; E-Mails: (E.F.); (S.P.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (T.M.)
| | - Francesca Russo
- Department of Public Health and Screening, Veneto Region, Venice I-30123, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Loredana Nicoletti
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immune-mediated Diseases, National Institute of Health (Istituto Superiore di Sanità, ISS), Rome I-00161, Italy; E-Mails: (L.N.); (G.R.)
| | - Giovanni Rezza
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immune-mediated Diseases, National Institute of Health (Istituto Superiore di Sanità, ISS), Rome I-00161, Italy; E-Mails: (L.N.); (G.R.)
| | - Concetta Castilletti
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) “L. Spallanzani”, Rome I-00149, Italy; E-Mails: (C.C.); (M.R.C.)
| | - Maria Rosaria Capobianchi
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI) “L. Spallanzani”, Rome I-00149, Italy; E-Mails: (C.C.); (M.R.C.)
| | - Pasquale Salcuni
- Department of Prevention and Communication, Ministry of Health, Rome I-00144, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Margherita Cattai
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, Padova I-35128, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (M.C.); (R.C.)
| | - Riccardo Cusinato
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, Padova I-35128, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (M.C.); (R.C.)
| | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova I-35121, Italy; E-Mails: (E.F.); (S.P.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (T.M.)
- Regional Reference Laboratory for Infectious Diseases, Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, Padova I-35128, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (M.C.); (R.C.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (L.B.); (G.P.); Tel.: +39-049-821-8946 (L.B.); Fax: +39-049-827-2355 (L.B.); Tel.: +39-049-827-2350 (G.P.); Fax: +39-049-827-2355 (G.P.)
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157
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Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), the causative agent of West Nile fever and West Nile neuroinvasive disease in humans, has become endemic in many countries in all continents. Concerns on long-term mobility from WNV have arisen from recent studies that reported chronic kidney disease in patients who recovered from WNV infection, supported by data from animal models that showed prolonged excretion of the virus with urine. The purpose of this review is to summarize and discuss the results of studies in the literature that investigated WNV infection of the kidney in humans and in animal models and WNV excretion with urine, the potential damage to the kidney caused by WNV infection, the risk of WNV disease in kidney transplant recipients, the significance of detecting WNV in urine and its use in the diagnosis of WNV infection, and kidney involvement by other mosquito-borne flaviviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Via A. Gabelli 63, 35121 Padova, Italy.
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158
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Mazzei M, Savini G, Di Gennaro A, Macchioni F, Prati MC, Guzmàn LR, Tolari F. West Nile seroprevalence study in Bolivian horses, 2011. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2013; 13:894-6. [PMID: 24107210 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2013.1323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae included in the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex (JEAC). A seroepidemiological study was carried out in 2011 using 160 horse sera collected from different areas of Bolivia to investigate the presence of WNV antibody. A high proportion (59.4%) of the tested sera were positive to a commercially available WNV competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (C-ELISA). Sixty-six randomly selected C-ELISA-positive sera were further tested by WNV plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), virus neutralization (VN), and immunoglobulin M (IgM)-WNV ELISA to exclude false-positive results due to possible cross-reactions to other members of the JEAC and to investigate if the horses were recently infected. No WNV IgM was detected in these samples, whereas neutralizing antibodies were found in 21 and 18 samples by PRNT and VN, respectively. In conclusion, a high proportion of the Bolivian horses included in this study reacted serologically against viruses of the JEAC. WNV was partially responsible (31.8%) for these reactions, supporting the conclusion that WNV circulated in Bolivia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Mazzei
- 1 Department of Veterinary Science, University of Pisa , Italy
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159
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Hoffman JE, Paschal KA. Functional outcomes of adult patients with West Nile virus admitted to a rehabilitation hospital. J Geriatr Phys Ther 2013; 36:55-62. [PMID: 22785181 DOI: 10.1519/jpt.0b013e318258bcba] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The clinical manifestation of West Nile Virus (WNV) varies in individuals from mild flu-like symptoms to acute flaccid paralysis. Advanced age is the most significant risk factor for developing severe neurological disease and for death. The broad range of neurologic symptoms associated with WNV infection leads to varied body structure and function limitations and participation restrictions that may require rehabilitation. The purpose of this study is to describe the functional impairments upon admission and the functional outcomes at discharge of 48 adult patients admitted with WNV to a rehabilitation facility in the Midwest from 2002 to 2009. METHODS A retrospective chart review was completed on 48 patients (29 male, 19 female) with mean age 67.8 (SD = 16.6, range = 24-91) years and median age 72.5 years, admitted to inpatient rehabilitation with a diagnosis of WNV after January 1, 2002, and discharged prior to December 31, 2009. General information (sex, age, social history, employment, and living environment), past medical history, and information specific to the current hospitalization (medical conditions, functional status and activity level on admission and discharge as measured by the Functional Independence Measure [FIM], lengths of stay [LOSs] in the acute care and rehabilitation hospital, physical therapy care, discharge destination, and follow-up care provisions) were gathered. The standardized response mean (SRM) was calculated for total, motor, and cognitive FIM scores to provide insight into the effect size and the responsiveness of the FIM for the patients with WNV in this study. RESULTS All patients were admitted to the rehabilitation hospital from acute care hospitals following LOSs ranging from 1 to 62 days. The rehabilitation hospital LOS ranged from 2 to 304 days. These patients had significant comorbidities including hypertension (43.75%), diabetes mellitus (41.67%), acute respiratory failure (37.5%), ventilator dependency/tracheostomy (33.33%), and pneumonia (29.17%). Their admission FIM scores ranged from 13 to 116 (mean = 45.8 ± 28.2) and discharge FIM scores ranged from 18 to 121 (mean = 75.1 ± 34.2). The change in FIM during inpatient rehabilitation was statistically significant (P < .001). The calculated SRM for the total (1.06) and motor (1.12) FIM indicate a large effect size, whereas the SRM for the cognitive FIM (0.79) indicates a moderate effect. The majority of patients were discharged home or to a nursing facility (46%), skilled or extended care (38%) with a need for continued rehabilitation services. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The manifestation of the WNV and functional outcomes after comprehensive rehabilitation vary from patient to patient. Higher numbers of comorbid conditions lead to more complex presentation and challenge rehabilitation professionals to design individualized plans of care to enable these patients to achieve the highest functional outcomes. Most patients require follow-up physical therapy care after discharge from rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie E Hoffman
- Department of Physical Therapy, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA.
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160
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Morrey JD, Siddharthan V, Wang H. Neurological approaches for investigating West Nile virus disease and its treatment in rodents. Antiviral Res 2013; 100:535-45. [PMID: 24055448 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) has had a major public health impact since its emergence in the Western Hemisphere; in 2012, nearly 3000 cases of WN neuroinvasive disease were identified in the United States. The underlying mechanisms of WN neurologic disease can only be studied to a limited extent in patients, but can be investigated in much greater detail in animal models. In this paper, we describe how we and others have employed a variety of electrophysiological and neurological techniques to study experimental WNV infections in hamsters and mice. The methods have included electrophysiological motor unit number estimation; optogenetic photoactivation of the spinal cord and electromyography; plethysmography; measurement of heart rate variability as an indication of autonomic nervous system dysfunction; and an assessment of spatial memory loss using the Morris water maze. These techniques provide a more refined assessment of disease manifestations in rodents than traditional measurements of weight loss and mortality, and should make it possible to identify targets for therapeutic intervention and to directly assess the effects of novel treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Morrey
- Institute for Antiviral Research, School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA.
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161
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A review of vaccine approaches for West Nile virus. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:4200-23. [PMID: 24025396 PMCID: PMC3799512 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10094200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Revised: 09/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The West Nile virus (WNC) first appeared in North America in 1999. The North American lineages of WNV were characterized by the presence of neuroinvasive and neurovirulent strains causing disease and death in humans, birds and horses. The 2012 WNV season in the United States saw a massive spike in the number of neuroinvasive cases and deaths similar to what was seen in the 2002–2003 season, according to the West Nile virus disease cases and deaths reported to the CDC by year and clinical presentation, 1999–2012, by ArboNET (Arboviral Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). In addition, the establishment and recent spread of lineage II WNV virus strains into Western Europe and the presence of neurovirulent and neuroinvasive strains among them is a cause of major concern. This review discusses the advances in the development of vaccines and biologicals to combat human and veterinary West Nile disease.
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162
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Abstract
The introduction, dispersal and establishment of West Nile virus in North America were reviewed, focusing on factors that may have enhanced receptivity and enabled the invasion process. The overwintering persistence of this tropical virus within temperate latitudes was unexpected, but was key in the transition from invasion to endemic establishment. The cascade of temporal events allowing sporadic amplification to outbreak levels was discussed within a future perspective.
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163
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164
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Barzon L, Pacenti M, Franchin E, Pagni S, Martello T, Cattai M, Cusinato R, Palù G. Excretion of West Nile Virus in Urine During Acute Infection. J Infect Dis 2013; 208:1086-92. [DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
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165
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Chabierski S, Makert GR, Kerzhner A, Barzon L, Fiebig P, Liebert UG, Papa A, Richner JM, Niedrig M, Diamond MS, Palù G, Ulbert S. Antibody responses in humans infected with newly emerging strains of West Nile Virus in Europe. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66507. [PMID: 23776680 PMCID: PMC3680493 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with West Nile Virus (WNV) affects an increasing number of countries worldwide. Although most human infections result in no or mild flu-like symptoms, the elderly and those with a weakened immune system are at higher risk for developing severe neurological disease. Since its introduction into North America in 1999, WNV has spread across the continental United States and caused annual outbreaks with a total of 36,000 documented clinical cases and ∼1,500 deaths. In recent years, outbreaks of neuroinvasive disease also have been reported in Europe. The WNV strains isolated during these outbreaks differ from those in North America, as sequencing has revealed that distinct phylogenetic lineages of WNV concurrently circulate in Europe, which has potential implications for the development of vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostic tests. Here, we studied the human antibody response to European WNV strains responsible for outbreaks in Italy and Greece in 2010, caused by lineage 1 and 2 strains, respectively. The WNV structural proteins were expressed as a series of overlapping fragments fused to a carrier-protein, and binding of IgG in sera from infected persons was analyzed. The results demonstrate that, although the humoral immune response to WNV in humans is heterogeneous, several dominant peptides are recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Chabierski
- Department of Immunology, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gustavo R. Makert
- Department of Immunology, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Alexandra Kerzhner
- Department of Immunology, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Petra Fiebig
- Institute of Virology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Uwe G. Liebert
- Institute of Virology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anna Papa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Justin M. Richner
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Missouri, St. Louis, United States of America
| | | | - Michael S. Diamond
- Departments of Medicine, Molecular Microbiology, Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, Missouri, St. Louis, United States of America
| | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Sebastian Ulbert
- Department of Immunology, Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany
- * E-mail:
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166
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Larrieu S, Cardinale E, Ocquidant P, Roger M, Lepec R, Delatte H, Camuset G, Desprès P, Brottet E, Charlin C, Michault A. A fatal neuroinvasive West Nile virus infection in a traveler returning from Madagascar: clinical, epidemiological and veterinary investigations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013; 89:211-3. [PMID: 23751400 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.12-0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract. A 58-year-old woman living in Reunion Island and returning from Madagascar was hospitalized for neuroinvasive encephalitis and died 1 month later. West Nile virus (WNV) infection was biologically confirmed by detection of immunoglobulin M (IgM) reactive with WNV antigens in both cerebrospinal fluid and serum, and weak neutralizing activity was also detected. A veterinary survey performed in her traveling area showed a seroprevalence of WNV of 28.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 21.1-36.3) in adult poultry, confirming an active circulation of the virus. Development of a severe form could be related to a weak antibody response, because the patient presented low IgM and IgG titers. This case report underlines the constant risk of emergence of West Nile in Indian Ocean territories, including Reunion Island where competent vectors are widely present during the whole year.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Larrieu
- Cellule Interrégionale d'Épidémiologie Océan Indien (Cire OI), Institut de Veille Sanitaire, Saint Denis, La Réunion, France.
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167
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Colborn JM, Smith KA, Townsend J, Damian D, Nasci RS, Mutebi JP. West Nile virus outbreak in Phoenix, Arizona--2010: entomological observations and epidemiological correlations. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MOSQUITO CONTROL ASSOCIATION 2013; 29:123-32. [PMID: 23923326 PMCID: PMC7269164 DOI: 10.2987/13-6326r.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In 2010, Arizona experienced an unusually early and severe outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV) centered in the southeast section of Maricopa County. Entomological data were collected before and during the outbreak, from May 25 through July 31, 2010, using the CO2-baited light trap monitoring system maintained by Maricopa County Vector Control. In the outbreak area, the most abundant species in the Town of Gilbert and in the area covered by the Roosevelt Water Conservation District was Culex quinquefasciatus, constituting 75.1% and 71.8% of the total number of mosquitoes collected, respectively. Vector index (VI) profiles showed that the abundance of infected Cx. quinquefasciatus peaked prior to human cases, suggesting that this species was involved in the initiation of the outbreak. In contrast, the VI profiles for Cx. tarsalis were consistently low, suggesting limited involvement in initiating and sustaining transmission. Taken together, the higher abundance and the VI profiles strongly suggest that Cx. quinquefasciatus was the primary vector for this outbreak. The VI profiles consistently showed that the abundance of infected mosquitoes peaked 1 to 2 wk before the peaks of human cases, suggesting that VI could have successfully been utilized to predict the WNV outbreak in Maricopa County, AZ, in 2010.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M. Colborn
- President’s Malaria Initiative (PMI), Malaria Branch, CDC/CGH/DPDM
| | - Kirk A. Smith
- Maricopa County Environmental Services Vector Control Division, 3220 W Gibson Ln. Bldg. 1531, Suite 500, Phoenix, AZ 85009
| | - John Townsend
- Maricopa County Environmental Services Vector Control Division, 3220 W Gibson Ln. Bldg. 1531, Suite 500, Phoenix, AZ 85009
| | - Dan Damian
- Maricopa County Regional Development Services Agency, 501 N. 44 Street, Suite 100, Phoenix AZ 85009
| | - Roger S. Nasci
- Centers for Disease Control and prevention, 3150 Rampart Rd., Fort Collins, CO, 80521
| | - John-Paul Mutebi
- Centers for Disease Control and prevention, 3150 Rampart Rd., Fort Collins, CO, 80521
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168
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Zaayman D, Venter M. West Nile virus neurologic disease in humans, South Africa, September 2008-may 2009. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 18:2051-4. [PMID: 23171668 PMCID: PMC3557887 DOI: 10.3201/eid1812.111208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated West Nile virus (WNV) as a possible disease etiology in persons hospitalized in South Africa. Of 206 specimens tested, 36 had WNV neutralizing antibodies, significantly more than in similar earlier serosurveys. Seven probable acute WNV cases were identified, suggesting WNV may be overlooked as an etiology of severe disease in South Africa.
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169
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Sanchini A, Donoso-Mantke O, Papa A, Sambri V, Teichmann A, Niedrig M. Second international diagnostic accuracy study for the serological detection of West Nile virus infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2184. [PMID: 23638205 PMCID: PMC3636139 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background In recent decades, sporadic cases and outbreaks in humans of West Nile virus (WNV) infection have increased. Serological diagnosis of WNV infection can be performed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunofluorescence assay (IFA) neutralization test (NT) and by hemagglutination-inhibition assay. The aim of this study is to collect updated information regarding the performance accuracy of WNV serological diagnostics. Methodology/Principal findings In 2011, the European Network for the Diagnostics of Imported Viral Diseases-Collaborative Laboratory Response Network (ENIVD-CLRN) organized the second external quality assurance (EQA) study for the serological diagnosis of WNV infection. A serum panel of 13 samples (included sera reactive against WNV, plus specificity and negative controls) was sent to 48 laboratories involved in WNV diagnostics. Forty-seven of 48 laboratories from 30 countries participated in the study. Eight laboratories achieved 100% of concurrent and correct results. The main obstacle in other laboratories to achieving similar performances was the cross-reactivity of antibodies amongst heterologous flaviviruses. No differences were observed in performances of in-house and commercial test used by the laboratories. IFA was significantly more specific compared to ELISA in detecting IgG antibodies. The overall analytical sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests for IgM detection were 50% and 95%, respectively. In comparison, the overall sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests for IgG detection were 86% and 69%, respectively. Conclusions/Significance This EQA study demonstrates that there is still need to improve serological tests for WNV diagnosis. The low sensitivity of IgM detection suggests that there is a risk of overlooking WNV acute infections, whereas the low specificity for IgG detection demonstrates a high level of cross-reactivity with heterologous flaviviruses. West Nile virus (WNV) is mantained in the environment in a cycle between mosquitoes and birds. The virus has been isolated on almost all the continents, and several migratory bird species are primarily responsible for virus spread and dispersal. Humans acquire the infection through WNV-infected mosquito bites. Although most infected humans remain symptoms-free, in a minority of cases (especially in the elderly or immunocompromised patients) the infection can develop into a neuroinvasive form causing life-threatening encephalitis and threatening meningitis. Diagnosis of WNV is based primarily on serological tests, i.e. the detection of the virus-specific antibodies in human serum. Our aim was to collect updated information regarding the performance accuracy of WNV serological diagnostic tests used by laboratories involved in WNV diagnostics, in order to identify the strengths and weaknesses of diagnostic techniques in each laboratory. The performance of diagnostic tests varied among the laboratories, indicating that there is still a need to improve test procedures and to harmonize protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Sanchini
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 (ZBS1) - Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer, Berlin, Germany.
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170
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Torres-Aponte JM, Luce RR, Hunsperger E, Muñoz-Jordan JL, Beltrán M, Vergne E, Argüello DF, García EJ, Sun W, Tomashek KM. Enhanced West Nile virus surveillance in a dengue-endemic area--Puerto Rico, 2007. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013; 88:997-1002. [PMID: 23478583 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.12-0575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
In June of 2007, West Nile virus (WNV) was detected in sentinel chickens and blood donors in Puerto Rico, where dengue virus (DENV) is hyperendemic. Enhanced human surveillance for acute febrile illness (AFI) began in eastern Puerto Rico on July 1, 2007. Healthcare providers submitted specimens from AFI cases for WNV and DENV virology and serology testing. Over 6 months, 385 specimens were received from 282 cases; 115 (41%) specimens were DENV laboratory-positive, 86 (31%) specimens were laboratory-indeterminate, and 32 (11%) specimens were laboratory-negative for WNV and DENV. One WNV infection was detected by anti-WNV immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody and confirmed by a plaque reduction neutralization test. DENV and WNV infections could not be differentiated in 27 cases (10%). During a period of active WNV transmission, enhanced human surveillance identified one case of symptomatic WNV infection. Improved diagnostic methods are needed to allow differentiation of WNV and DENV in dengue-endemic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jomil M Torres-Aponte
- Epidemiology and Research Office, Puerto Rico Department of Health, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
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171
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172
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Evaluation of a generic RT-nested-PCR for detection of flaviviruses in suspected fatal cases of dengue infection, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. J Virol Methods 2012; 186:167-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2012] [Revised: 08/17/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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173
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Magurano F, Remoli ME, Baggieri M, Fortuna C, Marchi A, Fiorentini C, Bucci P, Benedetti E, Ciufolini MG, Rizzo C, Piga S, Salcuni P, Rezza G, Nicoletti L. Circulation of West Nile virus lineage 1 and 2 during an outbreak in Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18:E545-7. [PMID: 23020657 DOI: 10.1111/1469-0691.12018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
In 2011, from 26 September to 16 October, a small outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV) disease occurred on the island of Sardinia (Italy). According to the national case definition, six cases with acute neurological disease were confirmed in hospitalized patients, and four of them died; one of these was only 34 years old. In two case, WNV RNA was detected in urine, suggesting renal involvement. Sequence analysis showed lineage 1 and 2 circulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Magurano
- Istituto Superiore di Sanitá, Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immunomediated Disease, Rome, Italy.
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174
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Gamino V, Gutiérrez-Guzmán AV, Fernández-de-Mera IG, Ortíz JA, Durán-Martín M, de la Fuente J, Gortázar C, Höfle U. Natural Bagaza virus infection in game birds in southern Spain. Vet Res 2012; 43:65. [PMID: 22966904 PMCID: PMC3483237 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-43-65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In late summer 2010 a mosquito born flavivirus not previously reported in Europe called Bagaza virus (BAGV) caused high mortality in red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) and ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). We studied clinical findings, lesions and viral antigen distribution in naturally BAGV infected game birds in order to understand the apparently higher impact on red-legged partridges. The disease induced neurologic signs in the two galliform species and, to a lesser extent, in common wood pigeons (Columba palumbus). In red-legged partridges infection by BAGV caused severe haemosiderosis in the liver and spleen that was absent in pheasants and less evident in common wood pigeons. Also, BAGV antigen was present in vascular endothelium in multiple organs in red-legged partridges, and in the spleen in common wood pigeons, while in ring-necked pheasants it was only detected in neurons and glial cells in the brain. These findings indicate tropism of BAGV for endothelial cells and a severe haemolytic process in red-legged partridges in addition to the central nervous lesions that were found in all three species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Gamino
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC, (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain.
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175
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Flores Anticona EM, Zainah H, Ouellette DR, Johnson LE. Two case reports of neuroinvasive west nile virus infection in the critical care unit. Case Rep Infect Dis 2012; 2012:839458. [PMID: 22966470 PMCID: PMC3433121 DOI: 10.1155/2012/839458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We describe the clinical course of two cases of neuroinvasive West Nile Virus (WNV) infection in the critical care unit. The first case is a 70-year-old man who presented during summer with mental status changes. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis revealed pleocytosis with lymphocyte predominance. WNV serology was positive in the CSF. His condition worsened with development of left-sided weakness and deterioration of mental status requiring intensive care. The patient gradually improved and was discharged with residual left-sided weakness and near-complete improvement in his mental status. The second case is an 81-year-old man who presented with mental status changes, fever, lower extremity weakness, and difficulty in walking. CSF analysis showed pleocytosis with neutrophil predominance. WNV serology was also positive in CSF. During the hospital stay his mentation worsened, eventually requiring intubation for airway protection and critical care support. The patient gradually improved and was discharged with residual upper and lower extremity paresis. Neuroinvasive WNV infection can lead to significant morbidity, especially in the elderly. These cases should be suspected in patients with antecedent outdoor activities during summer. It is important for critical care providers to be aware of and maintain a high clinical suspicion of this disease process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgardo M. Flores Anticona
- Internal Medicine Department, Henry Ford Health System, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, CFP1, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Hadeel Zainah
- Infectious Diseases Division, Henry Ford Health System, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, CFP 304, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Daniel R. Ouellette
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Division, Henry Ford Health System, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Laura E. Johnson
- Infectious Diseases Division, Henry Ford Health System, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 2799 West Grand Boulevard, CFP 304, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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176
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Quand certains flavivirus remettent en cause nos certitudes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 105:251-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s13149-012-0255-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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177
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Gobbi F, Barzon L, Capelli G, Angheben A, Pacenti M, Napoletano G, Piovesan C, Montarsi F, Martini S, Rigoli R, Cattelan AM, Rinaldi R, Conforto M, Russo F, Palù G, Bisoffi Z. Surveillance for West Nile, dengue, and chikungunya virus infections, Veneto Region, Italy, 2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 18:671-3. [PMID: 22469230 PMCID: PMC3309689 DOI: 10.3201/eid1804.110753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2010, in Veneto Region, Italy, surveillance of summer fevers was conducted to promptly identify autochthonous cases of West Nile fever and increase detection of imported dengue and chikungunya in travelers. Surveillance highlighted the need to modify case definitions, train physicians, and when a case is identified, implement vector control measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Gobbi
- Ospedale Sacro Cuore-Don Calabria, Negrar, Verona, Italy.
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178
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Jiménez-Clavero MÁ. Animal viral diseases and global change: bluetongue and West Nile fever as paradigms. Front Genet 2012; 3:105. [PMID: 22707955 PMCID: PMC3374460 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2012.00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental changes have an undoubted influence on the appearance, distribution, and evolution of infectious diseases, and notably on those transmitted by vectors. Global change refers to environmental changes arising from human activities affecting the fundamental mechanisms operating in the biosphere. This paper discusses the changes observed in recent times with regard to some important arboviral (arthropod-borne viral) diseases of animals, and the role global change could have played in these variations. Two of the most important arboviral diseases of animals, bluetongue (BT) and West Nile fever/encephalitis (WNF), have been selected as models. In both cases, in the last 15 years an important leap forward has been observed, which has lead to considering them emerging diseases in different parts of the world. BT, affecting domestic ruminants, has recently afflicted livestock in Europe in an unprecedented epizootic, causing enormous economic losses. WNF affects wildlife (birds), domestic animals (equines), and humans, thus, beyond the economic consequences of its occurrence, as a zoonotic disease, it poses an important public health threat. West Nile virus (WNV) has expanded in the last 12 years worldwide, and particularly in the Americas, where it first occurred in 1999, extending throughout the Americas relentlessly since then, causing a severe epidemic of disastrous consequences for public health, wildlife, and livestock. In Europe, WNV is known long time ago, but it is since the last years of the twentieth century that its incidence has risen substantially. Circumstances such as global warming, changes in land use and water management, increase in travel, trade of animals, and others, can have an important influence in the observed changes in both diseases. The following question is raised: What is the contribution of global changes to the current increase of these diseases in the world?
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Á Jiménez-Clavero
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, Valdeolmos, Spain
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179
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Nett R, Kuehnert M, Ison M, Orlowski J, Fischer M, Staples J. Current practices and evaluation of screening solid organ donors for West Nile virus. Transpl Infect Dis 2012; 14:268-77. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2012.00743.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Revised: 11/09/2011] [Accepted: 01/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R.J. Nett
- Arboviral Diseases Branch; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Fort Collins; Colorado; USA
| | - M.J. Kuehnert
- Office of Blood, Organ, and Other Tissue Safety; CDC; Atlanta; Georgia; USA
| | - M.G. Ison
- Divisions of Infectious Diseases and Organ Transplantation; Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine; Chicago; Illinois; USA
| | - J.P. Orlowski
- Center for Donation and Transplant; Albany; New York; USA
| | - M. Fischer
- Arboviral Diseases Branch; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Fort Collins; Colorado; USA
| | - J.E. Staples
- Arboviral Diseases Branch; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Fort Collins; Colorado; USA
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180
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Barbić L, Listeš E, Katić S, Stevanović V, Madić J, Starešina V, Labrović A, Di Gennaro A, Savini G. Spreading of West Nile virus infection in Croatia. Vet Microbiol 2012; 159:504-8. [PMID: 22609103 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2012] [Revised: 04/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging zoonotic pathogen with rapid global expansion. The virus circulation is confirmed in many countries of Mediterranean Basin and Southern and Central Europe. In our study detection of specific WNV antibodies was performed in horses and cattle sera samples collected from October 2010 to April 2011. Serum samples were randomly taken from different parts of Croatia and tested by IgG and IgM ELISA. Positive serological results were confirmed by virus neutralization assay (VN-assay) and plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). Results showed that WNV antibodies were present in 72 out of 2098 horse sera (3.43%) and 3 of 2695 cattle sera (0.11%). The highest seroprevalence was found in Eastern Croatia in counties next to Hungarian, Serbian and Bosnia and Herzegovinian state borders. In Adriatic part of Croatia positive animals were found only in the westernmost county, near Slovenian and Italian borders. Geographic distribution and number of positive horses indicated that WNV is highly present in Croatia and spreading from East to West. However, positive horses in westernmost part of country indicate possible second origin of spreading. Location of serological positive cattle supports the hypothesis that seropositive cattle could be indicators of high WNV activity in the respective geographic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljubo Barbić
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Heinzelova 55, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
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181
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Nikolich-Žugich J, Li G, Uhrlaub JL, Renkema KR, Smithey MJ. Age-related changes in CD8 T cell homeostasis and immunity to infection. Semin Immunol 2012; 24:356-64. [PMID: 22554418 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Studies of CD8 T cell responses to vaccination or infection with various pathogens in both animal models and human subjects have revealed a markedly consistent array of age-related defects. In general, recent work shows that aged CD8 T cell responses are decreased in magnitude, and show poor differentiation into effector cells, with a reduced arsenal of effector functions. Here we review potential mechanisms underlying these defects. We specifically address phenotypic and numeric changes to the naïve CD8 T cell precursor pool, the impact of persistent viral infection(s) and inflammation, and contributions of the aging environment in which these cells are activated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janko Nikolich-Žugich
- Department of Immunobiology and the Arizona Center on Aging, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85724, United States.
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182
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Gibney KB, Colborn J, Baty S, Bunko Patterson AM, Sylvester T, Briggs G, Stewart T, Levy C, Komatsu K, MacMillan K, Delorey MJ, Mutebi JP, Fischer M, Staples JE. Modifiable risk factors for West Nile virus infection during an outbreak--Arizona, 2010. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 86:895-901. [PMID: 22556093 PMCID: PMC3335699 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2011] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is the leading cause of mosquito-borne disease in the United States; however, risk factors for infection are poorly defined. We performed a case-control study to identify modifiable risk factors for WNV infection. Case-patients (N = 49) had laboratory evidence of recent WNV infection, whereas control-subjects (N = 74) had negative WNV serology. We interviewed participants, surveyed households, and assessed environmental data. WNV infection was associated with living in or near Water District X within Gilbert Township (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 5.2; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 1.5-18.1), having water-holding containers in their yard (aOR 5.0; 95% CI = 1.5-17.3), and not working or attending school outside the home (aOR 2.4; 95% CI = 1.1-5.5). During this outbreak, WNV infection was likely primarily acquired peri-domestically with increased risk associated with potential mosquito larval habitats around the home and neighborhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine B Gibney
- Division of Vector-borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, USA.
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183
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Martín-Acebes MA, Saiz JC. West Nile virus: A re-emerging pathogen revisited. World J Virol 2012; 1:51-70. [PMID: 24175211 PMCID: PMC3782267 DOI: 10.5501/wjv.v1.i2.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2011] [Revised: 02/16/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), a flavivirus of the Flaviviridae family, is maintained in nature in an enzootic transmission cycle between avian hosts and ornithophilic mosquito vectors, although the virus occasionally infects other vertebrates. WNV causes sporadic disease outbreaks in horses and humans, which may result in febrile illness, meningitis, encephalitis and flaccid paralysis. Until recently, its medical and veterinary health concern was relatively low; however, the number, frequency and severity of outbreaks with neurological consequences in humans and horses have lately increased in Europe and the Mediterranean basin. Since its introduction in the Americas, the virus spread across the continent with worrisome consequences in bird mortality and a considerable number of outbreaks among humans and horses, which have resulted in the largest epidemics of neuroinvasive WNV disease ever documented. Surprisingly, its incidence in human and animal health is very different in Central and South America, and the reasons for it are not yet understood. Even though great advances have been obtained lately regarding WNV infection, and although efficient equine vaccines are available, no specific treatments or vaccines for human use are on the market. This review updates the most recent investigations in different aspects of WNV life cycle: molecular virology, transmission dynamics, host range, clinical presentations, epidemiology, ecology, diagnosis, control, and prevention, and highlights some aspects that certainly require further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A Martín-Acebes
- Miguel A Martín-Acebes, Juan-Carlos Saiz, Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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184
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De Filette M, Ulbert S, Diamond M, Sanders NN. Recent progress in West Nile virus diagnosis and vaccination. Vet Res 2012; 43:16. [PMID: 22380523 PMCID: PMC3311072 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-43-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a positive-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family, a large family with 3 main genera (flavivirus, hepacivirus and pestivirus). Among these viruses, there are several globally relevant human pathogens including the mosquito-borne dengue virus (DENV), yellow fever virus (YFV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and West Nile virus (WNV), as well as tick-borne viruses such as tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). Since the mid-1990s, outbreaks of WN fever and encephalitis have occurred throughout the world and WNV is now endemic in Africa, Asia, Australia, the Middle East, Europe and the Unites States. This review describes the molecular virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and highlights recent progress regarding diagnosis and vaccination against WNV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina De Filette
- Laboratory of Gene Therapy, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Ghent University, Heidestraat 19, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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185
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Brown EBE, Adkin A, Fooks AR, Stephenson B, Medlock JM, Snary EL. Assessing the risks of West Nile virus-infected mosquitoes from transatlantic aircraft: implications for disease emergence in the United Kingdom. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:310-20. [PMID: 22217181 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of West Nile virus (WNV)-infected mosquitoes aboard aircraft from the United States that arrive in the United Kingdom each summer was determined using a quantitative risk assessment. In the worst-case scenario, when WNV levels in mosquitoes are high (at epidemic levels) the probability of at least one WNV-infected mosquito being introduced into the United Kingdom was predicted to be 0.99. During these periods, a mean of 5.2 infected mosquitoes were estimated to be aboard flights from the United States to the United Kingdom during May to October, with 90% certainty that the exact value lies between one and ten mosquitoes. Heathrow airport was predicted to receive the majority of the infected mosquitoes (72.1%). Spatial analysis revealed the region surrounding Heathrow satisfies the criteria for potential WNV exposure as both WNV-competent mosquitoes and susceptible wild bird species are present. This region is, therefore, recommended for targeted, risk-based surveillance of WNV-infected mosquitoes in addition to an increased awareness of the risks to horses, birds and humans.
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186
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Evans JD, Crown RA, Sohn JA, Seeger C. West Nile virus infection induces depletion of IFNAR1 protein levels. Viral Immunol 2011; 24:253-63. [PMID: 21830897 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2010.0126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Productive virus infection requires evasion, inhibition, or subversion of innate immune responses. West Nile virus (WNV), a human pathogen that can cause symptomatic infections associated with meningitis and encephalitis, inhibits the interferon (IFN) signal transduction pathway by preventing phosphorylation of Janus kinases and STAT transcription factors. Inhibition of the IFN signal cascade abrogates activation of IFN-induced genes, thus attenuating an antiviral response. We investigated the mechanism responsible for this inhibition and found that WNV infection prevents accumulation of the IFN-α receptor subunit 1 (IFNAR1). The WNV-induced depletion of IFNAR1 was conserved across multiple cell types. Our results indicated that expression of WNV nonstructural proteins resulted in activated lysosomal and proteasomal protein degradation pathways independent of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Furthermore, WNV infection did not induce serine phosphorylation, a modification on IFNAR1 that precedes its natural turnover. These data demonstrate that WNV infection results in a reduction of IFNAR1 protein through a non-canonical protein degradation pathway, and may participate in the inhibition of the IFN response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared D Evans
- Institute for Cancer Research , Fox Chase Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
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187
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Lutomiah JL, Koka H, Mutisya J, Yalwala S, Muthoni M, Makio A, Limbaso S, Musila L, Clark JW, Turell MJ, Kioko E, Schnabel D, Sang RC. Ability of selected Kenyan mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) species to transmit West Nile virus under laboratory conditions. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2011; 48:1197-1201. [PMID: 22238879 DOI: 10.1603/me11062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is currently active in Kenya as evidenced by the detection of antibodies in birds bled as part of an avian influenza surveillance program in 2009. Although WNV has been isolated from several mosquito species in Kenya, no studies have ever been conducted to determine which of these species are competent vectors of this virus. Therefore, we allowed Kenyan mosquitoes to feed on 2- or 3-d-old chickens that had been infected with a Lineage one strain of WNV 24-48 h earlier. These mosquitoes were tested approximately 2 wk later to determine infection, dissemination, and transmission rates. All five species [Culex quinquefasciatus Say, Culex univittatus Theobald, Culex vansomereni Edwards, Mansonia africana (Theobald), and Mansonia uniformis (Theobald)] were susceptible to infection, but disseminated infections were detected only in the three Culex, and not the two Mansonia species. Culex mosquitoes with a disseminated infection readily transmitted virus by bite, but even when inoculated with WNV, the two Mansonia failed to transmit virus, indicating a salivary gland barrier. These studies indicate that the three Culex species may play a role in the transmission of WNV in Kenya.
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188
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CNS diseases and uveitis. J Ophthalmic Vis Res 2011; 6:284-308. [PMID: 22454751 PMCID: PMC3306114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of inflammatory, infectious, neoplastic and idiopathic disorders affect the eye and the central nervous system (CNS) concurrently or at different time frames. These conditions pose a diagnostic challenge to the clinician since they may present with similar ocular and neurological manifestations. The purpose of this review is to describe major neurological syndromes including multiple sclerosis, Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease, other autoimmune syndromes, and several infectious diseases which may affect the eye. This article may serve as a guide for the diagnosis and treatment of such disorders. It should be noted that these conditions have been viewed from a neurologist's perspective thereby neurologic involvement is stressed.
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189
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Whiteman MC, Wicker JA, Kinney RM, Huang CYH, Solomon T, Barrett ADT. Multiple amino acid changes at the first glycosylation motif in NS1 protein of West Nile virus are necessary for complete attenuation for mouse neuroinvasiveness. Vaccine 2011; 29:9702-10. [PMID: 21945257 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.09.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2011] [Revised: 09/07/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), like all members of the Japanese encephalitis (JE) serogroup except JE virus, contains three N-linked glycosylation (N-X-S/T) sites in the NS1 protein at asparagine residues NS1(130), NS1(175) and NS1(207). Previously we showed that the ablation of these glycosylation sites in WNV, by substitution of asparagine for alanine, attenuated mouse neuroinvasiveness; however, full attenuation was not achieved and the virus retained a neurovirulence phenotype. Sequence of viral RNA extracted from mouse brains revealed a reversion at the NS1(130) site in some mice that succumbed to the attenuated NS1(130A/175A/207A) strain. Here, we further attenuated WNV by mutating the asparagine to serine or glutamine in addition to mutating other residues in the NS1(130-132) glycosylation motif. These mutants proved to further attenuate WNV for both neuroinvasiveness and neurovirulence in mice. NS1(130-132QQA/175A/207A), the most attenuated mutant virus, showed modest changes in infectivity titers versus the parental strain, was not temperature sensitive, and did not show reversion in mice. Mutant virus was completely attenuated for neuroinvasiveness after intraperitoneal inoculation with >1,000,000 PFU, and mice were protected against lethal challenge. Overall, we showed that changing the asparagine of the NS1(130) glycosylation motif to a serine or glutamine attenuated WNV further than the asparagine to alanine substitution. Further, mutating all three of the amino acids of the NS1(130-132) glycosylation motif (NTT-QQA) along with NS1(175) and NS1(207) asparagine to alanine mutations gave the most stable and attenuated strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa C Whiteman
- Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Disease, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
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190
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Khan SA, Dutta P, Khan AM, Chowdhury P, Borah J, Doloi P, Mahanta J. West Nile virus infection, Assam, India. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17:947-8. [PMID: 21529426 PMCID: PMC3321754 DOI: 10.3201/eid1705.100479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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191
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Cargnelutti JF, Brum MCS, Weiblen R, Flores EF. Stable expression and potential use of west nile virus envelope glycoproteins preM/E as antigen in diagnostic tests. Braz J Microbiol 2011; 42:1161-6. [PMID: 24031737 PMCID: PMC3768760 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-838220110003000040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2010] [Revised: 12/01/2010] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) envelope glycoproteins preM/E were stably expressed in baby hamster kidney cells and tested as antigen in a fluorescent antibody assay for WNV antibodies. Sera from horses, mice and chicken immunized with an inactivated WNV vaccine and, less consistently, sera from horses acutely infected with WNV, reacted specifically with viral antigens present in preM/E-expressing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Felipetto Cargnelutti
- Setor de Virologia, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Centro de Ciências Rurais, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria, RS , Brasil
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192
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Schneeweiss A, Chabierski S, Salomo M, Delaroque N, Al-Robaiy S, Grunwald T, Bürki K, Liebert UG, Ulbert S. A DNA vaccine encoding the E protein of West Nile Virus is protective and can be boosted by recombinant domain DIII. Vaccine 2011; 29:6352-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2010] [Revised: 04/18/2011] [Accepted: 04/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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193
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Andrade CC, Maharaj PD, Reisen WK, Brault AC. North American West Nile virus genotype isolates demonstrate differential replicative capacities in response to temperature. J Gen Virol 2011; 92:2523-2533. [PMID: 21775581 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.032318-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of West Nile virus (WNV) was first documented in California, USA, during the summer of 2003, and subsequently the virus has become endemic throughout the state. Sequence analysis has demonstrated that the circulating strains are representative of the North American (WN02) genotype that has displaced the East Coast genotype (NY99). A recent study has indicated that enhanced vector competence at elevated temperatures may have played a role in the displacement of the East Coast genotype by WN02. In the current study, four WN02 strains from California, including an initial 2003 isolate (COAV997), were compared to strain NY99 in growth curve assays in mosquito and duck embryonic fibroblast (DEF) cell lines at differing, biologically relevant temperatures to assess the relative temperature sensitivities of these natural isolates. COAV997 was significantly debilitated in viral replication in DEF cells at 44 °C. Full-length sequence comparison of COAV997 against the NY99 reference strain revealed non-synonymous mutations in the envelope glycoprotein (V159A), non-structural protein 1 (NS1) (K110N) and non-structural protein 4A (NS4A) (F92L), as well as two mutations in the 3' UTR: C→T at nt 10 772 and A→G at nt 10 851. These non-synonymous mutations were introduced into the NY99 viral backbone by site-directed mutagenesis. A mutant containing the NS1-K110N and NS4A-F92L mutations exhibited a debilitated growth phenotype in DEF cells at 44 °C, similar to that of COAV997. One explanation for the subsistence of this genotype is that COAV997 was obtained from an area of California where avian host species might not present elevated temperatures. These data indicate that the NS1 and NS4A mutations identified in some WN02 isolates could reduce thermal stability and impede replication of virus at temperatures observed in febrile avian hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy C Andrade
- Center for Vector-borne Diseases and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Payal D Maharaj
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
- Center for Vector-borne Diseases and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - William K Reisen
- Center for Vector-borne Diseases and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Aaron C Brault
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, USA
- Center for Vector-borne Diseases and Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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194
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Falconar AKI, Martinez F. The NS1 glycoprotein can generate dramatic antibody-enhanced dengue viral replication in normal out-bred mice resulting in lethal multi-organ disease. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21024. [PMID: 21731643 PMCID: PMC3120820 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2010] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody-enhanced replication (AER) of dengue type-2 virus (DENV-2) strains and production of antibody-enhanced disease (AED) was tested in out-bred mice. Polyclonal antibodies (PAbs) generated against the nonstructural-1 (NS1) glycoprotein candidate vaccine of the New Guinea-C (NG-C) or NSx strains reacted strongly and weakly with these antigens, respectively. These PAbs contained the IgG2a subclass, which cross-reacted with the virion-associated envelope (E) glycoprotein of the DENV-2 NSx strain, suggesting that they could generate its AER via all mouse Fcγ-receptor classes. Indeed, when these mice were challenged with a low dose (<0.5 LD₅₀) of the DENV-2 NSx strain, but not the NG-C strain, they all generated dramatic and lethal DENV-2 AER/AED. These AER/AED mice developed life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), displayed by diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) resulting from i) dramatic interstitial alveolar septa-thickening with mononuclear cells, ii) some hyperplasia of alveolar type-II pneumocytes, iii) copious intra-alveolar protein secretion, iv) some hyaline membrane-covered alveolar walls, and v) DENV-2 antigen-positive alveolar macrophages. These mice also developed meningo-encephalitis, with greater than 90,000-fold DENV-2 AER titers in microglial cells located throughout their brain parenchyma, some of which formed nodules around dead neurons. Their spleens contained infiltrated megakaryocytes with DENV-2 antigen-positive red-pulp macrophages, while their livers displayed extensive necrosis, apoptosis and macro- and micro-steatosis, with DENV-2 antigen-positive Kuppfer cells and hepatocytes. Their infections were confirmed by DENV-2 isolations from their lungs, spleens and livers. These findings accord with those reported in fatal human "severe dengue" cases. This DENV-2 AER/AED was blocked by high concentrations of only the NG-C NS1 glycoprotein. These results imply a potential hazard of DENV NS1 glycoprotein-based vaccines, particularly against DENV strains that contain multiple mutations or genetic recombination within or between their DENV E and NS1 glycoprotein-encoding genes. The model provides potential for assessing DENV strain pathogenicity and anti-DENV therapies in normal mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew K I Falconar
- Grupo de Investigaciones en Enfermedades Tropicales, Departmento de Ciéncias Básicas Médicas, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla, Colombia.
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195
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Chastel C. [Asymptomatic infections in man: a Trojan horse for the introduction and spread of mosquito-borne arboviruses in non-endemic areas?]. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 104:213-9. [PMID: 21701863 DOI: 10.1007/s13149-011-0165-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In mosquito-borne arbovirus infections in man the asymptomatic cases are much more frequent than the symptomatic ones, but their true role in the introduction and subsequent spread of such diseases in non-endemic areas remains to be clarified. We have collected pertinent data from English and French literature from 1952 to 2010 through Pubmed and other bibliographic sources. Data were analysed to assess if viremia in asymptomatic human arbovirus infections might be sufficient to represent a true risk for introduction in non-endemic areas. During dengue and chikungunya fever outbreaks, humans are believed to be the only vertebrate hosts. Since a very large number of individuals are infected and since viremic levels are known to vary by many orders of magnitude in symptomatic patients, it is reasonable to augur that a proportion of asymptomatic cases might reach levels of viremia sufficient to infect competent mosquitoes. Moreover, in both dengue and chikungunya fever, nosocomial infections have been identified representing an alternative opportunity for virus introduction in non-endemic areas. In zoonotic mosquito-borne arbovirus infections such as Japanese encephalitis or West Nile infection, the situation is quite different since humans are considered as "dead-end" hosts. However, the very large number of asymptomatic cases arising during outbreaks and the existence of newly recognised ways of contamination (blood transfusion, organ transplantation, transplacental way etc.) may also ensure their introduction and subsequent spread in new areas.
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196
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West Nile virus meningoencephalitis during pregnancy: Case report with MR imaging findings. THE EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrnm.2011.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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197
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Neutralization escape variant of West Nile virus associated with altered peripheral pathogenicity and differential cytokine profile. Virus Res 2011; 158:130-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Revised: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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198
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Ergunay K, Whitehouse CA, Ozkul A. Current Status of Human Arboviral Diseases in Turkey. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:731-41. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Koray Ergunay
- Virology Unit, Department of Medical Microbiology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Chris A. Whitehouse
- United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - Aykut Ozkul
- Department of Virology, Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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199
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Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic virus that circulates in birds and is transmitted by mosquitoes. Incidentally, humans, horses and other mammals can also be infected. Disease symptoms caused by WNV range from fever to neurological complications, such as encephalitis or meningitis. Mortality is observed mostly in older and immunocompromised individuals. In recent years, epidemics caused by WNV in humans and horses have become more frequent in several Southern European countries, such as Italy and Greece. In 1999, WNV was introduced into the USA and spread over North America within a couple of years. The increasing number of WNV outbreaks is associated with the emergence of novel viral strains, which display higher virulence and greater epidemic potential for humans. Upon infection with WNV, the mammalian immune system counteracts the virus at several different levels. On the other side, WNV has developed elaborated escape mechanisms to avoid its elimination. This review summarizes recent findings in WNV research that help to understand the complex biology associated with this emerging pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ulbert
- Vaccine Technologies Unit, Fraunhofer Institute of Cell Therapy and Immunology, Leipzig, Germany. Sebastian.ulbert @ izi.fraunhofer.de
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200
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Barros SC, Ramos F, Fagulha T, Duarte M, Henriques M, Luís T, Fevereiro M. Serological evidence of West Nile virus circulation in Portugal. Vet Microbiol 2011; 152:407-10. [PMID: 21680115 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The circulation of West Nile virus in Portugal was assessed by serological surveys conducted during 2004-2010 in horses and birds. The detection of WNV antibodies in both species in all the years covered by the study as well as the presence of anti-WNV IgM in symptomatic horses that had not traveled outside the country, support the notion that WNV circulates in Portugal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sílvia C Barros
- Laboratório Nacional de Investigação Veterinária, Virologia, Estrada de Benfica 701, 1500-011 Lisboa, Portugal
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